It is said that today's scholars derive their knowledge from the ancient "Six Arts." These "Six Arts" are the teachings of the "Royal Way," used by the sages to elucidate the heavenly principles, regulate human relationships, and achieve the fundamental methods of governing the country and ensuring peace. However, Qin Shihuang burned books and buried Confucian scholars alive, interrupting the transmission of these "Six Arts." Later, Emperor Wu of Han established the Doctorate of the Five Classics, recruited students, held examinations to select talented individuals, and even used official positions and salaries to encourage learning, which led to a rise in the number of students studying the "Five Classics." Since the Han Dynasty, most talented individuals became well-versed in the Classics. By the Wei and Jin periods, the social climate became ostentatious, Confucianism declined, and few officials or common people understood the Classics. In the Song and Qi periods, the Imperial Academy was reestablished. Emperor Wu of Liang was particularly influential, establishing five libraries and the Imperial Academy, primarily teaching the "Five Classics," with each classic accompanied by an associate professor. Emperor Wu would sometimes personally inspect the schools, offer sacrifices to the ancestors, conduct exams, chat with students, and give them gifts. This was truly a grand and unprecedented event in the Liang Dynasty! Our founding emperor laid the foundation while inheriting the chaos of the previous dynasty, amidst societal turmoil, the decline of the gentry class, and rampant banditry, leaving no time for education. It was only after the reign of Emperor Shizu that some schools were gradually founded, though many students were enrolled, only a few achieved notable success. Much of the knowledge we have today stems from the Confucian scholars of the Liang Dynasty.
Shen Wen'a, courtesy name Guowei, was from Wuxing Wukang. His father Shen Jun, known for his profound Confucian scholarship, was appointed as the governor of Guangxi during the Liang Dynasty, but he did not take up the position. Shen Wen'a was known for his strong character and physical prowess, and he studied his father's Confucianism from a young age, studying the texts of the classics in depth. His great-uncle Taishi Shuming and uncle Wang Huixing were both knowledgeable in Confucianism, and Shen Wen'a learned a lot from them. He also extensively studied the different viewpoints of previous Confucian masters and wrote his own annotations. He mainly studied the "Three Rituals" and "Three Transmissions." Later, he was selected as a filial and virtuous candidate, became an assistant minister in the court of the Prince of Linchuan during the Liang Dynasty, and then was promoted to serve as an assistant professor at the Imperial College and a doctor of the "Five Classics."
When King Jianwen of Liang was the Crown Prince, he regarded Wen'a highly as a scholar, showing him special favor and respect. When writing the "Changchun Yiji," he often had Wen'a gather unusual and fascinating anecdotes to enrich the content of the book. Later, when Hou Jing rebelled, King Jianwen specifically sent Wen'a to recruit soldiers to support the capital. After the capital fell, he and Zhang Sheng defended Wuxing together. When Zhang Sheng was defeated, Wen'a fled to the mountains. Hou Jing, having heard of Wen'a's reputation, was eager to capture him. Feeling cornered and hopeless, Wen'a climbed a tree in a moment of despair, intending to hang himself. He was saved by chance by an acquaintance, and in his haste, he jumped down from the tree and broke his left arm. After Hou Jing was defeated, Emperor Gaozu, because Wen'a was from the same hometown, promoted him to magistrate of his home county and appointed him to oversee Jiangyin County.
In the first year of the Shaotai era, Wen A was transferred to the capital as a National Scholar. Not long after, he was promoted to Infantry Colonel and also put in charge of court etiquette. Since the chaos of Taiqing, the court's ceremonial system had fallen into disarray. Wen A's father, Wen Ju, was responsible for court ceremonies during the reign of Emperor Wu of Liang and left behind many manuscripts. Wen A compiled and edited these manuscripts, establishing many of the court's ceremonial systems. Later, when the founding emperor ascended the throne, Wen A resigned and returned to his hometown of Wukang. The founding emperor was furious and ordered his execution. At that time, Wen A's relative, Shen Ke, was an official in the area, and he requested the messenger to spare Wen A's life. Shen Ke personally bound Wen A and brought him before the founding emperor. The founding emperor took one look and said with a smile, "What’s this? A pedantic scholar trying to make a fuss?" So he pardoned him.
After the founding emperor's death, Wen A, the Left Minister of Personnel Xu Ling, and the Secretary of the Imperial Library Liu Shizhi discussed the ceremonial procession and attire for the founding emperor's coffin, as recorded in Liu Shizhi's biography. Later, when the second emperor ascended the throne and wanted to choose a day to worship the ancestral temple, the Right Minister of Personnel, Yu Chi, executed the emperor's orders and sent scholars to discuss the ritual. Wen A voiced his thoughts, stating:
The lives of ordinary people and societal customs are constantly evolving, and the wise adapt their teachings to the realities at hand. If the country has no leader, it could face chaos if not addressed swiftly; if the emperor dies without a successor, the country could face ruin if not dealt with promptly. Consider the early years of the Zhou Dynasty, when King Cheng was still in mourning; his uncle, the Duke of Zhou, along with ministers such as Lu Shang and Shao Gong, nearly led to a national crisis. Thus, following King Cheng's burial, the coronation ceremony was promptly conducted, and during the burial, he also received a mourning cap, all to demonstrate to the nation that there was a leader, and to stabilize the situation and avoid unrest in the country.
Eventually, the Han Dynasty inherited this practice. Although Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing of Han paid attention to the rectification of rites and laws, the Rebellion of the Seven States still took place. Some emperors received court congratulations just one month after taking the throne, while some emperors issued decrees on the same day they passed away, all depending on the circumstances rather than a disregard for the rites. Currently, although the mourning ceremonies for the passing of an emperor are grand, the etiquette between the emperor and his subjects still leaves much to be desired. In ancient times, after the emperor finished making sacrifices at the ancestral temple and returned to the main hall, he would listen to the ministers handling state affairs. Now, after the emperor returns from the ancestral temple, he should go to the Taiji Hall to demonstrate his esteemed status, just like King Kang of Zhou handling state affairs in the court.
