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Written by: Realhistories

Category: The Book of Han (漢書)

Published: 15 December 2024

Created: 15 December 2024

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In the fourth year of the Tianfeng era (AD 17), in May, Wang Mang said: "Tang Lin, the Dean of the Academy of Mentors and Friends, and Ji Qun, a former Advisor from Langya, are both individuals who are filial to their parents, loving to their siblings, loyal, forgiving, respectful to their superiors, and caring toward their subordinates. They are well-learned, knowledgeable in ancient texts, virtuous, and upright, and they have lived their entire lives without committing any mistakes." As a result, Wang Mang conferred the title of Marquis of Jiande (Established Virtue) upon Tang Lin and Marquis of Fengde (Bestowed Virtue) upon Ji Qun. Both were also granted the high rank of "Specially Advanced," enjoying the same courtesies as the Three Excellencies (the highest-ranking officials). Additionally, they were rewarded with a residence, three million coins, and ceremonial staffs symbolizing their prestigious status.

In June, Wang Mang held a ceremony at the Mingtang (Bright Hall) to redistribute the fiefs of the nobles. He declared: "Based on geographical considerations, I have redefined the system of five ranks of nobility. After consulting classical texts and historical records and after nine years of deliberation, I have finally completed this system. Today, I personally set up a platform made of polished stones, arranged bundles of green rushes and soil of four different colors, and respectfully reported to the gods of Mount Tai, the Earth God, the spirits of the land, and my ancestors. I now formally bestow the fiefs upon the various nobles and hope that they will each return to their respective territories, treat the people kindly, and develop their lands." Wang Mang also decreed that nobles from remote regions, such as those in Jiangnan, would not need to travel to the capital unless summoned by imperial decree. At the same time, he set the annual stipends for the nobility: dukes received 800,000 coins, marquises and earls 400,000, and viscounts and barons 200,000. However, in reality, many of these fiefs and stipends were never realized. Wang Mang, fond of empty rhetoric and imitating ancient systems, granted numerous titles but was inherently stingy. Using the excuse that the geographical arrangements were incomplete, he only symbolically bestowed bundles of rushes and soil to appease the recipients.

That year, Wang Mang reintroduced the "Six Controls" (a set of strict economic regulations) to tightly manage commerce and natural resources such as mountains and marshlands. Each regulation came with detailed provisions and prohibitions, with the harshest punishments being the death penalty. Consequently, the number of officials and commoners punished under these laws increased significantly. Additionally, he imposed a tax of 3,600 coins per slave or servant on all households from the upper nobility down to commoners, further exacerbating the suffering of the people. As a result, banditry began to spread across the country. The Minister of Communications, Feng Chang, opposed the "Six Controls" policy and criticized it, but Wang Mang became furious and dismissed him. Wang Mang then established the position of "Inspectors of Law and Order" to oversee the enforcement of the Six Controls. He appointed capable officials, such as Hou Ba, to manage the six divisions of guards and patrols, similar to the role of the Inspectors (Cishi) during the Han Dynasty. He also assigned one of the officials from the Three Excellencies' staff to assist in overseeing each province.

In the Linhuai region, individuals such as Guatian Yi became bandits, using Kuaiji's Changzhou as their stronghold. Meanwhile, a woman from Langya named Lü Mu also rose in rebellion. Lü Mu's son had previously served as a minor county official but was wrongfully executed by the county magistrate. In response, Lü Mu sold her family’s property, used the money from selling wine to purchase weapons, and secretly recruited impoverished young men. After gathering more than a hundred followers, she attacked Haixu County, killed the magistrate, and held a ceremony at her son's grave to honor him. She then led her forces along the coastal regions, growing her army to over ten thousand people. Wang Mang sent emissaries to pardon the bandits, but when the emissaries returned, they reported: "Although the bandits temporarily disbanded, they quickly regrouped. When asked why, they all said it was because the laws are overly complex and harsh, leaving the people unable to move freely. Despite their hard work, they cannot earn enough to pay taxes. Even staying at home, they are implicated by neighbors for minting coins or hiding copper, while unscrupulous officials exploit them. With no way out, they are forced to become bandits." Wang Mang, angered by this report, dismissed the emissary. On the other hand, those who flattered Wang Mang by claiming that "the people are arrogant and deceitful and deserve punishment" or that "this is merely a temporary situation that will soon stabilize" were rewarded and promoted.

In August of that year, Wang Mang personally went to the southern suburbs of the capital to oversee the casting of an object called the "Wei Dou" (Powerful Dipper). The Wei Dou was made from five types of copper and shaped like the Big Dipper constellation, measuring two feet five inches in length. Wang Mang hoped it would suppress the power of enemy armies. Once completed, he ordered the Director of Fate to carry it on his back while Wang Mang walked in front of him. When entering the palace, it was placed by the side of his carriage. On the day the Wei Dou was cast, the weather was extremely cold, and many officials and horses froze to death.

In the fifth year (AD 18), on the first day of the first month, a fire broke out at the South Gate of the Northern Army barracks. Wang Mang appointed the Grand Marshal, Sima Fei Xing, as Governor of Jingzhou and summoned him to discuss his plans for governance. Fei Xing replied: "The people of Jingzhou and Yangzhou mostly rely on the mountains, forests, and lakes for fishing and gathering to make a living. In recent years, the state’s implementation of the Six Controls policy has taxed these resources, depriving the people of their livelihoods. Combined with consecutive years of drought, the people are cold and starving, forcing many to turn to banditry. After I take office, I plan to explain the policies to the bandits, persuade them to return to their homes and take up farming, lend them oxen and seeds, and reduce their taxes. This might stabilize the situation." Wang Mang, enraged by this proposal, immediately dismissed Fei Xing from his position.

Throughout the country, officials, unable to receive their salaries, resorted to illegal means to enrich themselves. It was not uncommon for governors and county magistrates to amass personal fortunes worth thousands of gold coins. Wang Mang issued an edict stating: "Since the second year of the Shijian State era, when the barbarians began to invade the Central Plains, all military and border officials who have enriched themselves through exploitation will have four-fifths of their wealth confiscated to fund urgent border expenses." However, despite the central government dispatching officials to investigate corruption nationwide and even allowing slaves to report their masters, corruption only worsened.

The imperial grandson, Gong Chonggong Zong, was accused of privately commissioning his own portrait, wearing imperial robes and insignias, and engraving three seals, one of which bore the inscription: "Wei Zhi Guan Cun Ji Xia Chu Nan Shan Zang Bo Bing." This, along with his uncle Lü Kuan's secret interactions with him after moving to Hepu, led to an investigation. Zong committed suicide during the inquiry. Wang Mang declared: "Zong, as the imperial grandson and a duke, colluded with the rebel Lü Kuan and others, engraved copper seals, and plotted treason. He brought disaster upon himself—how pitiful!" Wang Mang stripped him of his title, renamed him "Hui Zong," and posthumously titled him "Duke of False Merit," burying him in his hometown with the rites of a marquis.

Zong’s sister, Fang, the wife of General of Guards Wang Xing, was accused of cursing her mother-in-law and killing a maidservant to silence her. When this was reported, Wang Mang sent the palace attendant Que Yun to investigate and interrogate Fang, while also questioning Wang Xing. Both of them committed suicide. The case implicated the wife of the Director of Fate, Kong Ren, who also took her own life. Kong Ren apologized to Wang Mang, but Wang Mang ordered the Secretariat to impeach him for disrespecting the mandate of heaven. Ultimately, Wang Mang pardoned him but required him to change his official hat, reflecting Wang Mang’s eccentric personality.

Wang Mang appointed Wang She, Marquis of Zhidao, as General of Guards. Wang She was the son of Wang Gen, Marquis of Quyang. During Emperor Cheng’s reign, Wang Gen, then Grand Marshal, had recommended Wang Mang to succeed him. Out of gratitude, Wang Mang posthumously honored Wang Gen with the title "Marquis of Straightforward Virtue," and Wang She inherited his title.

That same year, the Chimei (Red Eyebrow) rebels, led by Li Zidu and Fan Chong, rose in rebellion due to famine. Starting in Langya, they moved across various regions, looting and amassing a force of over ten thousand. Wang Mang sent emissaries to mobilize provincial armies to suppress them, but the rebellion could not be quelled.

In the spring of the sixth year of the Tianfeng era (AD 19), Wang Mang observed the widespread uprisings and banditry across the country. He ordered the Grand Astrologer to calculate a "36,000-year" cyclical calendar system and decreed that the era name should change every six years, implementing this nationwide. He issued an edict stating: "The *Purple Pavilion Diagram* records: 'The Supreme Unity (Taiyi) and the Yellow Emperor ascended to immortality and played music atop Mount Qian of Kunlun. If a sage ruler appears in later generations, music should be played on Mount Zhongnan in the Qinling Mountains.' I, in my ignorance, did not understand this before, but now I finally comprehend it." He then changed the title of "Ningshi General" to "Gengshi General" to signify compliance with heavenly mandate. He also quoted the *Book of Changes*: "Renewal is called great virtue; continuous creation is called change," and declared, "Let us celebrate this with the entire realm!" Wang Mang intended to use these words to deceive the people and quell the bandit uprisings, but instead, the people mocked him.

That same year, Wang Mang introduced newly composed music during ceremonies at the Mingtang (Bright Hall) and the ancestral temple. Officials began wearing ceremonial hats made of unicorn leather and tanned hide. However, after hearing the music, some remarked: "This music is cold, sharp, and filled with sorrow—it is certainly not the sound of a thriving nation."

At the time, the eastern regions of the empire had suffered consecutive years of famine, and the bandit forces led by Li Zidu and others continued to grow in size. The Gengshi General, Lian Dan, was sent to Yizhou to suppress the unrest but failed and was subsequently recalled. Wang Mang then dispatched former Grand Marshal Guo Xing and Yongbu Governor Li Zhu to attack the barbarian tribes of Ruodou and others. At the same time, Grand Tutor Xi Shu and Shisun Xi were ordered to eliminate bandits operating around the rivers and lakes. Meanwhile, the Xiongnu were launching severe incursions along the borders. In response, Wang Mang undertook a massive conscription effort, recruiting able-bodied men, death row prisoners, as well as slaves belonging to officials and commoners. He formed an elite force called the "Zhu Tu Xi Yong" (Ferocious Boar Warriors). Additionally, Wang Mang imposed taxes nationwide, requiring one household out of every thirty to provide goods and resources. Even the silk and cloth of the common people were requisitioned and transported to Chang'an. He also decreed that officials, from the highest-ranking ministers to local county administrators, were to maintain military horses according to their rank.

Wang Mang also actively recruited individuals claiming to possess extraordinary skills or talents, hoping they could devise ingenious strategies to defeat the Xiongnu. Thousands of people came forward offering ideas. Some claimed they could cross great rivers without boats by linking horses together to form a bridge, allowing an army of a million to cross. Others proposed creating a pill that, once consumed, would eliminate the need for food, ensuring the army would not go hungry. Some even claimed they could fly thousands of miles in a single day and directly strike the Xiongnu's heartlands. Wang Mang, delighted by these proposals, immediately ordered experiments to be conducted. For instance, one person constructed a flying device using large bird wings and tied feathers to his head and body with ropes. He attempted to fly but fell after only a few hundred steps. Although Wang Mang realized the impracticality of these methods, he still granted these individuals titles such as "Military Strategists" and rewarded them with carriages and horses, instructing them to await their deployment.

Earlier, the Xiongnu Right Bone-Du Marquis Xubu Dang, whose wife was a daughter of Wang Zhaojun, had pledged allegiance to the Han court. Wang Mang sent Wang Xie's nephew, the Marquis of Heqin, to lure Xubu Dang to the border and then coerced him into coming to Chang'an, where he was forcibly granted the title of "Xubu Shanyu Marquis of Later Peace." Initially, Wang Mang intended to use Xubu Dang's defection to control the Xiongnu. However, Grand Marshal Yan You opposed this plan, arguing: "Xubu Dang is stationed in the Xiongnu's right division. He has not invaded the borders and often reports the Xiongnu's movements to the central court. He is a significant asset for border defense. If we bring him to Chang'an, he will be nothing more than an ordinary barbarian. It would be far better to let him remain in the Xiongnu and serve his purpose." Nevertheless, Wang Mang ignored this advice. After Xubu Dang was brought to Chang'an, Wang Mang planned to send Yan You and Lian Dan to lead an expedition against the Xiongnu. He granted them the surname "Zheng" and titled them the "Two Zheng Generals," with plans to kill the Xiongnu Chanyu and install Xubu Dang as the new Chanyu. However, before the campaign began, Yan You repeatedly submitted memorials opposing the attack on the Xiongnu, suggesting that the bandit uprisings in Shandong should be addressed first. He even wrote three essays referencing the deeds of ancient generals Yue Yi and Bai Qi to subtly advise Wang Mang. Enraged by this, Wang Mang dismissed Yan You from his position as Grand Marshal, stripped him of his seals, and sent him back to his hometown.

Wang Mang then appointed Fu Bo Dong Zhong as Grand Marshal. Around the same time, Wing-Ping Commander Tian Kuang submitted a report stating that the assessment of property in various counties was inaccurate. Wang Mang issued another decree to collect taxes based on the "one household out of thirty" policy. For his "loyal and patriotic advice," Wang Mang rewarded Tian Kuang with two million coins and promoted him to the rank of marquis. However, this policy sparked widespread resentment among the people. Large numbers of residents in Qingzhou and Xuzhou fled their homes, with the elderly and weak perishing along the way, while the young and strong joined the ranks of bandits.

One day, Commander Han Bo submitted a memorial stating: "There is a remarkable man who claims to be Juwuba. He is ten feet tall, with a waist circumference of ten spans. He came to my office, declaring his willingness to fight the Xiongnu with great courage. He claims to come from the coastal region southeast of Penglai and northwest of Wucheng. Ordinary carriages and horses cannot carry him, and even three horses cannot pull him. He requests a large carriage and four horses adorned with tiger banners to bring him to the capital. He sleeps using war drums as pillows and eats with iron chopsticks. This is clearly a sign that heaven is aiding the Xin dynasty. I request that Your Majesty forge enormous armor and a tall chariot for him, and dispatch a general and a hundred elite guards to escort him to the capital. If the city gates are too small, they should be widened so that the entire world can witness him and be subdued." Han Bo's true intention was to mock Wang Mang. Wang Mang, though deeply annoyed, kept Juwuba in Xinfeng and changed his surname to "Jumu" (symbolizing the empress dowager's heavenly mandate). He claimed this was a sign of the Xin dynasty's legitimacy. Wang Mang then imprisoned Han Bo, accusing him of "improper speech," and eventually executed him.

The following year, Wang Mang changed the era name to "Di Huang" (Earth Emperor) to align with his "36,000-year calendar" concept.

In the first month of the first year of the Di Huang era (AD 20), on the day Yimao, Wang Mang issued a general amnesty across the realm. However, he simultaneously decreed: "During military campaigns, anyone who causes disturbances or violates laws shall be executed without trial." As a result, during the spring and summer of that year, a large number of civilians in and around the capital were executed, creating an atmosphere of fear. People on the streets dared not speak and communicated only through glances.

On the day Ren Shen in the second month, at noon, the sun suddenly turned black. Wang Mang, feeling uneasy, issued an edict stating: "This phenomenon of the sun darkening at its zenith is caused by yin energy overwhelming yang energy, and black energy creating this anomaly. The people are all terrified and confused. General of the Realm Wang Kuang sent his subordinates to investigate the cause of this celestial event, attempting to obscure the manifestation of heaven's will. Thus, this phenomenon occurred to correct his actions and reveal the principles of heaven, thereby calming this great disturbance."

Wang Mang, seeing the increasing number of bandits throughout the empire, once again attempted to use superstitious means to suppress them. He issued an edict stating:  

“When our imperial ancestor, the Yellow Emperor, pacified the world, he led his army as the Supreme General, constructed the Huagai Pavilion, and established the Douxian (Sacrificial Ceremony). At the same time, he appointed a multi-tiered military hierarchy: internally, there were Grand Generals; externally, there were five Grand Marshals, 25 Supreme Generals, 125 Deputy Generals, 1,250 Assistant Generals, 12,500 Colonels, 37,500 Commanders, and 112,500 Captains, totaling 1,225,000 people. Additionally, there were 450,000 officers and 13,500,000 soldiers. These arrangements align with the principle in the *Book of Changes*: ‘The power of the bow and arrow brings awe to the world.’ I have received the text of the divine mandate and studied the practices of my predecessors. Now, I will implement these arrangements step by step.”  

Thus, Wang Mang established the positions of the Five Grand Marshals (Front, Rear, Left, Right, and Center), conferred the title of “Supreme General” upon the governors of each province, and promoted county military officers, company commanders, and senior officials to the rank of Deputy General. Subordinate officials were made Assistant Generals, while county magistrates were given the title of Colonel. Wang Mang also dispatched envoys in relay carriages to inspect the prefectures and kingdoms. Each day, more than ten groups of envoys departed, resulting in depleted granaries and a severe shortage of horses and carriages at the postal stations. In some cases, civilian horses and carriages were forcibly requisitioned to meet the demand.  

In July, a violent windstorm destroyed the Wanglu Hall. Wang Mang issued another edict, stating:  

“On the day Renwu, during the noon hour, a fierce windstorm accompanied by thunder and rain tore off roofs and snapped trees, a shocking and unsettling anomaly. I reflected on this for ten days before finally understanding its meaning. This reminds me of the divine mandate text mentioning the ‘New Relocated King.’ The mandate stated that the New Relocated King should reside in Luoyang and be established as the King of Unified Yiyang. At the time, I humbly declined this title and instead appointed someone else to the position. Later, when the *Jinkui* (Golden Coffer) documents arrived, the advisors all said: ‘Luoyang, as the center of the Xin Dynasty, should serve as the unifying leader of the new regime and establish the Crown Prince.’ Since then, Lin (referring to Wang Mang’s son, Anhan Gong Wang Lin) has been chronically ill. Although his condition has improved somewhat, he has never fully recovered. When he appears at court, he must move about in a cushioned carriage. Wanglu Hall, where he often resides, is located between the west wing and the rear dressing room. Recently, due to the Empress’s illness, Lin left this hall and moved elsewhere, while his consorts resided in Dongyong Lane. Then, on the day Renwu, the violent wind destroyed the west wing and rear dressing room of Wanglu Hall. A large elm tree southeast of the Zhaoning Hall pond, with a trunk ten spans thick, was uprooted by the wind and fell onto the eastern pavilion, which was part of the west wall of Dongyong Lane. Roof tiles were overturned, buildings were destroyed, and trees were uprooted. I am deeply alarmed.  

At the same time, a report from the Observatory stated that the moon had entered the star constellation Xin (Heart), which is also an ominous sign. I am filled with anxiety. Reflecting on the *Purple Pavilion Diagram*, it mentions that the Supreme Unity (Taiyi) and the Yellow Emperor ascended to immortality due to auspicious omens, and future sage rulers should ascend Mount Zhongnan. The so-called ‘New Relocated King’ symbolizes the new relocation of Taiyi, while the King of Unified Yiyang symbolizes the unification of the five virtues under the sun. However, Lin’s elder brother was designated as Crown Prince, which is an improper title. Confucius once said: ‘If names are not correct, speech will not be in accord, punishments will be improperly applied, and the people will have no place to turn.’ Upon deep reflection, I believe that since my accession, yin and yang have been out of balance, rains and winds have been untimely, and we have suffered successive droughts, locust plagues, famines, barbarian invasions, rampant banditry, and the people’s hardship. The root cause of all this lies in the improper naming. Therefore, I have decided to confer the title of New Relocated King upon An and the title of King of Unified Yiyang upon Lin. I hope this will preserve the lives of my two sons, ensure the prosperity of my descendants for generations to come, pacify the barbarians externally, and stabilize China internally.”  

In the same month, a tiger-patterned robe that had been abandoned in a storage chest in the Du Mausoleum side hall mysteriously floated out of the chest and stood upright in the outer hall before collapsing after a long time. The guards who witnessed this reported it to Wang Mang. Displeased, Wang Mang issued an edict stating: “The yellow and red colors of the treasure conflict. From now on, court attendants and accompanying officials must wear crimson robes.”  

At the time, many diviners claimed that celestial signs indicated the need for “earthworks.” Observing the rampant banditry across the realm, Wang Mang sought to comfort himself through construction projects and establish a foundation for the Xin Dynasty’s everlasting rule. He issued an edict stating:  

“When I accepted the mandate, it was during the calamity of the ‘Yang Nine’ and the convergence of the ‘Hundred Six,’ both inauspicious omens. The treasuries were empty, the people were destitute, and the ancestral temples had not yet been built. I have been pondering day and night without rest. I now understand that this year is the most auspicious time to act. Therefore, I have decided to construct a palace north of the Boshi River and south of the Langchi Pond. I also divined the area south of Jinshui and west of the Mingtang, and the results showed auspicious signs. Thus, I have decided to begin construction there.”  