As for the sacrificial rituals, in the Zhou Dynasty, jade was used as offerings, with vassals using jade scepters, and ministers using jade discs, all precious jade artifacts. After the sacrifices, banquets were held, with the emperor using jade discs and the empress using cong jade discs. The Qin Dynasty burned books and dismantled the ritual system. Shusun Tong established new rituals, but deviated from ancient customs by not using jade scepters for sacrifices and not using silk for banquets, with both princes and kings using jade discs and the Grand Secretary presenting congratulations. These practices were not present in ancient times but were adopted later and persisted until the Liang Dynasty.
Nowadays, when the emperor celebrates a great age, the whole country rejoices, with joyful music, songs, and dances. However, at present, both the emperor and his subjects are steeped in sorrow, and the people are also saddened. How can this possibly compare to the festive ceremonies of ancient times? Furthermore, when King Kang of Zhou accepted the jade offerings from his ministers, there was no ceremony for bestowing longevity blessings, which had precedent in ancient times. In ancient times, when sacrifices were made to ancestors, it would last for three days and nights without stopping, known as "xiang," to receive the blessings of the ancestors. How can this be considered a celebration? I believe that nowadays, the emperor should hold a sacrificial ritual in the main hall, only performing the ceremony of offering jade discs, without conducting a congratulatory ceremony. I have specifically outlined the rituals for the emperor's return to the main hall after making sacrifices at the ancestral temple, with the ministers in attendance.
The imperial edict was implemented. Before long, he was promoted to the position of a Cavalier Attendant, also serving as a National Scholar, in charge of the Imperial Guard, and also teaching the "Classic of Filial Piety" and the "Analects" in the Eastern Palace. He passed away in the fourth year of the Tianjia era, at the age of sixty-one. The court posthumously honored him with the title of Minister of Justice.
Wen A authored over eighty volumes of "Rites" and eighteen volumes of "The Great Meaning of Classics," both of which have been passed down through the ages, and many Confucian scholars have studied his works.
Shen Zhu, styled Hongdao, was a native of Wukang, Huzhou, Zhejiang. His grandfather, Xiuzhi, served as the magistrate of Yuhang County in the Liang Dynasty; his father, Shanqing, held positions as a National Scholar and a senior officer in the Liang Dynasty. Shen Zhu was upright and refined from a young age, had a passion for learning, and was selective in his associations. He studied the "Three Rites" and the "Spring and Autumn Annals of Zuo Qiuming," had an exceptional memory and could answer any questions regarding the chapters and verses of the "Five Classics," various schools of thought, and historical records. He served as the Left Attendant in the Kingdom of Xiangdong, then as the Inner Reference Officer under the Prince of Xuancheng, and later as the Secretary Reference Officer under the Prince of Linhe, eventually rising to the position of a junior official in the Ministry of Rites by the age of around twenty. During the Datong era, many scholars were engaged in literature and history, often neglecting the chapters and verses of the classics, but Shen Zhu dedicated himself to the study of Confucian classics. Zhu Yi from Wu County and He Chen from Kuaiji both held him in high regard. When Zhu Yi and He Chen lectured on the court's intentions and principles at the Shilin Hall, they often invited Shen Zhu to be the main lecturer. During the rebellion of Hou Jing, Shen Zhu fled to Lin'an, where Emperor Xiaoyuan was also present and took lessons from Shen Zhu. Later, when Gaozu ascended to the throne, he appointed Shen Zhu as a National Scholar, alongside Shen Wen A, to teach the "Rites."
After Emperor Gaozu ascended the throne, Shen Xiaogui was promoted to the position of an External Cavalier Attendant, and later served as the Chief Historian of the Yangzhou Bureau and the Grand Master of Works.
It was reported that Chen San'er, a student of General Ningyuan and the Prefect Shen Xiaogui, wrote a letter saying that his teacher's coffin is still in the territory of the Zhou Dynasty. Shen Xiaogui was dispatched on a mission to the frontier, wanting to bring back his father's coffin, but he has yet to return. The end of this month marks the second anniversary of his death. Shen Xiaogui's brothers are all here. Should they wait until the end of the month to take off their mourning clothes, or should they wait for Shen Xiaogui to return to perform the rituals? This matter was discussed with Left Minister Jiang Dezao. Jiang Dezao stated, "Wang Weijun once said: 'If a funeral is delayed for a long time, only the master of the house should not remove mourning clothes, while other relatives can remove them after a full month.' This is probably quoting a situation in the 'Book of Rites' where there are delays in family matters and burial cannot be done temporarily. Shen Xiaogui is currently far away on the border; although he wants to bring back the coffin, the return date is uncertain. If his brothers continue to wear mourning clothes, they may find it difficult to marry in the future, which might be socially inappropriate. After the fall of the Central Plains, there have been precedents for such situations, so we should consult Shen Chamberlain for his opinion."
Shen Xiaogui said, "Rituals have their standard practices, but they can also be adapted to suit real circumstances. 'Records of Rites: Tan Gong Xiaoji' says, 'If the deceased has not been buried for an extended period, only the primary mourner must keep their mourning attire, while others may remove theirs after a month of mourning.' The annotations state, 'The rest refers to collateral relatives.' According to Zheng Xuan's interpretation, all sons are required to keep their mourning attire. The interpretation cited by Wang Weijun represents the formal view on rituals. However, during the Battle of Dongguan in the Wei Dynasty, many soldiers' bodies and coffins were lost, and they could not be buried on time; therefore, it was established that there would be no lifelong mourning period, allowing for the removal of mourning attire. During the Jin Dynasty, when the world was in chaos, many people died at the hands of the barbarians, and their bodies could not be brought back for burial, thus the Jiangzuo region revised the rules regarding the removal of mourning attire. Shen Xiaogui's ancestors and Wang Hua's father, whose fates were unknown, saw their sons sequentially remove their mourning attire as time passed. These serve as examples of how rituals can be adapted to fit real-life situations. Shen Xiaogui wanted to bring back the remains only because he was sent on a mission, but the border was in turmoil and the return date was uncertain. I believe we should follow the precedent set during the Battle of Dongguan, allowing domestic relatives to remove their mourning attire, conduct a simple memorial ceremony, and if the remains are returned, then hold a separate reburial ceremony. Since the onset of chaos, the fall of the Western Zhou Dynasty, and the flight of people to remote areas, many practices cannot be conducted according to traditional rituals. There are certainly more cases like Shen Xiaogui's; should they really be forced to mourn without the option to remove their mourning attire? The court should establish regulations on this matter, adjudicate based on principles of righteousness, consult broadly with knowledgeable individuals, and manage this issue appropriately." Jiang Dezao accepted Shen Xiaogui's proposal and submitted it to the emperor for approval.