He planned a site covering 100 qing (approximately 6,667 hectares) south of Chang’an. On the day Jiashen in September, Wang Mang personally visited the site and symbolically lifted a hoe to dig three times. Minister of Works Wang Xun and Grand Minister Wang Yi, holding imperial tokens, participated alongside dozens of officials, including palace attendants, chamberlains, and judicial officers such as Du Lin. Cui Fa and Zhang Han advised Wang Mang: “A ruler with great virtue should have grand institutions. You should expand the scale of the project so that the entire nation can witness it, ensuring that future generations cannot surpass it.”  

Wang Mang then mobilized craftsmen and artists from across the country and requisitioned money, grain, and materials from the people to fund the construction.  

To gather materials for these projects, Wang Mang dismantled several structures in the western gardens of Chang’an, including Jianzhang Palace, Chengguang Palace, Baoyang Palace, Datai Pavilion, Chuyuan Palace, as well as the Pingle Pavilion, Danglu Pavilion, Yanglu Pavilion, and more than ten other buildings. Their materials were repurposed to build nine ancestral temples.  

That same month, heavy rains fell for over sixty days. Wang Mang also ordered every citizen to provide 600 hu of grain as salaries for court officials. He promoted these officials, bestowed them titles, and granted them the rank of Marquis of Attached Cities.  

The nine ancestral temples included:  
1. The Grand Ancestor Temple of the Yellow Emperor,  
2. The Illustrious Ancestor Temple of Emperor Yu,  
3. The Revered Ancestor Temple of King Hu of Chen,  
4. The Illustrious Ancestor Temple of King Jing of Qi,  
5. The Revered Ancestor Temple of King Min of Jibei (these five were perpetual temples),  
6. The Revered Parent Temple of the Earl of Jinan,  
7. The Revered Parent Temple of the Marquis of Yuancheng,  
8. The Revered Parent Temple of the Marquis of Yangping,  
9. The Revered Parent Temple of the Marquis of Xindu.  

The temple halls featured double-eaved roofs, with the Grand Ancestor Temple measuring 40 zhang (approximately 93 meters) in each direction and 17 zhang (approximately 40 meters) in height. The other temples were half this size. All roofs were covered with copper tiles and adorned with gold and silver engravings, showcasing extraordinary craftsmanship. The entire project cost hundreds of billions of coins and conscripted countless laborers, resulting in tens of thousands of workers dying from exhaustion.

In the same year, Ma Shiqiu, a man from Julu, conspired with others to mobilize the troops of the Yan and Zhao regions to launch an uprising aimed at assassinating Wang Mang. However, the plot was discovered by the Grand Minister of Works, Shi Wang Dan, who reported it to Wang Mang. Wang Mang dispatched the Three Dukes' officials to arrest and interrogate Ma Shiqiu's accomplices, implicating thousands of prominent figures from various counties and regions. All of these individuals were executed. For his role in exposing the conspiracy, Wang Mang rewarded Wang Dan by granting him the title of Marquis of Supporting the State.  

Due to Wang Mang's disregard for the will of heaven and the people's sentiments, widespread resentment grew among the populace. However, Wang Mang remained indifferent and even issued an edict saying:  

“Since I implemented these laws, the villages around Chang’an have become stable, the sound of war drums has diminished, banditry has decreased, and the people are living peaceful lives with abundant harvests year after year. These are the results of effective governance. However, the Xiongnu have not yet been completely eradicated, the barbarian tribes continue to cause trouble, bandits still roam the rivers, lakes, and seas, and the nation is engaged in large-scale construction of ancestral temples and altars. These factors have unsettled the people. Therefore, I have decided to suspend these policies for two years to pacify the people and provide relief to the ignorant masses.”  

That year, Wang Mang abolished the use of large and small coins and reintroduced a new currency called *Huo Bu* (“Currency Cloth”). The *Huo Bu* was 2.5 inches long, 1 inch wide, and valued at the equivalent of 25 *Huo Qian* (“Currency Coins”). The *Huo Qian* had a diameter of 1 inch, weighed 5 zhu, and each was worth 1 qian. Both types of currency were circulated simultaneously. Wang Mang decreed that anyone who privately minted coins or exclusively used the *Huo Bu* would be punished. If five or more people were aware of such acts and failed to report them, they would all be confiscated as government slaves.  

The Grand Tutor Ping Yan passed away, and Wang Mang appointed Yu Tangzun as the new Grand Tutor. Yu Tangzun remarked, “The nation is impoverished, and the people are destitute. The root cause lies in extravagance and waste.” He personally wore short-sleeved garments, rode in a firewood cart pulled by a mare, sat on straw mats, and used clay utensils. He even sent these simple items as gifts to high-ranking officials. When he went out and saw men and women walking together, he would personally get out of his cart and use a red flag to stain their clothes as a warning. Wang Mang, upon hearing this, was greatly pleased and issued an edict requiring all high-ranking officials to emulate Yu Tangzun’s behavior. Wang Mang also granted him the title of Marquis of Harmonious Reform.  

At this time, Zhang Ba of Nanjun, Yang Mu of Jiangxia, and Wang Kuang led uprisings in Yundu and Lulin, calling themselves the “Lower Yang Troops.” Their forces each numbered over 10,000. Meanwhile, the people of Shuixiang in Wugong County, suffering from disasters, were forced to abandon their homes and endured great hardship.  

In the second year of the Di Huang era (20 AD), during the first month, Wang Mang elevated the status of provincial governors to the rank of the Three Excellencies, assigning them the responsibility of investigating and reporting negligent officials. He also reinstated the position of *Mu Jian* (Assistant Overseer), with the rank of *Yuan Shi*. These officials wore ceremonial hats and performed duties similar to those of the Han Dynasty’s regional inspectors.  

In the same month, Wang Mang’s wife passed away. She was posthumously titled “Filial and Harmonious Empress” and was buried west of the Changshou Garden in Weiling, alongside the Empress Dowager Wenmu. Her tomb was named “Eternal Years.” Previously, Wang Mang’s wife had been deeply grieved by his repeated killings of their sons, to the point of going blind. Wang Mang arranged for Crown Prince Wang Lin to reside in the palace to care for her.  

Wang Mang’s favored concubine, Yuan Bi, later became involved in an affair with Wang Lin. Fearing exposure, the two conspired to assassinate Wang Mang. Wang Lin’s wife, Yin, the daughter of the National Preceptor, was skilled in astrology. She warned Wang Lin that white-clothed figures gathering in the palace signified an auspicious omen, leading Wang Lin to believe his plan was about to succeed. However, Wang Lin was later demoted to the title of King of Unified Yiyang and moved out of the palace. His anxiety and fear grew.  

When Wang Mang’s wife fell seriously ill, Wang Lin wrote her a letter, saying: “Father is extremely harsh toward his descendants. My elder and younger brothers both died at the age of thirty. Now that I have also reached thirty, I fear I will not survive and do not know where I might die!” Upon reading the letter, Wang Mang’s wife became furious, suspecting Wang Lin of harboring treasonous intentions. She forbade him from attending her funeral.  

After the funeral, Wang Mang arrested Yuan Bi and others for interrogation. They confessed to adultery and plotting to kill Wang Mang. To cover up the scandal, Wang Mang ordered the execution of the investigating officer, whose body was secretly buried in the prison, leaving even his family unaware of his fate. Wang Mang then sent poison to Wang Lin, but Wang Lin refused to drink it and instead committed suicide by stabbing himself. Wang Mang dispatched the Palace Attendant and General of the Piao Cavalry, Tongshuo Marquis Lin, to oversee Wang Lin’s funeral. He provided burial garments and a seal and issued an edict stating:  

“The divine mandate foretold that Wang Lin, as King of Unified Yiyang, would ensure that the descendants of the Xin Dynasty would rise to power 36,000 years later. However, due to misguided advice, Wang Lin was previously made Crown Prince, leading to violent winds and other anomalies. Now, following the divine mandate, he was established as King of Unified Yiyang. Yet his actions failed to align with heaven’s will, and he was not blessed with divine protection, resulting in his untimely death. This is truly sorrowful! He is posthumously titled ‘King Miu’ (Erroneous King).” Wang Mang also issued an edict to the National Preceptor, stating: “Wang Lin had no knowledge of astrology; the entire matter was caused by Yin.” Yin subsequently committed suicide.  

In the same month, Wang An, the New Relocated King, also passed away. Initially, when Wang Mang was still a marquis, he favored the maidservants Zeng Zhi, Huai Neng, and Kai Ming. Huai Neng gave birth to a son, Wang Xing; Zeng Zhi gave birth to a son, Wang Kuang, and a daughter, Wang Zhu; and Kai Ming gave birth to a daughter, Wang Jie. These children were left in the State of Xindu because their mothers were of low status and not highly regarded. When Wang An fell seriously ill, Wang Mang, having no other sons, drafted a memorial on Wang An’s behalf, requesting that these children be recognized as imperial sons. After submitting the memorial, the ministers agreed, saying: “Wang An has shown great affection for his brothers. During the spring and summer, these children should be granted titles.” Wang Mang then sent envoys in royal carriages to bring Wang Xing and the others to the capital. Wang Xing was titled Duke of Gongxiu, Wang Kuang as Duke of Gongjian, Wang Zhu as Lady of Muxiu, and Wang Jie as Lady of Mudai.  

Soon after, Sun Gongming Gong Wang Shou also passed away. Within a single month, Wang Mang lost four close family members. He then ordered the demolition of the ancestral temples of Han Emperor Wu and Emperor Zhao and had his own descendants buried in their place.

Li Yan, the Grand Magistrate of Weicheng, secretly conspired with the diviner Wang Kuang. Wang Kuang told Li Yan, “Since the establishment of the Xin Dynasty, the people have been forbidden to buy and sell land and slaves, the currency system has been frequently changed, corvée labor has been imposed repeatedly, border wars have continued, foreign tribes have invaded from all sides, and the people are full of resentment, leading to widespread banditry. The Han Dynasty is destined to be restored. Your surname, Li, sounds like ‘Zheng’ (征), which belongs to the fire element, meaning you are destined to assist the Han Dynasty.” Wang Kuang then forged a prophecy for Li Yan, which read:  

“The Emperor Wen is enraged and gathers troops underground, declaring war against the Xiongnu in the north and the Yue people in the south. A righteous army bearing the surname Liu will rise in the rivers, capture enemies, avenge the past, and restore the ancient orthodoxy. Four years later, an army will rise in the rivers and lakes, led by a Liu claiming the title of Fan King, commanding tens of thousands of troops. He will reject amnesty orders, planning to attack Qin and Luoyang. Eleven years later, when a great war occurs, Venus will shine brightly, and Jupiter will enter the Eastern Well constellation—this prophecy will come true.”  

The prophecy also predicted the fates of Wang Mang’s ministers and included over 100,000 characters. Li Yan ordered his subordinates to transcribe the text, but one of them fled and reported him. Wang Mang sent emissaries to arrest Li Yan, and he and his co-conspirators were eventually executed.  

In the Three Adjunct regions, banditry was rampant. Wang Mang established the position of Capturing Bandits Commandant, ordering law enforcement officials to pursue bandits within Chang’an. Drums were set up to signal attacks on bandits, with emissaries following closely behind. Wang Mang sent Grand Preceptor Xi Zhong, Jing Shang, and General of the Gengshi Army, Wang Dang, to lead troops against Qingzhou and Xuzhou. He also ordered the National Preceptor He Zhong and Cao Fang to assist Guo Xing in attacking Jiuzhen. Meanwhile, grain and money were requisitioned nationwide and transported to Xihe, Wuyuan, Shuofang, and Yuyang, with each commandery contributing millions to prepare for a campaign against the Xiongnu.  

In the autumn, frost destroyed bean crops, causing severe famine in the Guandong region, which was further exacerbated by a locust plague.  

Some people privately minted coins, and under the collective punishment system, groups of five were convicted together, with all being confiscated as government slaves. Men were shackled in prisoner carts, while women and children were made to walk, their necks bound with iron chains, and were escorted to Zhongguan. Their numbers reached 100,000. Upon arrival, the government arbitrarily separated husbands and wives. Many, overwhelmed by despair and suffering, died, with mortality rates reaching 60-70%.  

Sun Xi, Jing Shang, and Cao Fang led expeditions to suppress bandits but failed to achieve victory. The military’s discipline deteriorated, and the people suffered even more.  

Wang Mang, believing in Wang Kuang’s prophecy that the Jing-Chu region would rise and the Li clan would assist, attempted to counteract this prediction by appointing Li Zhen, a Palace Attendant and Chief Shepherd Minister, as General-in-Chief and Governor of Yangzhou. He renamed him “Sheng” (Holy) and ordered him to lead troops in an all-out campaign.  

Chu Xia, a man from Shanggu, volunteered to persuade Gua Tianyi to surrender. Wang Mang appointed him as a Middle Gentleman and sent him to negotiate. However, before Gua Tianyi could depart with his letter of surrender, he passed away. Wang Mang arranged for his burial, constructed a grave and shrine for him, and posthumously titled him “Gua Ning Shang Nan” (The Fallen Man of Peace from Gua), hoping to inspire others to surrender. However, no one responded.  

On the day Bingchen of the intercalary month, Wang Mang issued a general amnesty, pardoning all criminals across the empire, including those previously convicted of wearing private attire.  

Langyang Chengxiu presented a symbolic prophecy, which mentioned the need to establish a “Mother of the People” and referenced the Yellow Emperor summoning 120 women to achieve immortality. Wang Mang then dispatched 45 Palace Gentlemen and Attendants across the empire to search for virtuous women from local communities and register their names.  

Wang Mang dreamed that the five bronze statues in the Chang Le Palace stood upright, causing him great unease. Remembering that the statues bore inscriptions reading “The Emperor Unites the World,” he ordered craftsmen to erase the text. Believing that the spirit of Emperor Gao of Han was haunting his temple, Wang Mang sent Tiger Guard warriors to the Gao Temple to draw their swords and strike in all directions, smash doors and windows with axes, and whip the walls with peach wood rods and red whips. He stationed the Light Chariot Colonel in the temple and ordered the Central Army to garrison the northern ramparts, even occupying Emperor Gao’s sleeping quarters.  

Someone claimed that the Yellow Emperor had built a canopy to ascend to immortality. Wang Mang then constructed a nine-tiered canopy, eight zhang and one chi (approximately 19 meters) tall, decorated with gold and feathers, mounted it on a four-wheeled carriage with a concealed mechanism, and had it pulled by six horses. Three hundred strongmen dressed in yellow robes and hats accompanied the carriage, with some beating drums and others shouting “Ascending to Immortality!” Wang Mang placed the canopy at the front during his outings. Privately, officials mocked it, saying, “It looks more like a beast’s cart than an immortal’s vehicle.”  

That year, Qin Feng of Nanjun gathered nearly 10,000 followers. In Pingyuan, a woman named Chi Zhaoping, skilled in interpreting classics and playing a game called “Eight Throws,” amassed several thousand followers in the Yellow River’s blocked areas. Wang Mang convened his ministers to discuss strategies for capturing these bandits. They all said, “These people are nothing but walking corpses, their lives like water dripping from a leaking pot, destined to run out soon.” Wang Mang then summoned Left General Gongsun Lu to participate in the discussion.  

Gongsun Lu said, “The Grand Historian Zong Xuan, who is responsible for managing astronomy and the calendar, has misinterpreted ominous signs as auspicious ones, disrupting celestial observations and misleading the court. The Grand Tutor, Marquis of Harmonious Reform, feigns virtue to gain fame, akin to a thief claiming another’s child as his own. The National Preceptor, Marquis of Trustworthy Guidance, has distorted the Five Classics, undermining scholarly traditions and confusing students. Zhang Han, the Enlightened Scholar, and Sun Yang, the Marquis of Geography, have promoted the well-field system, causing people to abandon their lands. Xi He and Lu Kuang implemented the ‘Six Controls’ policy, which has crippled commerce and industry. Cui Fa, the Marquis of Prophecies, flatters and panders, seeking only to please without allowing the truth from below to reach above. These individuals should be executed to pacify the empire!”  

He continued, “The Xiongnu should not be attacked; instead, we should seek peace through marriage alliances. I fear the Xin Dynasty’s troubles do not lie with the Xiongnu but within our own borders.”  

Wang Mang, enraged, ordered the Tiger Guards to remove Gongsun Lu. However, he adopted some of his suggestions, demoting Lu Kuang to the rank of Sergeant in Wuyuan due to widespread resentment among the people toward the “Six Controls” policy. Although the policy was not solely Lu Kuang’s creation, Wang Mang dismissed him to quell public dissatisfaction.

Initially, the common people in various regions, driven by hunger and cold, rose up as bandits. Gradually, they gathered into larger groups, but in their hearts, they still longed for the day they could return to their hometowns once they had a good harvest. Although these bandits sometimes numbered in the tens of thousands, their leaders only dared to call themselves titles like "Great Man," "Attendant," "Elder," or "Libationer." They never dared to attack cities and towns, instead focusing on looting food before quickly retreating. Local officials and prefectural governors often died in the chaos, but the bandits typically did not intend to kill them.  

However, Wang Mang never understood the true reasons behind these uprisings. That year, when Grand Marshal Shi Anzhang was inspecting Yuzhou, he was captured by bandits. Surprisingly, the bandits sent him back to the county office unharmed. After his return, Shi Anzhang submitted a detailed report explaining the situation. Wang Mang, upon hearing this, became furious, accusing him of deceiving the court and ordering his imprisonment.  

Wang Mang also issued an edict reprimanding the Seven Dukes (high-ranking court officials), stating:  
“The duty of officials is to govern the people, promote benevolence, and nurture the populace—this is the way of virtuous governance. Suppressing violence, punishing evil, and capturing or killing bandits is the principle of righteousness. But this is not what is happening now. Bandits are causing chaos, yet they are not being captured in time. Instead, they have grown into organized factions, even daring to intercept officials traveling by imperial courier. Shi Anzhang escaped but absurdly claimed, ‘I questioned the bandits about their rebellion, and they said it was due to poverty. Later, they escorted me to safety.’ Such talk is rampant among the ignorant masses today. Some say that poverty and hunger drive people to commit crimes, with the larger ones forming bandit groups and the smaller ones stealing or tunneling into houses. These are merely two types of crimes. But now, we see thousands or even tens of thousands of people forming factions and plotting rebellion—this is heinous treachery! How can it be simply attributed to hunger and cold?  

The Seven Dukes must strictly order all ministers, prefects, and officials to properly care for the people and swiftly capture and kill the bandits. Any official who fails to unite in their efforts or who dares to claim that banditry arises from hunger and cold must be immediately arrested and punished!”  

As a result, officials became even more fearful. They no longer dared to report the true causes of the banditry or take initiative in deploying troops to suppress the rebels. Consequently, the bandits became even more rampant.  

Only Tian Kuang, a courageous commander of the Yi Ping garrison, took bold action. He mobilized over 40,000 civilians aged 18 and above, armed them, and swore an oath engraved on stone. Upon hearing this, the bandit leader Chi Mi dared not enter Tian Kuang’s jurisdiction. Tian Kuang voluntarily submitted a memorial admitting his actions. Wang Mang rebuked him, saying:  
“You mobilized troops without authorization or an imperial token, which is a grave crime of manipulating military power. However, since you claim that you can eradicate the bandits, I will temporarily overlook this offense.”  

Later, Tian Kuang requested permission to lead troops beyond his jurisdiction to suppress the bandits. Wherever he went, the bandits scattered. Wang Mang then issued an imperial edict appointing Tian Kuang as acting governor of Qingzhou and Xuzhou.  

Tian Kuang submitted a memorial stating:  
“When the banditry first began, the causes were minor, and ordinary local officials and militia leaders should have been able to handle it. However, the problem lies in the negligence of county and prefectural officials. Counties deceive the prefectures, and prefectures deceive the court, reporting only one-tenth of the truth while exaggerating or fabricating the rest. The court, being inattentive and failing to supervise, allowed the bandits to spread across prefectures and form large groups. Only then did it send generals and issue repeated orders, with layers of supervision and pressure. Prefectures and counties, overwhelmed by the demands, were busy hosting envoys, preparing feasts, and gathering supplies, exhausting their resources and leaving them unable to deal with the bandits effectively.  

Meanwhile, the generals did not personally lead their troops, and when they fought, they were defeated by the bandits. This demoralized officials and soldiers, further worsening the plight of the people. Previously, thanks to the imperial amnesty, many bandits were willing to disband. However, some were instead attacked and forced to flee into the mountains and valleys, where they communicated with each other. This caused those who had surrendered to fear that the court would betray and annihilate them, leading to even greater panic among the bandits.  

Adding to this, frequent famines have caused a rapid increase in bandit numbers. In just ten days, their numbers grew by over 100,000. This is the reason for the surge in banditry.  