After the emperor ascended the throne, I was promoted to the position of Imperial Guard Supervisor, serving the Crown Prince in the Eastern Palace. Shortly afterward, I also took on the role of Deputy Minister of Personnel, overseeing the Grand Central Inspector for Yangzhou. Later, I was further promoted to the position of Minister of Rites, continuing to serve the Crown Prince in his studies. When the usurper came to power, I once again served as Imperial Guard Supervisor and Deputy Minister of Personnel. Afterwards, I was appointed as General and Chief Clerk to the Prince of Hengyang, responsible for managing governmental affairs within the household, as well as serving as the county magistrate for Langye and Pengcheng counties.
Prior to the Liang Dynasty, the legal regulations stipulated that the interrogation of criminals should occur once daily, starting from the afternoon bell and continuing until the second night watch. Later, the Assistant Minister of Justice, Fan Quan, amended the laws, believing that the previous interrogation duration was excessively long and intolerable, so he divided the interrogation time into two sessions, conducting two interrogations per day. The Minister of Justice considered the new regulations too lenient, so he requested a meeting with the eight magistrates, as well as Kong Huan, the Attendant Confucian, Assistant Attendant Shen Zhu, and five other officials, to discuss the matter together.
At that time, the emperor was working in the Ministry of Personnel and summoned everyone to discuss the issue. The Minister of Justice, Zhou Hongzheng, said, "We still do not know how many criminals have confessed and how many have not. We must first list out the names, numbers, and charges of the criminals before further discussion." Consequently, Chief Justice Shen Zhongyu provided several examples. According to the new law, a person named Shou Yuer was sentenced to death for murder, while Liu Lei Ke and eight others were sentenced for horse theft, but had not confessed by the deadline. Liu Daoshuo committed theft seven times and only confessed two days later, as per the rules. Chen Faman confessed to being instructed to conceal wealth and receiving bribes before the interrogation even began.
Zhou Hongzheng continued, "Whether it's a petty crime or a serious offense, it must be handled according to the actual situation. We should follow the principle of 'five hearings' and carefully examine the facts of the case. How can we possibly rely solely on torture to determine someone's guilt? Moreover, this method of interrogation isn't rooted in ancient practices; it has only been around in recent years. From the afternoon drum until the second night watch, ordinary people just can't handle it! Therefore, under severe torture, many people—innocent or not—will confess. Interrogating each person once in the morning and once at night for the same duration can help to interrogate the suspects while avoiding wrongful convictions. If the interrogation is too brief and criminals don't confess, then extending the interrogation time can lead to wrongful convictions. Additionally, everyone has different tolerance levels and thoughts. For example, Guan Gao, despite being whipped, stabbed, burned, and tortured with acupuncture, still refuses to confess. What does this have to do with the length of the interrogation or the quality of the interrogation methods? It's better to let a guilty person go free than to wrongly execute an innocent one; those whose guilt is questionable should receive lighter sentences, and those with doubts about their merits should be punished severely. This is the wise principle laid down by ancient sage kings. I believe adopting Fan Quan's new method is a better approach."
Shen Ren Shengquan continued, "The new system of Bi Bu Fan Quan and the opinions of Shang Shu Zhou Hongzheng are in line with the principle of 'only leniency' in the Book of Yu and the concept of 'upholding justice' in the Yin Song. After reviewing the examples listed by Shen Zhongyou and others from the Ministry of Justice, there were a total of eleven cases after the implementation of the new law, ten cases were interrogated, and only one resulted in a confession. I believe that for guilty criminals, prison officials should conduct a thorough analysis and investigation of the cases. If there are doubts about the crime, it should be brought to trial to prevent the abuse of interrogation; if the crime is clear, only then should interrogation be conducted; this is essential for distinguishing between wrongful and just outcomes. Fan Quan referenced the 'Han Law' in his memorial, saying 'for capital punishment and removal from office, if the evidence is conclusive, and torture has been applied, yet the accused continues to deny, it should be reported.' Du Yu's annotation states that 'should be reported' refers to cases where the evidence is conclusive but the accused denies. Upon careful examination, the old system was strict, with only one out of a hundred cases not confessing; the new system is lenient, with nine out of ten cases not confessing. The severity of these two systems differs significantly, and the provision regarding 'reporting the accused' remains unchanged. I believe it should be referred to the legal department for a reevaluation of the meaning of 'reporting the accused'."
Shen Zhu continued, "Interrogating at night is prone to deception. We should use the method of timing with a water clock during the day. However, the markings of the water clock differ in ancient and modern times. In the 'Book of Han', He Chengtian, Zu Chongzhi, and their father and son recorded in the 'Water Clock Classics' that from the first drum to the second drum, and from the third drum back to the first drum, there are thirteen marks each, which remain consistent across all four seasons. If the length of daytime hours varies, adjustments should be made accordingly. Now we use an improved water clock from the late Liang Dynasty. After the second drum, the markings vary in length. On the day of the summer solstice, there are seventeen marks each, and on the day of the winter solstice, there are twelve marks each. According to the emperor's order, the markings should be uniform, with the same markings for a day, but different usage in different seasons. The memorial of the court official stated that due to the short duration, the criminals did not confess. I think we should eliminate nighttime interrogations and use the method of timing with a water clock during the day. Taking into account the differences between ancient and modern water clocks, combined with the significance of the two water clocks, we should abandon the fewer marks used in autumn and winter, adopting the long daylight hours of the summer solstice, regardless of the season, all according to the current summer solstice time, conducting interrogations in the morning and evening, with seventeen marks allocated for each session. Compared to the ancient water clock, this method adds four marks at a time; compared to the current water clock, this method adds five marks during the winter solstice. Even at the winter solstice, some nighttime hours may be affected, but with short daylight hours, there is no problem. This way, criminals will not deny their confessions due to the short duration, and prisoners will not be wrongly accused due to nighttime interrogations. I believe this approach is more suitable."