Currently, east of Luoyang, the price of rice has reached 2,000 coins per *dan*. I have seen the imperial edict mentioning the dispatch of the Grand Preceptor and the General of Gengshi. These two are high-ranking officials of the court, and their large entourages will deplete resources along the way. If their forces are small, they will not be able to intimidate distant regions.  

Now, we should quickly select officials below the rank of governor and prefect, clearly define rewards and punishments, and pacify the displaced people. For small states without city walls, relocate the elderly and weak to larger cities, stockpile grain, and concentrate forces to defend the cities. When bandits attack, they will fail to breach the cities, and with no grain to loot along the way, they will be unable to gather strength. In this way, we can successfully persuade them to surrender or defeat them in battle.  

Currently, the frequent dispatch of generals and envoys has left the people of the prefectures and counties in misery, suffering even more than under the bandits. All these envoys should be recalled, allowing the prefectures and counties to recover. Please entrust me with full authority over the bandit affairs in Qingzhou and Xuzhou—I will surely bring peace to these regions.”  

Wang Mang, wary of Tian Kuang, secretly arranged for his replacement and sent an envoy with an imperial edict to relieve him of his command. When the envoy arrived, he ordered Tian Kuang to hand over his military authority. Tian Kuang returned to the Western Capital with the envoy and was appointed as a Master Commandant.  

After Tian Kuang left his post, the bandit situation in Qi rapidly deteriorated, plunging the region into chaos.

 

Details

Written by: Realhistories

Category: The Book of Han (漢書)

Published: 15 December 2024

Created: 15 December 2024

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In the third year after Wang Mang ascended the throne, he said: "Now that the positions of officials have been reorganized and their duties redistributed, the new laws and systems have not yet been fully established. Therefore, for now, we will continue to use the laws and rituals from the Han dynasty to manage affairs. Additionally, I order dukes, ministers, marquises, and officials of two thousand bushels rank to each recommend one person of noble character, proficient in governance, eloquent, and well-versed in scholarship, to report to one of the four city gates of the capital."

He sent the Grand Master of the Secretariat, Zhao Bing, to the northern border to console the soldiers. Upon his return, Zhao Bing reported that there was a fertile area north of Wuyuan Commandery, suitable for growing grain, and that it had previously been managed by agricultural officials. Wang Mang then appointed Zhao Bing as the "General of Agriculture" and ordered border soldiers to cultivate the land in northern Wuyuan to increase the supply of military provisions.

At that time, the generals stationed at the borders required a large number of soldiers, but these soldiers were undisciplined and acted recklessly. Meanwhile, the counties and commanderies in the interior suffered from frequent conscription of labor and resources, leaving the people in misery. Many abandoned their homes, becoming refugees and bandits, with the situation particularly severe in Bingzhou and Youzhou. Wang Mang issued an order for the seven dukes and six ministers to also serve as generals, dispatching General Zhuowu, Lu Bing, and others to guard major cities. He also sent fifty-five middle-ranking officers and embroidered-clad law enforcement officials to the large commanderies along the borders to monitor corrupt officials who mobilized troops without authorization and disrupted local governance. However, these officials instead abused their power, causing further chaos in the regions, accepting bribes, and exploiting the people. In response, Wang Mang issued an edict stating: "These criminals deserve to have their families exterminated. Therefore, I have dispatched fierce generals to form twelve divisions to strike simultaneously and eliminate them in one sweep. Internally, I have set up 'Commanders of Fate,' while externally, I have appointed twelve 'Military Supervisors,' intending to discipline those who disobey orders and enforce strict military discipline. However, these individuals have instead become power-hungry, intimidating good people, falsely accusing others, extorting bribes, and then fleeing. Such actions have fostered social decay and displaced farmers. Can such supervisors be considered competent? From now on, anyone guilty of these crimes will be arrested and imprisoned, and dealt with according to the law." Nevertheless, despite his decree, the behavior of these officials remained unchanged.

At this time, Lin Bao and Dai Ji went to the border and lured the Xiongnu Chanyu's younger brother, Xian, and Xian's son, Deng, into surrendering. They forced Xian to accept the title of "Filial Chanyu," rewarded him with a thousand catties of gold and numerous silks, and sent him back to the Xiongnu. Meanwhile, Deng was brought to Chang'an, given the title "Obedient Chanyu," and settled in an official residence in the capital.

Grand Preceptor Wang Shun, who had been in ill health due to anxiety and fear since Wang Mang usurped the throne, eventually passed away. Wang Mang said: "In the past, Duke of Qi's virtuous lineage assisted the Zhou dynasty for generations, serving as Grand Preceptor. This is my example to follow. Therefore, I decree that Wang Shun's son, Wang Yan, inherit his father's title as 'Duke of Anxin,' and appoint Wang Yan's younger brother, Wang Kuang, as 'Marquis of Baoxin,' while also naming him 'General of the Grand Preceptor,' to forever serve as loyal ministers of the Xin dynasty."

To educate the crown prince, Wang Mang appointed four mentors, each with the rank of "Grand Master." He selected former Grand Minister of Works Ma Gong as "Mentor of Doubts," former Chamberlain for the Imperial Insignia Zongbo Feng as "Assistant Tutor," scholar Yuan Sheng as "Assistant Mentor," and Jingzhao Administrator Wang Jia as "Guardian and Guide," collectively called the "Four Mentors." Additionally, he appointed Tang Lin, former Secretary of the Secretariat, as "Assistant Advisor," scholar Li Chong as "Attendant," Censor-in-chief Zhao Xiang as "Predecessor and Follower," and General Lian Dan as "Defender Against Insults," collectively called the "Four Companions." Furthermore, he added nine instructors for the crown prince, including sacrificial wine instructors, palace attendants, advisors, and instructors for the Six Classics, all with the rank of "Senior Grand Master." For example, Zuo Xian from Langya lectured on the *Spring and Autumn Annals*, Man Chang from Yingchuan lectured on the *Book of Songs*, Guo You from Chang'an lectured on the *Book of Changes*, Tang Chang from Pingyang lectured on the *Book of Documents*, Chen Xian from Pei Commandery lectured on the *Book of Rites*, and Cui Fa lectured on *Music*. Wang Mang also sent emissaries carrying carriages and seals to personally invite Gong Sheng of Chu to serve as the sacrificial wine instructor for the crown prince, but Gong Sheng refused the summons and died by fasting.

Later, Ning Shi General Yao Xun was dismissed, and Chamberlain Kong Yong succeeded him as Ning Shi General. That same year, a strange little man appeared in Chiyang County. He was only about one foot tall, sometimes traveling by carriage and sometimes on foot, holding various objects that matched his size. After three days, he disappeared.

That year, counties near the Yellow River suffered from locust plagues. The Yellow River burst its banks in Wei Commandery, flooding the area and submerging several counties east of Qinghe. Previously, Wang Mang had worried that a breach in the Yellow River might threaten his ancestral tombs in Yuancheng. However, this flood flowed eastward and did not affect Yuancheng, so Wang Mang took no measures to repair the breach.

In the fourth year, during the second month, Wang Mang issued a general amnesty. That summer, red clouds appeared in the southeastern sky, stretching across the heavens.

General Chen Xin reported that captured prisoners and raiders on the border were all instigated by Jiao, the son of Filial Chanyu Xian. Enraged, Wang Mang executed Xian's son Deng in Chang'an and displayed the execution to the southern barbarians. Subsequently, Grand Marshal Zhen Han passed away, and Ning Shi General Kong Yong succeeded him as Grand Marshal, while Chamberlain Marquis Fu was appointed the new Ning Shi General.

Before Wang Mang traveled anywhere, he would send people to search the city, calling this practice "Hengchun." That year, the Hengchun searches lasted five days.

Later, Wang Mang went to the Mingtang (Bright Hall) and conferred land to the marquises. In an edict, he wrote: "Although my virtue is insufficient, I have inherited the legacy of the sage ancestors and become the ruler of all nations. I often reflect on how to ensure the people's well-being. Therefore, I have decided to enfeoff marquises and divide commanderies to improve customs and governance."

The court official, Zhonglang Qu Bo, advised Wang Mang, saying: "The well-field system was indeed an institution of the ancient sage kings, but it has been abandoned for a long time. By the end of the Zhou dynasty, the world was in chaos, and the people no longer adhered to this system. The Qin dynasty understood the people's sentiments and realized that following public opinion would bring great benefits. Thus, they abolished the well-field system, replaced it with the rectangular field system, and thereby unified the Central Plains. To this day, the people have not grown tired of this system. Now, you wish to go against the people's will and restore a system from over a thousand years ago. Even if Yao and Shun were alive today, it would take at least a hundred years to implement such a system successfully. The world has only just stabilized, and the people have only recently submitted to your rule. This is certainly not the time to implement such a system." Wang Mang, aware of the widespread discontent among the people, issued an edict stating: "All those occupying royal lands may now freely buy and sell them without legal restrictions. As for those who previously violated the law by privately trading land, they will not be prosecuted."

Earlier, when the Five Mighty Generals went on their campaigns, they demoted the King of Jutong to the rank of Marquis, which greatly angered King Han of Jutong, causing him to refuse submission. Wang Mang then secretly instructed the Chief Administrator of Zangke, Zhou Xin, to fabricate charges and kill King Han. However, King Han's brother, Wang Cheng, raised an army in rebellion and killed Zhou Xin. Previously, Wang Mang had conscripted soldiers from Goguryeo to prepare for a campaign against the Xiongnu. These soldiers, unwilling to fight, were forced into service by local officials. As a result, many fled beyond the border and later became bandits. Liaoxi Chief Administrator Tian Tan led troops to pursue them but was killed by the rebels. Local officials shifted the blame onto the Marquis Zou of Goguryeo. Yan You submitted a memorial stating: "These Mohe people rebelled not because of Marquis Zou's instigation, but due to their own grievances. The local officials should temporarily pacify them. If we assign them a major crime now, we risk pushing them into full rebellion. At that point, the states of Buyeo and others will surely align with them. The Xiongnu have not yet been subdued, and if Buyeo and the Mohe people also rise in rebellion, it will be a major disaster for the state." However, Wang Mang ignored this advice, and the Mohe people indeed rebelled. Wang Mang ordered Yan You to suppress the Mohe rebellion and lured Marquis Zou of Goguryeo into a trap, killing him and sending his head to Chang'an. Wang Mang was delighted and issued an edict: "I commanded fierce generals to carry out the heavenly punishment, dividing into twelve divisions to suppress the enemy. Some severed the enemy's right arm, some cut off their left side, some split open their chests, and others tore apart their ribs. This year, punishment was directed toward the east, beginning with the Mohe people. Now that Marquis Zou has been executed and the eastern region pacified, the enemy has been annihilated in a single stroke. This is the blessing of heaven, the gods, the ancestral temples, and the spirits of the land and grain, as well as the result of the united efforts of ministers, officials, and the people. I am very pleased with this." He renamed Goguryeo as "Lower Goguryeo" and made the announcement to the world. However, the Mohe people rebelled even more frequently, and minority groups in the northeast and southwest also began to revolt.