Everyone agreed that the previous system established before Fan Quan should be reinstated. The emperor said, "Shen Changshi's opinion is very insightful and should be further discussed." Zong Yuanrao, the Left Minister, said, "I think Shen Changshi's opinion does not completely dismiss Fan Quan's opinion. He just wants to unify the markings of the four seasons and choose the best solution, considering both severity and leniency. Please send the memorial back to the Editing Department for further review." The emperor ultimately agreed with this proposal.
Qi Gun, styled Gongwen, was born in Yanguan, Wu County. His grandfather Qi Xian held the position of a junior official during the Qi dynasty, and his father Qi Ba served as a military officer in the royal court of Prince Linhe during the Liang dynasty. Qi Gun was intelligent from a young age, went to the capital to study, and mastered the essence of the "Three Rites" from the assistant teacher Liu Wenshao in just over a year. At the age of nineteen, Liang Wudi requested him to explain the "Correct Words of Confucius," "Zhou Rites," and "Book of Rites." Qi Gun performed well, achieved high marks, and was appointed as the Sacrificial Officer and Historian of Yangzhou. Later, he consulted the National Doctor Song Huaifang on the meaning of the "Rites." Song Huaifang, a northerner, brought annotations of the "Rites" and "Book of Rites" from the Wei Kingdom, keeping them secret and reluctant to share them with others. Before his death, he advised his family, "After I die, if Qi Gun comes to inquire, give him the annotations of the 'Rites' and 'Book of Rites'; if he does not come, bury the annotations with me." This shows the high regard in which Qi Gun was held in the Confucian community at that time. Shortly thereafter, Qi Gun was appointed as a Doctor of the Imperial Academy.
While still in the Eastern Palace, Emperor Jianwen of Liang invited Qi Gun to explain the classics. One time, Emperor Jianwen held a banquet and invited many Confucian scholars to engage in debates, after which Xu Chi elaborated on the main points, interspersed with some light-hearted conversation. Xu Chi was eloquent and unstoppable in debate, making it difficult for the others to respond, leading to nervousness and confusion in their speech. At this moment, Qi Gun began to present his own views, engaging in a lively debate with Xu Chi that greatly impressed Emperor Jianwen. Qi Gun was later promoted to the position of a Cavalry Official, and then to the position of a Cavalry Regular. After Emperor Jing ascended to the throne, Qi Gun was assigned to Jiangzhou as the Chief Historian, serving under Shen Tai in southern Yuzhou. After Shen Tai defected to Northern Qi, he forced Qi Gun to go with him, but Qi Gun later managed to escape back from Ye City. He then joined Cheng Wenji in the Northern Expedition and was captured by Western Wei during the Battle of Luoyang. It took him a long time to return to the Liang dynasty. Afterward, he also served as an assistant instructor at the Imperial College and was appointed as a military officer in the Prince Shixing's residence. In the thirteenth year of Taijian, Qi Gun passed away at the age of sixty-three. During the Liang dynasty, Qi Gun authored the "Records of the Three Rites and Their Significance," but unfortunately, it was lost in the chaos of war. Only the "Records of the Rites and Their Significance" in forty volumes have survived.
Zheng Zhuo, courtesy name Maozhao, came from Xin'an, Dongyang, Zhejiang. His grandfather Zheng Hui was the Prefect of Hengyang during the Liang Dynasty, and his father Zheng Jihui held positions as an Imperial Attendant and the Magistrate of Jian'an County. Zheng Zhuo was intelligent from a young age, aspiring to study the Confucian classics, and studied under Huang Kan in his youth. In the fifth year of the Day Tong reign of the Liang Dynasty, he officially began his career in government, serving as an attendant to the court. He was later promoted several times, holding positions such as Imperial Attendant, Vice Minister of the Censorate, and Military Secretary in the Prince of Andong's residence, as well as serving as a Military Secretary in the residence of the Prince of Shao Ling in the west. While Emperor Jianwen was on the throne, Zheng Zhuo was appointed as an Imperial Attendant and concurrently served as a National University Doctor. Shortly after, he was promoted to General of Wei Rong and also served as a Secretary in the Ministry of Personnel. During the reigns of Emperor Gaozu and Emperor Shizu, he successively served as a Military Adviser in the residences of the Prince of Andong and the Prince of Zhenbei, and later was promoted to Grand Master of the Palace Attendants, concurrently serving as a National University Doctor. Unfortunately, before he could take up his new position, he passed away in the thirteenth year of the Taijian period at the age of sixty-eight.
Zheng Zhuo was diligent and eager to learn, particularly excelling in the "Three Rituals." When he was young, he dreamt of meeting Huang Kan on the road, who told him to speak, and then spat on him. From then on, Zheng Zhuo's understanding of righteousness deepened significantly. Despite his family's poverty, he made a living by copying and annotating scriptures, working day and night, even sharpening his brush when it wore out. He lived frugally, taught diligently, often lecturing late into the night. When he got tired, he would lie on a melon to rest before getting up to continue studying. His perseverance in learning was truly admirable.
At that time, there were several other renowned scholars of Confucian rituals, including Zhang Ya from Jinling, Lu Xu from Wujun, Shen Dewei from Wuxing, and He Deji from Kuaiji.
Zhang Ya taught the "Three Rites" to Liu Wenshao, who served as a scribe in the royal palace during the Liang Dynasty. In the first year of Tianjia, he was appointed as a Lang of the Ministry of Rites, responsible for compiling Shen Wen'a's "Yizhu" and writing the Five Rites. Later, he was sent to Danyang County as the county magistrate and a military advisor in the royal palace. Zong Yuanrao, the Censor-in-Chief, recommended him to the court for the position of National Scholar.
Lu Xu studied "Three Rites Yi Zong" by Cui Ling'en in his youth. During the Liang Dynasty, the kingdom of Baekje requested a teacher of etiquette, and Lu Xu was dispatched. Upon his return, he was appointed as a Gesizhong and the county magistrate of Dingyang. In the early years of Tianjia, he served as a tutor to Prince Boma of Shixing, and later was promoted to Langzhong of the Ministry of Rites.
Shen Dewei, whose courtesy name was Huaiyuan, was known for his integrity from a young age. Towards the end of the Taiqing period of the Liang Dynasty, he retreated to Tianmu Mountain where he built a house. Despite the chaos in the country at the time, he diligently pursued his studies and eventually mastered the Confucian classics. In the first year of Tianjia, the court summoned him to the capital to teach the "Book of Rites" to the Crown Prince. Soon after, he became a professor at the Imperial Academy, and later was promoted to be an assistant professor at the National University. After his own studies, he would return to his room to lecture his students. His lectures attracted several hundred attendees, whether they were monks or commoners. He later became the Minister of Rites, while also serving as a scholar of the Five Rites, then as a Lang of the Ministry of Rites, and later as a Cibu Lang. Following his mother's death, he resigned to observe mourning at home. In the third year of Zhengming, he took up an official position in the Sui Dynasty, ultimately rising to the position of registrar at the Prince of Qin's residence. He passed away at the age of fifty-five.
He Deji, also known by his courtesy name Chengye, inherited the knowledge of the "Book of Rites" passed down through generations in his family. His grandfather He Wenfa and his father He Yan both served as Ministerial Assistants in the Ministry of Rites during the Liang Dynasty and were well-known at the time. In his youth, he went to the capital to study and stayed there for several years without returning home. He ran out of money, and his clothes were worn out, but he couldn't bring himself to wear old clothes. In the harsh winter, he wore just a thin garment, a short coat, and a pair of trousers. One day, he met a very elegantly dressed woman at the gate of the White Horse Temple. The woman beckoned him inside, took off her white silk scarf, and gave it to him, saying, "You will become a pillar of talent in the future, and you will not always be destitute, so I give this to you." He Deji asked for the woman's name, but she did not answer and left. He Deji had a profound understanding of the "Book of Rites" and often lectured on it. He gradually rose through the ranks and eventually became a Cibo Lang in the Ministry of Rites. Although He Deji did not hold a high official position, his family's three generations were all well-versed in Confucianism and had all served as Cibo Lang, and people at the time praised the enduring legacy of their family's scholarship.
Quan Huan, courtesy name Hongli, was from Qiantang in Wu County. In his youth, he diligently studied the "Book of Changes" under the scholar Chu Zhong. In the early years of the Taiqing period of the Liang Dynasty, he served as an Attendant to the Royal Court, followed by appointments as an assistant professor in the National University and concurrently as a clerk in the Ministry of Justice, specializing in teaching the "Book of Songs" and the "Book of Changes." In the first year of Shaotai, he was appointed as a Cibo Lang in the Ministry of Water. During the Taijian period, his official position continued to rise, and he eventually served as a military advisor in the Zhen Nan Shixing royal court, accompanying the royal court to Xiangzhou. He passed away at the age of seventy-four after a prolonged illness. Quan Huan was well-versed in the "Zhou Yi," "Laozi," and "Zhuangzi," and he was highly regarded by those studying metaphysics at the time.
Zhang Ji, courtesy name Zhiyan, was from Wucheng County in Qinghe Commandery. His grandfather, Zhang Sengbao, served as a Cavalry Attendant and Steward to the Prince in the Liang Dynasty. His father, Zhang Zhongyue, held roles as a Record Officer and Assistant in the Ministry of Rites at the Prince of Luling's Residence in the Liang Dynasty. Zhang Ji was intelligent and clever from a young age, full of ambition. At the age of fourteen, he had already thoroughly read the "Classic of Filial Piety" and the "Analects." He developed a keen interest in metaphysics, studying under Zhou Hongzheng from Runan, always offering new insights that impressed his elders. Under Emperor Wu of Liang, he was summoned to the court and appointed as a student of "Zhengyan" in the National University.
Once, Emperor Wu of Liang explained the textual meaning of the Qian and Kun hexagrams in the Book of Changes in the Hall of Literary Virtue, with Zhang Ji and others from Chenjun, like Yuan Xian, attending. The Emperor ordered a discussion, but none of the other Confucian scholars dared to speak up. It was only then that Zhang Ji adjusted his attire and confidently stepped forward, delivering a well-reasoned analysis with elegance. Emperor Wu of Liang greatly admired him, rewarding him with robes and silk, and saying, "This shows that you have made great achievements in studying ancient classics."
When Zhang Ji was young, his mother passed away, leaving behind a colorful embroidered scripture that she had made herself. When he grew up and learned about this, he would cry uncontrollably in front of the scripture during every festival or sacrifice, overcome with grief. Later, after his father's passing, he observed the mourning rituals even more faithfully than required. After completing the mourning period, he was summoned by the court and appointed as Left Attendant of the Kingdom of Xiangdong, later promoted to Field Officer, and eventually became a scholar at the Shilin Institute.
While Emperor Jianwen was still in the Eastern Palace, he once posed a question about the "Classic of Filial Piety" at the Shilin Hall. Zhang Ji's discussion was insightful and succinct, which greatly impressed Emperor Jianwen. Since then, every time Emperor Jianwen held a lecture, he would always send someone to invite Zhang Ji to join. Later, during Hou Jing's rebellion when the city was under siege, Zhang Ji continued to serve Crown Prince Ai in explaining the "Laozi" and "Zhuangzi" in the Wude Hall. After the fall of the capital of the Liang Dynasty, Zhang Ji faced numerous hardships to escape the chaos of war and never sided with Hou Jing. After Hou Jing was pacified, he was appointed as the magistrate of Lin'an County.