Wang Mang, with grand ambitions, believed that the four barbarian regions were not worth worrying about, so he focused on studying ancient texts. He issued another edict: "I reflect on the great ancestor Emperor Yu and inherit the aspirations of Emperor Wen. I govern the world using astronomy and calendrical systems, offering sacrifices to the Supreme God and the Six Deities, paying homage to mountains and rivers, worshiping the myriad gods, and conducting inspection tours of the Five Sacred Mountains. During these tours, I meet with vassals, examine their words and deeds, and assess their achievements. It has been five years since I ascended the throne. The disasters of the ninth year cycle have passed, and the fate of the 120-year cycle has also been completed. This year, Jupiter is in the constellation Shou (Longevity), a celestial sign of good fortune. Therefore, I have decided to conduct an eastern tour in the second month during the Jianyin festival, performing sacrifices and inspections according to ancient rites." The ministers submitted a proposal to mobilize officials and the people to provide horses, cloth, and grain. They also planned to purchase horses from twelve commanderies in the interior, preparing 450,000 bolts of cloth to be transported to Chang'an in batches. However, when only half of the materials had arrived, Wang Mang suddenly issued an edict stating: "The Empress Dowager Wenmu is unwell, so the inspection tour will be postponed for now and carried out at a later time."

In the same year, Wang Mang changed the title of the "Eleven Dukes" from "Xin" (New) to "Xin" (Heart), and later changed it again to "Xin" (Trust).

In the fifth year, in the second month, Empress Dowager Wenmu passed away and was buried in Weiling, alongside Emperor Yuan, but with a trench separating their tombs. Wang Mang established a temple for her in Chang'an, where she would be worshiped by the Xin dynasty for generations. Emperor Yuan was included as an accompanying deity but was placed in a lower position beneath the main altar. Wang Mang observed a three-year mourning period for the Empress Dowager.

Grand Marshal Kong Yong requested to retire and live in peace. Wang Mang granted him a carriage with four horses and allowed him to participate in court meetings with the honorary title of Tejin. Marquis Lu Bing succeeded him as Grand Marshal.

At that time, the people of Chang'an heard rumors that Wang Mang planned to move the capital to Luoyang. As a result, they refused to repair their houses, and some even dismantled them. Wang Mang declared: "The inscription on the Black Dragon Stone reads, 'Establish the emperor's virtue, and the nation will be in Luoyang.' This is a divine mandate, and how can I dare to disobey it? The plan is to move the capital to Luoyang in the eighth year of the founding of the state. However, we must also seriously repair the capital city of Chang'an. Destruction is not permitted. Anyone who violates this order must report their name and will be punished according to the law."

In the same year, the Great and Lesser Kunmi of Wusun sent envoys to present tribute. The Great Kunmi was the grandson of a Han princess, while the Lesser Kunmi was the son of a Hu wife. Wusun had submitted to the Lesser Kunmi. Seeing that the Xiongnu were constantly harassing the border, Wang Mang hoped to win over Wusun. He ordered that the envoy of the Lesser Kunmi be seated above the envoy of the Great Kunmi. Sacrificial Wine Instructor Man Chang submitted a memorial accusing the envoy of misconduct, saying: "The reason that the barbarians submit to us is because China values ritual propriety. The Great Kunmi is the ruler of Wusun, yet his envoy was placed beneath that of a subordinate. This is a great insult to the barbarians!" Wang Mang, upon hearing this, grew furious and dismissed Man Chang from his position.

Due to Wang Mang's long-standing betrayal of trust with the Western Regions, Yanqi was the first to rebel, killing the Protector General, Dan Qin.

In the same year, in November, a comet appeared and lasted for over twenty days before disappearing.

That year, due to widespread illegal hoarding of copper and charcoal, Wang Mang abolished the related laws.

In the second year, Wang Mang changed the era name to "Tianfeng." In the first month of the first year of Tianfeng, he announced a general amnesty for the empire and declared: "In the second month, during the Jianyin festival, I will perform the rites of an imperial inspection tour. The Imperial Kitchen shall prepare dry rations and preserved meat, and no supplies shall be requisitioned from local regions along the route. During my eastern tour, I will personally carry a plow and till the fields in each county to encourage spring plowing; during the southern tour, I will carry a hoe and weed the fields in each county to promote weeding; during the western tour, I will carry a sickle and harvest crops in each county to encourage autumn harvesting; and during the northern tour, I will carry a winnowing basket and winnow grain in each county to promote grain storage. After the inspection tours, I will settle in Luoyang. Anyone who causes disturbances or violates laws will be punished according to military law." 

The ministers submitted a memorial, stating: "Your Majesty is exceptionally filial. Last year, due to the illness of the Empress Dowager Wenmu, you personally attended to her day and night, never removing your court attire, grieving excessively, and eating less. To this day, Your Majesty has not fully recovered. Now, planning four inspection tours in a single year, with such long journeys, may be too much for Your Majesty, given your advancing age. We hope the inspection tours can be postponed to safeguard your health." Wang Mang replied: "Since my ministers are willing to take responsibility for governing the people, I am also willing to follow your advice. The inspection tours will be postponed until the seventh year of Tianfeng." He then dispatched Grand Tutor Ping Yan and Minister of Works Wang Yi to Luoyang to plan the construction of palaces and ancestral temples.

On the day Ren Shen in the third month, a solar eclipse occurred. Wang Mang announced another general amnesty and dismissed Grand Marshal Lu Bing, appointing Xin, the Marquis of Limiao, as the new Grand Marshal.

After Wang Mang ascended the throne, he treated his ministers with extreme harshness and suppressed their authority. Court officials who dared to criticize others' mistakes were often promoted. Kong Ren, Zhao Bo, Fei Xing, and others gained Wang Mang's trust and were appointed to important positions because they dared to impeach high-ranking officials. In the court, the number of attendants accompanying ministers entering the palace was strictly regulated. On one occasion, Grand Tutor Ping Yan's entourage exceeded the limit and was questioned by the guards at the palace gate. The guards acted rudely, and an officer of the Wu Cao division arrested the guard. When Wang Mang learned of this, he became furious and sent law enforcement officials with hundreds of cavalry to surround the Grand Tutor's residence, arresting the Wu Cao officer and executing him on the spot. 

One night, Minister of Works Wang Yi passed through the Fengchang Pavilion. The pavilion chief, unaware of Wang Yi's identity, acted arrogantly. After Wang Yi revealed his position, the drunken pavilion chief responded disrespectfully. Wang Yi struck the pavilion chief with his horsewhip, but the pavilion chief retaliated and killed Wang Yi before fleeing. Local officials failed to capture him, and Wang Yi's family submitted a formal complaint. However, Wang Mang stated: "The pavilion chief acted impartially and should not be pursued." He then ordered Wang Yi's family to apologize.

The national general Ai Zhang was dismissed for misconduct, and Wang Mang appointed He Shu as his replacement, issuing an order: "Not only should the national general's household be protected, but their relatives in the western regions should also be safeguarded." Over time, people began to lose respect for Wang Mang, and Ai Zhang's reputation became particularly tarnished.

In April, frost descended, killing many plants, with coastal regions suffering the most severe damage. By June, yellow fog enveloped the land. In July, a strong wind uprooted trees and blew off the roof tiles of the northern gate and the Zhicheng Gate. This was followed by a hailstorm that killed many cattle and sheep.

Wang Mang, following the records in *Zhouguan* and *Wangzhi*, established a new system of official titles: he created positions such as "Zuzheng," "Lianshuai," and "Dayin," whose responsibilities were equivalent to those of a governor; he also established "Shuling" and "Shuchang," whose roles were similar to those of commandants. Additionally, he appointed 25 regional governors and supervisors, treating them with the same respect as the Three Excellencies. The supervisors held the rank of "Senior Grand Master," with each overseeing five commanderies. Dukes served as regional governors, marquises as Zuzheng, earls as Lianshuai, viscounts as Shuling, and barons as Shuchang. These positions were hereditary, while those without noble titles served as "Yin." Wang Mang also divided Chang'an into six districts, each led by a district chief; the Three Adjuncts area was divided into six Commandant Commanderies, and the regions of Hedong, Henei, Hongnong, Henan, Yingchuan, and Nanyang were divided into six Division Commanderies, each led by a senior official with responsibilities similar to those of a governor. The responsibilities of Shuzheng were equivalent to those of a commandant. He renamed the Chief Administrator of Henan as "Minister of Loyal Integrity" and increased the subordinate counties of Henan to 30. He also appointed six "Frontier Governors," each overseeing five counties, and renamed many official titles. Large commanderies were even divided into five smaller ones. Nationwide, there were 360 commanderies and counties named after "pavilions," corresponding to prophetic texts. Border regions were managed by "Border Commandants," held by barons. The lands of vassal states were either reduced or expanded. Wang Mang issued an edict: "Chang'an, the western capital, is divided into six districts, with each county called a Commandant District; Yiyang, the eastern capital, is divided into six provinces, with each county called a Division District. Grain-producing areas are called Inner Commanderies, nearby areas are called Adjacent Commanderies, and those with border defenses are called Border Commanderies. The entire nation consists of 125 commanderies. Within the nine provinces, there are 2,203 counties. Dukes manage the 'Diangfu' lands, called 'Weicheng'; marquises manage the 'Houfu' lands, called 'Weining'; earls manage the 'Caiyi' lands, called 'Weihan'; viscounts manage the 'Binfu' lands, called 'Weiping'; those managing cultural education and military defense are called 'Weiyuan'; and regions outside the nine provinces are called 'Weifan.' All regions are named according to their directions and collectively referred to as 'All Nations.'" However, the names and divisions of these commanderies and counties changed frequently, with some commanderies renamed five times before reverting to their original names. Officials and commoners struggled to remember them, so each time an edict was issued, the old names had to be included. For example: "Edict to the Chief Administrator and Commandant of Chenliu: Assign the area south of Yisui to Xinping, which was formerly Huaiyang; assign the area east of Yongqiu to Chending, which was formerly Liang Commandery; assign the area east of Fengqiu to Zhiting, which was formerly Dong Commandery; assign the area west of Chenliu to Qisui, which was formerly Xingyang. The Chenliu Commandery no longer exists. The Chief Administrator and Commandant must report to the designated location." Such frequent changes were the norm under Wang Mang's rule.