Old Zhang initially served as the emperor's secretary and later transferred to the Prince of Shixing's mansion as a minor official overseeing prisons. During the Tianjia period, he was promoted to assistant lecturer at the National University. At that time, a prominent scholar named Zhou Hongzheng was lecturing on the "Book of Changes" at the National University. Hongzheng's younger brother, Hongzhi, was also listening to the lecture. Old Zhang debated with Hongzheng, and Hongzheng couldn't refute him. As a result, Hongzhi, wearing a serious expression, loudly defended his brother and continued to argue with Old Zhang. Old Zhang said earnestly to Hongzhi, "Today we are discussing principles. Although I know it's normal for brothers to help each other, brotherly love should not interfere when discussing principles!" Hongzhi was not convinced and replied, "Why can't I help my teacher?" Everyone present burst into laughter. Later, Hongzheng would tell others, "Whenever I see Old Zhang, I get nervous!"
During the reign of Emperor Gaozong, Lao Zhang served as a military advisor in the Jian'an Prince's Mansion and also served as an academic in the East Palace. Later, he was transferred to the Wuling Prince's Mansion, still holding the position of military advisor and academic. When the current emperor was still in the East Palace, he invited the ministers to a meal. At that time, the emperor had a new jade-handled dusting brush made, and he remarked, "Although there are many talented people now, only Lao Zhang can use this dusting brush." Afterward, he gave the dusting brush to Lao Zhang and even asked him to lecture on "Zhuangzi" and "Laozi" in the Wenwen Hall. Emperor Gaozong personally attended the classes and presented him with a set of imperial robes. After the emperor ascended the throne, Lao Zhang became a military advisor in the Nanping Prince's Mansion and an academic in the East Palace. Not long after, he was promoted to the position of National Scholar, still retaining the position of academic. One time, the emperor visited Shanshi Temple in Zhongshan and asked the ministers to sit under the pine trees to the southwest of the temple. The emperor called Lao Zhang over and shared insights with him. At that time, the dusting brush had not arrived yet, so the emperor nonchalantly snapped off a pine branch and handed it to Lao Zhang, saying, "Use this as a substitute for the dusting brush for now!" Then, the emperor said to everyone, "This symbolizes Lao Zhang's future prospects!" Meaning that Lao Zhang would continue to rise in the future. In the third year of the Zhenguan era, Lao Zhang went to Chang'an and passed away there at the age of seventy-six years.
This Mr. Ji, has a particularly quiet disposition, does not seek fame or fortune, but has always yearned for a tranquil life. He created a mountain pond at his residence, cultivated flowers and fruit trees, and also taught his students the 'Zhou Yi', 'Laozi', and 'Zhuangzi'. His students included Lu Yuanlang and Zhu Mengbo from Wu County, the monks Facao of Yicheng Temple and Huixiu of Fayun Temple, as well as the Taoist Yao Sui from Zhizhen Taoist Temple. Mr. Ji authored numerous works, including 'Zhou Yi Yi' comprising thirty volumes, 'Shang Shu Yi' comprising fifteen volumes, 'Mao Shi Yi' comprising twenty volumes, 'Xiao Jing Yi' comprising eight volumes, 'Lun Yu Yi' comprising twenty volumes, 'Laozi Yi' comprising eleven volumes, 'Zhuangzi Neipian Yi' comprising twelve volumes, 'Zhuangzi Waipian Yi' comprising twenty volumes, 'Zhuangzi Zapian Yi' comprising ten volumes, 'Xuan Bu Tong Yi' comprising twelve volumes, and 'You Xuan Guilin' comprising twenty-four volumes. Later, the Emperor of the Liang Dynasty made a special effort to have all his works collected in the palace library. His son Zixiao served as a military officer in the office of the Prince of Shi'an.
Let's talk about Gu Yue, also known as Si Nan, who was from a salt merchant family in Wu County. His family lived in Xingpo, Huanggang, where there was a village school, so the Gu family was quite cultured. Gu Yue lost his parents at a young age and grew up by his own hard work and diligence. He was intelligent, articulate, and especially adept at interpreting the "Book of Songs," quoting and explaining obscure meanings. Prince Zhou She of the Liang Dynasty greatly admired him. He initially served as a historian in Yangzhou and later also served as the deputy to the Prince's Left Commandant. Gu Yue had a profound understanding of moral principles, especially excelling in debates. Both the Liang Dynasty's Prince of Nanping, Xiao Wei, and He Wenfa from Kuaiji valued him highly and invited him as a guest. He was subsequently appointed as a scholar of the Five Classics. In the first year of Shaotai, he was promoted to National Scholar. After the enthronement of Emperor Wudi, he was appointed as the military adviser to Prince Shixingwang, lecturing in the Eastern Palace. Because Gu Yue was older, the Emperor treated him with special favor, appointing him as a Yellow Gate Official and continuing to have him serve as a National Scholar, teaching the prince. After Emperor Fei ascended the throne, he was appointed as the Attendant Cavalry of the Imperial Guards and a Chamberlain of the Palace Library. Later, when Hua Jiao rebelled, Gu Yue was in Dongyang at the time, and someone falsely accused him in front of Emperor Gaozong, claiming he had rebellious intentions. As a result, he was imprisoned and dismissed from his official position. In the first year of Taijian, Gu Yue passed away at home at the age of seventy-eight.
At that time, there was a man from Dongyang named Gong Mengshu, who also studied the "Book of Songs" and excelled in discussing philosophical concepts. During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Liang Dynasty, he served as the county magistrate of Xunyang. Emperor Yuan greatly respected him during his time in Jiangzhou and personally learned from him. During the Chengsheng period, he also served as a Chamberlain of the Palace Library. In the early years of Tianjia, he was appointed as an Attendant Cavalry, as well as an assistant professor at the National University and a Grand Master of the Palace. He passed away in the Taijian period.