Wang Mang also decreed that the national calendar should replace the traditional 60-day cycle starting from Jiazi with one beginning on Wuzi day. Wuzi day was designated as the New Year's Day, and Wuyin day was declared an inauspicious day. However, the people were largely unwilling to follow these changes.

After the death of the Xiongnu Chanyu, his younger brother Xian succeeded him as Chanyu and requested to establish marital ties with Wang Mang. Wang Mang sent an envoy with generous gifts and pretended to agree to return the Xiongnu hostage, Deng, while demanding that the Xiongnu hand over Chen Liang, Zhong Dai, and others. The Chanyu complied, sending Chen Liang and others to Wang Mang's envoy, who escorted them to Chang'an. Wang Mang then burned Chen Liang and the others alive north of Chang'an and ordered officials and commoners to witness the execution.

Severe famine broke out in the border regions, and there were even cases of cannibalism. Censor-in-Chief Ru Pu inspected the frontier troops and reported: "The soldiers have been stationed on the border for a long time, living in hardship, and the frontier commanderies cannot provide for them. Now that the Chanyu has just agreed to peace, this is the perfect opportunity to withdraw the troops." However, Colonel Han Wei argued: "With the power of the Xin dynasty, annexing the Xiongnu would be as easy as eating a louse. I am willing to lead 5,000 warriors without carrying a single bushel of grain—when hungry, we will eat the enemy's flesh; when thirsty, we will drink their blood. This will allow us to sweep through the Xiongnu." Wang Mang greatly admired his bold statement and appointed Han Wei as a general. At the same time, he also accepted Ru Pu's suggestion, recalling the frontier generals and dismissing 18 officials, including Chen Qin, while withdrawing the garrisons at the Four Passes. However, when the Xiongnu envoys returned and the Chanyu learned that his hostage son, Deng, had been executed, he launched attacks on the border. Wang Mang was forced to send troops to guard the frontier once again. At this time, border residents fled inland in large numbers and became the slaves of others. Wang Mang issued an edict forbidding officials and commoners from privately harboring border refugees, with violators punished by death.

In Yizhou, the barbarians killed Chief Administrator Cheng Long, and rebellions erupted across the Three Border Regions. Wang Mang dispatched General Pacifying the Barbarians, Ma Mao, to lead troops to suppress the uprisings.

General Ning Shi, Hou Fu, was dismissed from office, and Daizan, the Sacrificial Wine of the Classic of Changes, was appointed as the new General Ning Shi.

In the second month of the second year of Tianfeng, Wang Mang held a banquet at the Wanglu Hall, with dukes, ministers, and officials attending and assisting with the wine. He also announced a general amnesty for the empire.

At that time, stars appeared in the daytime.

Grand Marshal Miao Xin was demoted to the position of Scribe of Destiny, and Marquis Yan De, Chen Mao, was appointed as the new Grand Marshal.

There was a rumor that a yellow dragon had descended from the heavens and died in the Huangshan Palace. Tens of thousands of commoners rushed to see it. Wang Mang was greatly annoyed by this and ordered the arrest of those spreading the rumor, but the source of the rumor could not be identified.

After the Chanyu Xian entered into marital relations with Wang Mang, he requested the return of his son Deng's corpse. Wang Mang initially planned to send envoys to return the body but feared that the Chanyu would harbor resentment and harm the envoy. Thus, Wang Mang arrested the former general Chen Qin, who had suggested executing Deng, and imprisoned him. Chen Qin remarked, "This is just to use me as an explanation to the Xiongnu," and subsequently committed suicide. Wang Mang selected a scholar skilled in rhetoric, Wang Xian from Jinan, as the chief envoy, accompanied by Five Mighty Generals such as Fu An from Langya, to return Deng's corpse to the Xiongnu. Wang Mang also ordered them to exhume the grave of the deceased Chanyu, flog his corpse with thorned whips, and demand that the Xiongnu withdraw north of the desert, compensate with 10,000 horses, 30,000 cattle, 100,000 sheep, and return the abducted border residents. Wang Mang was always prone to boasting. When Wang Xian reached the Xiongnu, he extolled Wang Mang's virtues and accused the Chanyu of betrayal, confronting the Xiongnu with sharp rhetoric. The Chanyu, unable to refute, reluctantly accepted the terms. Wang Xian successfully completed the mission but fell ill and died on the return journey. His son was granted the title of Earl, and Fu An and others were also granted the title of Viscount.

Wang Mang believed that as long as proper systems were established, the world would naturally become stable. He focused on geographic divisions, the establishment of ritual and music systems, and the study of the Six Classics. Dukes and ministers deliberated from dawn to dusk every day, but after years of discussion, no decisions were made, leaving no time to handle legal cases or address the urgent needs of the people. Many county magistrate positions remained vacant for long periods, with acting officials taking over, leading to increasing corruption. Commandery captains and embroidered-clothed law enforcement officials acted arbitrarily throughout the commanderies, using their power to recommend or impeach one another. The Eleven Officials stationed in various regions were tasked with promoting agriculture and sericulture, issuing seasonal directives, and inspecting documents, but they colluded with local officials, and bribery became rampant. People flocked to file complaints, but no one in the court addressed them.

Because Wang Mang had previously relied on monopolizing power to control the Han dynasty's political situation, he now micromanaged everything, while his officials only sought to go through the motions. Affairs involving treasures, state treasuries, and grain supplies were all managed by eunuchs. Memorials submitted by the people were also opened and reviewed by eunuchs, leaving the secretariat completely uninformed. Wang Mang was extremely distrustful of his subordinates. Meanwhile, he frequently changed policies, and his decrees became overly complex. Each time an order was issued, it had to be repeatedly questioned and revised, resulting in inefficiency. Wang Mang often worked late into the night but still could not finish his tasks. The secretariat took advantage of this to shirk responsibilities, leaving many memorials unaddressed for years. Even prisoners had to wait for general amnesties to be released. Guards had not been rotated for three years, and the common people lived in hardship. Grain prices remained high, and the food and clothing of over 200,000 soldiers stationed at the border depended entirely on the court's provisions, causing local officials great distress. In Wuyuan and Dai Commanderies, the people, unable to bear the burden, rose up as bandits. Thousands of them gathered into groups, and the rebellion spread to neighboring commanderies. Wang Mang dispatched General Suppressing Bandits, Kong Ren, to lead troops in collaboration with local officials to suppress the uprising. It took a year to quell the rebellion, but the frontier commanderies were nearly emptied.

North of Handan, heavy rainfall persisted, shrouding the area in fog. Floodwaters rose to several zhang deep, washing away and drowning thousands of people.

General Establishing the Nation, Sun Jian, passed away, and Scribe of Destiny Zhao Hong succeeded him as General Establishing the Nation. General Ning Shi, Dai Can, stepped down, and General of Nancheng, Lian Dan, succeeded him.

In the second month of the third year, on the day Yiyou, an earthquake occurred, accompanied by heavy rain and snow. The disaster was especially severe in the Guandong region, with snow accumulating up to one zhang deep, freezing even bamboo and cypress trees to death. Grand Minister of Works, Wang Yi, submitted a memorial stating: "I have served in my position for eight years, yet my achievements have not materialized. I have failed in my duties as Minister of Works, and now even an earthquake disaster has occurred. I request to resign." Wang Mang replied: "Earthquakes and ground movements are different. Earthquakes are harmful, while ground movements are not. The *Spring and Autumn Annals* records earthquakes, and the *Book of Changes* states that the stirring of the Earth (Kun) is a natural phenomenon. Movement and stillness complement each other, and all things arise from this. The causes of disasters vary, and this is Heaven's warning to me, not your fault. Your resignation request does not help me." He then sent the Cavalry Scribe of Salaries, Zun, the Earl of Xiuning, to convey his message.

In May, Wang Mang issued a new policy regarding officials' salaries, stating: "I have experienced the misfortunes of the 'Nine Yang Calamities' and the 'Cycle of 106' (referring to disasters and periodic misfortunes), which have led to insufficient national finances and hardship for the people. From dukes and ministers downward, officials have been receiving only ten *huo* of cloth or two bolts of fabric per month. Every time I think of this, I feel deeply distressed. Now that the calamities have passed, although the national treasury is not yet abundant, the situation has slightly improved. Starting from the first day of June, officials' salaries will be restored according to the established system." He divided officials into 15 ranks, from the highest Four Assistants, dukes, ministers, and scholars to ordinary officials. The lowest-ranking officials received an annual salary of 66 *hu* of grain, increasing incrementally, with the highest-ranking Four Assistant officials receiving up to 10,000 *hu* of grain annually.

Wang Mang also proclaimed: "'Under heaven, all land belongs to the king; along the shores, all people are the king's subjects.' Everyone in the world should serve the state. According to the *Rites of Zhou*, there are 120 types of provisions. Now, vassals enjoy food according to their fiefs, while county officials receive food based on the size of their territories. In years of abundance, supplies are sufficient; in times of disaster, they are reduced, sharing hardships with the people. During the annual reports on the state of the nation, if no disasters occur, the meals of the Imperial Kitchen can be fully prepared; if disasters occur, the meals will be proportionally reduced." Wang Mang divided the country into different regions and assigned officials to oversee them. For example, the Eastern Grand Master of Mount Tai and General Establishing the Nation was responsible for three provinces and 25 commanderies in the east; the Southern Grand Tutor of Mount Tai and Former General was responsible for two provinces and 25 commanderies in the south; the Western Grand Teacher of Mount Tai and General Ning Shi was responsible for one province and 25 commanderies in the west; and the Northern Grand General of Mount Tai and Guard General was responsible for two provinces and 25 commanderies in the north. Other officials, such as the Grand Marshal, Grand Minister of Works, and Grand Minister of Agriculture, were also assigned specific regions. In times of disaster, salaries would also be reduced proportionally. Salaries for officials like court attendants, subordinate officials, and capital officers were linked to the provisions of the Imperial Kitchen. Similarly, vassals, county magistrates, and other officials were tasked with disaster management. Wang Mang hoped this system would unite all levels of society, encourage agricultural development, and allow the people to live in peace and prosperity. However, due to the system's excessive complexity, it was difficult to implement in practice. Officials often failed to receive their salaries, leading many to resort to corruption and bribery to sustain themselves.