Shen Bu Hai, courtesy name Xia He, was from Wukang, Huzhou, Zhejiang. His grandfather, Shen Zong, served as the Minister of Rites in the Qi dynasty; his father, Shen Yi, was a military aide under the Prince of Shaoling in the Liang dynasty. Shen Bu Hai lost both parents when he was young, but he was upright and studious. At the age of fourteen, he was selected as a student of the National University and passed the imperial examination in the Confucian classics. He rose through the ranks and became a Doctor of the Imperial Academy in the Liang dynasty. Later, he was appointed as a military aide in the residence of the Prince of Luling, an advisor in the residence of the Prince of Changsha, and also served as the magistrate of Runan County. In the early Tianjia period, he was appointed as a military aide in the residence of the Prince of Hengyang and concurrently served as a scholar at the Jia De Hall.
Since the chaos of the late Liang dynasty, national schools had not been established. Shen Bu Hai wrote to the emperor, saying: "I believe that to cultivate talent for the country, nothing is more important than promoting Confucianism; to educate the people, education must be valued. Therefore, in ancient times, Dongjiao and Xixu, Confucianism flourished and continued for three generations; the schools prospered until the two capitals. Since the decline of Confucianism and the deterioration of society, people have been influenced by bad habits, indulging in pleasures without moderation. Therefore, schools must be established, examples set, enlightening people's minds, like dyeing with bluegrass or carving with jade, to harmonize relationships, maintain order between superiors and subordinates, clarify the values of loyalty and filial piety, and consolidate the relationship between rulers and subjects.
Lu was hard to invade because it placed great importance on rituals; Zheng quickly perished because it neglected music. In ancient times, during wars, people beat drums and moved weapons, and that was when the southern barbarians came to pay their respects; it was only after the Pan Palace was built that the Huai barbarians submitted. Thinking of the Confucian traditions along the banks of the Zhu and Si rivers, reminiscing about the glory of ancient Yan and Ji, both the country and the family should value education!
During the reign of Emperor Liang Zhao Taiqing, the court was in turmoil, with external invasions and internal strife. The sound of war drums could be heard in the morning, and the sight of beacons at night. Many learned scholars died or scattered, suffering fates worse than death. Classics like the "Wu Dian" and "Jiu Qiu" were neglected, the National University fell into decline, the Confucian Temple was left unrepaired, the ceremonies at Baocheng Hall were abandoned, and the ceremonial tools were left unused. The songs that once praised Confucianism also faded into silence, with this situation persisting for over a decade. The younger generation were oblivious to ancient learning and rituals, while older individuals who wished to learn could only lament that they had started too late.
When the new emperor ascended the throne, he ruled with righteousness and virtue, eradicating corruption and restoring peace and happiness to the people. It was essential to vigorously promote rituals and music, establish schools, follow ancient systems, visit the imperial academy, select officials' children for education, and have assistant scholars conduct daily lessons. They should carry book boxes, wear neat clothes, walk in an orderly manner, and study diligently, akin to the careful process of polishing jade, learning the Book of Songs and the Book of Rites. With just a year of effort, significant progress could be achieved, and within three years, substantial accomplishments could be reached. Only by identifying exceptional talents and applying their knowledge to serve the court could one rise to high positions and achieve great honor.
In ancient times, although the crown prince, despite his nobility, had to attend school alongside other students. During the Han Dynasty, this etiquette was not abolished. During the period of the Two Jin Dynasties, it was even further promoted, which reflects the strong tradition of respecting teachers and valuing education. Although the prince was intelligent and required little instruction, he should be humble and cautious, focus on studying the classics, show respect to his teachers, and follow the ancient rituals. Think of Confucius's old residence; although simple, it once echoed with the sound of books and the music of silk and bamboo. The legacy of the ancient sages deserves our deep reflection and emulation. Moreover, the region is now stable, and there is no war overseas. How can we not strive to create great achievements, promote the highest ideals, and allow Confucianism and metaphysics to flourish in this enlightened age, and ensure that this prosperous era continues in the spirit of Yao and Shun? I acknowledge my limited knowledge, and my words may not hold much weight; I feel presumptuous for speaking out, and my heart is filled with unease.
The emperor replied, "I have received your memorial. Since the old system was abolished, the essence of the Confucian classics risks being lost. After inheriting the throne, I have long sought to restore and promote it, but given the ongoing wars and the recent establishment of the nation, I have been worried that the customs and systems of the previous dynasty will one day disappear completely. You are quick-witted, outstanding in writing, able to consider the overall situation, and value education. I entrust this matter to you to carry out based on the current circumstances." The emperor also ordered the revision of musical scores, instructing him to compose eight musical pieces from each of the three dynasties, totaling twenty-eight compositions, to be performed by the music bureau.
He served as the local governor of Ganzhou for five years, then went to Beijing to become a junior official in the Ministry of Rites. Later, he was promoted to Doctor of the National University and also took charge of the Imperial Guard Bureau, and was ordered by the Emperor to revise the Five Rites of Ritual, oversee the drafting of official documents, and determine posthumous titles. During the Taijian era, he was appointed as the Chief Historian of the Heir Apparent of Renwu Nankang, in charge of managing affairs in Danyang County. He was later promoted to Attendant of the Imperial Secretariat and Minister of Imperial Supplies. Not long after, he was appointed as General Rongzhao and Chief Historian of Prince Wuling Mingwei, responsible for managing affairs in Wuxing County. Shortly after, he returned to the court, serving as an Attendant of the Imperial Secretariat and concurrently as the Deputy Minister of the Ministry of Rites. He passed away at the age of sixty-three years.
He was proficient in the classics and history, skilled in composing, and despite his extensive knowledge, he had not a single published book at home. Every time he wrote, he did so without referring to any materials. The Prefect of Literature, Zhou Hongzheng from Runan, often praised him, saying, "Mr. Shen's heart is truly like that of a saint!" He wrote a hundred scrolls of "Five Rites Etiquette" and fourteen scrolls of "Collected Works."
His son, Shen Zhidao, styled Chongji, was well-known from a young age. He started his career as the registrar of Yangzhou, and soon also served as a Scholar of the Imperial Academy of Literature, later holding positions as a military secretary for the Prince of Andong Xincai. In the third year of the Zhengming era, he defected to the Sui Dynasty.
Wang Yuan-gui, courtesy name Zhengfan, was from Taiyuan Jinyang. His grandfather, Wang Daobao, once served as an Outer Cavalier of the Qi Dynasty and Prefect of Jin'an County; his father, Wang Wei, once served as the Middle Recorder of the Prince of Wuling's Mansion in the Liang Dynasty. Wang Yuan-gui became an orphan at the age of eight, and he followed his mother and two brothers to seek refuge with his uncle in Linhai County at the age of twelve. There was a wealthy landlord, Liu Zhen, in Linhai County, who wanted to accept this marriage proposal for his daughter with Wang Yuan-gui. Wang Yuan-gui's mother wanted to agree to this marriage because his brothers were still young and she sought a powerful support, but Wang Yuan-gui cried and begged his mother, saying, "Marriage should not override family ties; this is highly valued by the ancients. How can one marry someone unsuitable just for the sake of temporary security?" His words moved his mother, and she ultimately gave up on the idea.
Wang Yuan-gui was deeply filial, diligently caring for his mother, never leaving her side, day or night. During the Liang Dynasty, a flood struck Shanyin County, and many homes were washed away. Wang Yuan-gui had only a small boat, so he took his mother, sister, and his orphaned nephew aboard. He rowed the boat himself, placing the three children in the branches of a tall tree. They were not rescued until the waters receded. People at the time widely praised his filial devotion.
Yuan Gui loved learning from a young age, studying under Mr. Shen Wen'a from Wuxing. At the age of eighteen, he had already mastered texts such as the 'Zuo Zhuan', 'Xiao Jing', 'Analects', and 'Classic of Funeral Rites'. In the first year of the Daitong era of the Liang Dynasty, the court issued a decree for him to take the exam on the 'Spring and Autumn Annals', in which he scored highly, which earned him praise from prominent Confucian scholars. He initially served as the Left Attendant to the Prince of Xiangdong before being promoted to Assistant Cavalry Commandant. During Emperor Jianwen's time in the Eastern Palace, he was treated as an honored guest, frequently invited to explain the classics and was shown great respect. He was later appointed as a military secretary in the Prince of Xuan's mansion. When Hou Jing rebelled, chaos broke out, and he returned to Kuaiji with his family. During the Tianjia era, he was appointed as a military secretary at the Prince of Shixing's mansion, while also serving as an assistant at the Imperial College. He was later transferred to the Prince of Zhendong's mansion as a military secretary, continuing to serve as an assistant. When the Crown Prince of the Liang Dynasty (later Liang Houzhu) was in the Eastern Palace, he invited Yuan Gui to become a scholar, personally seeking his insights on the meanings of the 'Book of Rites', 'Zuo Zhuan', 'Classic of Funeral Rites', and other texts, rewarding him generously. He was later promoted to the Minister of Ceremonies. When Prince Xiao Bogu of Xin'an visited the palace, he happened to be teaching a class, and Prince Xiao requested him to explain the classics, which was regarded as a significant honor. Shortly after, Yuan Gui was promoted to the Minister of Ceremonies. Since the Liang Dynasty, many Confucian scholars studied the 'Zuo Zhuan', and they found it hard to challenge Jia Kui and Fu Qian's explanations of Du Yu. There were one hundred eighty questions, which Yuan Gui addressed one by one, resolving all doubts so that no one questioned them again. He always participated in major court ceremonies.
After his mother passed away, he resigned from his government post and returned home to observe the mourning rites. After the mourning period was over, he was appointed as a military aide in the Prince Poyang's mansion, and soon promoted to the position of an attendant to the prince. Later, he was transferred to the Prince Nanping's mansion as a military officer. Prince Nanping was in Jiangzhou, and Yuan Gui followed him there. Students traveled from far and wide to seek his guidance, with dozens or even hundreds of people coming from afar. In the third year of the Zhengming era of the Sui Dynasty, he submitted to the Sui Dynasty and served as a libationer in the Eastern Pavilion of the Prince Qin's mansion. He died in Guangling at the age of seventy-four. Yuan Gui wrote "Spring and Autumn Inscription," "Yi Ji" in eleven volumes, "Continuation of the Great Meaning of the Classics" in fourteen volumes, "Xiao Jing Yi Ji" in two volumes, "Zuo Zhuan Yin" in three volumes, and "Li Ji Yin" in two volumes. His son, Da Ye, was intelligent, talented, and well-known.
There was a man from Wu County named Lu Qing who had a passion for learning since childhood and understood various classics, especially proficient in the "Zuo Zhuan" of the Spring and Autumn Annals. He was very upright. Later, he became the Right Attendant of the Kingdom of Liang Wuling, then served as a military officer in the Mo Cao Xing of the Western Expedition Office, and finally became the magistrate of Lou County. During the turmoil at the end of the Liang Dynasty, he focused on studying Buddhist scriptures and various classics, studying each one meticulously. During the Tianjia period, the court summoned him to be a Cavalier Attendant to the Prince, but he turned them down. When the King of Yongyang became the governor of Wu County and heard of Lu Qing's reputation, he wanted to meet him. Lu Qing claimed to be sick and refused to go. At that time, Lu Qing's relative, Lu Rong, was serving as the Five Officials in the county, and Lu Qing had visited him before. The King of Yongyang disguised himself and visited Lu Rong's house, even secretly peering through a hole in the wall to watch Lu Qing. The King of Yongyang said to Lu Rong, "Look at Lu Qing's demeanor, so solemn and serious, he's truly enigmatic! Compared to figures like Yan Junping and Zheng Zizhen, he is far superior!" Later, both the Prince Poyang and the Prince Jin'an invited him to be their historian, but he turned them down. He built a small house and secluded himself, dedicating himself to chanting scriptures and reciting the Buddha's name, so very few people studied under him.
The historical texts comment that in order to cultivate one's character and strive for self-improvement, this principle must be followed; for the country to prosper and for families to be harmonious, good governance brings about peace and prosperity, and relationships among people become orderly as a result. Individuals like Shen Wena, who are devoted to teaching and nurturing students, are also esteemed scholars of their time. Shen Wena even reformed the system of rituals, which can be likened to Shusun Tong of the Han Dynasty.