On the day *Wuchen* of the same month, the west bank of the Changping Pavilion collapsed, causing the Yong River and Jing River to stop flowing and change course to the north. Wang Mang sent the Grand Minister of Works, Wang Yi, to investigate. After returning, Wang Yi reported the situation. The court officials congratulated Wang Mang, interpreting this as a sign from the *Hetu* (River Diagram) that "earth fills water," symbolizing the impending destruction of the Xiongnu. Wang Mang then dispatched the governor of Bingzhou, Song Hong, and the Commandant of Guerrilla Warfare, Ren Meng, to lead troops to attack the Xiongnu. However, the army only stationed itself at the border and did not advance further.

On the day *Xinyou* in July, a fire broke out at the Bachen Gate, which was commonly referred to as the "Green Gate" by the people.

On the last day of the month, *Wuzi*, a solar eclipse occurred, prompting Wang Mang to announce a general amnesty. He also ordered dukes, ministers, vassals, and officials of 2,000 *shi* rank to each recommend a person of upright character. Due to the solar eclipse, Grand Marshal Chen Mao was dismissed, and Wu Jianbo Yan You was appointed as the new Grand Marshal.

On the day *Wuchen* in October, the Vermilion Bird Gate of the Wanglu Palace began to emit continuous sounds, day and night. Cui Fa and others explained, "The Emperor Yu once opened four gates to welcome virtuous talents from all directions. Now, the Vermilion Bird Gate's sounds indicate that we should practice the rituals of the ancient sages and recruit virtuous talents from all directions." Wang Mang ordered the court to celebrate and instructed that the recommended virtuous individuals enter through the Vermilion Bird Gate to present their strategies and answer questions.

General Pacifying the Barbarians, Feng Mao, led troops to attack Juting, but a severe epidemic broke out among the soldiers, killing six or seven out of every ten. He also levied excessive taxes on the people, taking half of their wealth, leaving the people of Yizhou exhausted. As a result, the campaign failed. Upon his return, Feng Mao was imprisoned and executed. Wang Mang then sent General Ning Shi, Lian Dan, and Governor of Yongbu, Shi Xiong, to lead troops against Juting. Although they achieved some victories, Lian Dan and Shi Xiong requested additional troops and supplies, promising to achieve complete victory before returning. Wang Mang agreed and imposed additional taxes on the people. Even the Chief Administrator of the capital, Feng Ying, refused to cooperate. Feng Ying submitted a memorial, stating: "Since the tribes of Jiuchou Niu and Tongting Xiedou in the Yuexi region rebelled, it has been ten years. Commanderies and counties have continuously sent troops to suppress them, but they remain undefeated. Feng Mao once employed all means, forcing the people to relocate to remote areas at great expense, with 70% of the soldiers dying from poisonous gases. Now, Lian Dan and Shi Xiong, to avoid missing their military deadlines, have requisitioned grain and troops from various commanderies, taxing the people at a rate of one-fourteenth, nearly exhausting Liangzhou. Yet they still cannot complete their mission. I suggest we cease military campaigns, establish agricultural colonies, and implement clear reward and punishment systems." Wang Mang was furious and dismissed Feng Ying. However, he later reflected and said, "Feng Ying cannot be entirely blamed." He reappointed him as Commandant of Changsha.

Wang Mang captured Wang Sunqing, a follower of Zhai Yi, and ordered imperial physicians, craftsmen, and butchers to dissect him alive. They measured his internal organs and used bamboo tubes to trace his blood vessels, claiming it was for medical research to study blood circulation and treat illnesses.

That year, Wang Mang sent Five Mighty General Wang Jun and Protector-General of the Western Regions Li Chong, along with the *Wuji* Colonels, to visit the Western Regions. Various states greeted them at the borders and presented tributes. These states had previously killed Protector-General Dan Qin, and Wang Jun sought revenge. He ordered Commandant He Feng and *Wuji* Colonel Guo Qin to lead separate forces. Yanqi feigned surrender but ambushed and killed Wang Jun and others. Guo Qin and He Feng later arrived, attacked Yanqi's vulnerable forces, and returned to the interior from the territory of Jushi. Wang Mang granted Guo Qin the title of "Filling the Outer General" and the honorary title of "Hu Slayer Viscount," while He Feng was titled "Gathering Hu Earl." From then on, the Western Regions were cut off from the Central Plains.

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Written by: Realhistories

Category: The Book of Han (漢書)

Published: 15 December 2024

Created: 15 December 2024

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In the first year of the "Founding of the Nation" era (AD 9), on the first day of the first month, Wang Mang led dukes, marquises, and high-ranking officials to present the imperial seal and ceremonial attire to the Empress Dowager. They then offered these to the Grand Empress Dowager, declaring compliance with the mandate of Heaven and officially abolishing the Han dynasty's reign.

Initially, Wang Mang's wife, the daughter of the Marquess of Yichun, was made Empress. They had four sons: Yu, Huo, An, and Lin. Two of them had been executed for crimes earlier, and since An was idle and undisciplined, Wang Mang designated Lin as the Crown Prince and gave An the title of "Duke of Xinjia." Wang Mang also granted titles to Yu's six sons: Qian was named Duke of Gonglong, Shou was named Duke of Gongming, Ji was named Duke of Gongcheng, Zong was named Duke of Gongchong, Shi was named Duke of Gongzhao, and Li was named Duke of Gongzhu. At the same time, Wang Mang declared a general amnesty across the empire.

Subsequently, Wang Mang issued an edict to Ruzi Ying (the last emperor of the Han dynasty), saying: "Alas, you! In the past, Heaven aided your ancestor Liu Bang, who ruled for twelve generations and 210 years. But now, the mandate of Heaven has passed to me. Does not the *Book of Songs* say, 'The lords submit to Zhou; Heaven’s mandate is not constant'? I now grant you the title of Duke of Ding’an, and you shall forever serve as a guest of the Xin dynasty. Alas! Cherish Heaven’s grace, fulfill your duties, and do not disobey my orders." He further stated: "The territories of Pingyuan, Ande, Luoyin, Ge, and Zhongqiu, encompassing 10,000 households and an area of 100 square miles, will now form the Duchy of Ding’an. You may establish a temple to your ancestor, Liu Bang, within your domain, placing it alongside the descendants of the Zhou dynasty. You shall follow their calendar and ceremonial colors, and generations of your family will continue to honor the Han dynasty’s ancestors with sacrifices, using your virtue and achievements to sustain their legacy." At the same time, Wang Mang granted the title of "Dowager Duchess of Ding’an" to the former Empress of Emperor Ping. After reading the edict, Wang Mang personally held Ruzi Ying’s hand, weeping as he choked out the words: "In the past, the Duke of Zhou acted as regent for King Cheng but ultimately returned the throne to him. Yet now, I am compelled by Heaven's mandate and cannot do the same!" He lamented for a long time. Then, the imperial tutor escorted Ruzi Ying out of the palace. Ruzi Ying knelt facing north and referred to himself as a subject. All the officials present were deeply moved.

Next, Wang Mang distributed titles to his advisors based on the prophecies of the "Golden Coffer" (a collection of mystical predictions). He appointed the Grand Tutor, Left Assistant, General of Agile Cavalry, and Marquis of Anyang, Wang Shun, as Grand Preceptor and granted him the title of Duke of Anxin. He appointed the Grand Minister of Works, Marquis of Jiude, Ping Yan, as Grand Tutor and granted him the title of Duke of Jiuxin. He appointed the Junior Assistant, Xi He, and Marquis of Hongxiu, Liu Xin, as National Preceptor and granted him the title of Duke of Jiaxin. He appointed Ai Zhang from Zitong, Guanghan, as National General and granted him the title of Duke of Meixin. These four individuals were collectively called the "Four Assistants," and their status was above that of the Three Excellencies. Additionally, he appointed the Grand Protector and Marquis of Chengyang, Zhen Han, as Grand Commandant and granted him the title of Duke of Chengxin. He appointed the Marquis of Pijin, Wang Xun, as Grand Minister of Works and granted him the title of Duke of Zhangxin. He appointed the General of the Guards and Marquis of Chengdu, Wang Yi, as Grand Minister of Agriculture and granted him the title of Duke of Longxin. These three individuals were collectively known as the "Three Excellencies." Furthermore, he appointed the Grand Assistant, Right Defender, and Grand Minister of Works, Marquis of Guangyang, Zhen Feng, as General of Reconstruction and granted him the title of Duke of Guangxin. He appointed Wang Xing of Jingzhao as General of the Guards and granted him the title of Duke of Fengxin. He appointed the General of Light Chariots and Marquis of Chengwu, Sun Jian, as General of the Nation and granted him the title of Duke of Chengxin. He appointed Wang Sheng of Jingzhao as General of the Vanguard and granted him the title of Duke of Chongxin. These four were collectively known as the "Four Generals." In total, there were eleven dukes.

Wang Xing had originally been a minor gatekeeper, while Wang Sheng was merely a seller of cakes. Wang Mang identified the names of over a dozen individuals from the prophecies, and when he found two people whose appearances matched the descriptions, he promoted them directly from commoners to high-ranking officials, showcasing the "miraculous" fulfillment of Heaven's mandate. The others were appointed as court attendants. On the same day, Wang Mang also granted titles to hundreds of nobles, attendants, and officials in the imperial secretariat. As for members of the Liu clan, they were demoted to the rank of prefects or transferred to serve as remonstrance officials.

Wang Mang renamed the Mingguang Palace as the Ding’an Residence and assigned it as the dwelling for the Dowager Duchess of Ding’an. He also converted the Office of the Grand Herald into the official residence of the Duke of Ding’an, complete with guards and messengers to oversee the household. He forbade the wet nurses from speaking to Ruzi Ying, who was confined within four walls for so long that, as he grew older, he could not even name common domestic animals. Later, Wang Mang arranged for his granddaughter to marry Ruzi Ying.

Wang Mang issued an edict to various officials, stating: "The planet Jupiter governs tranquility, and the Grand Preceptor of the Eastern Mountain is responsible for bringing timely rains. The azure light represents auspicious omens. Mars governs wisdom, and the Grand Tutor of the Southern Mountain is responsible for delivering timely warmth. The red light signifies peace. Venus governs stability, and the National Preceptor of the Western Mountain is responsible for bringing timely sunlight. The white light symbolizes harmony. Mercury governs strategy, and the National General of the Northern Mountain is responsible for delivering timely cold. The black light symbolizes serenity." He assigned these officials their respective duties and issued ceremonial decrees modeled after ancient traditions.

Wang Mang also restructured many official titles. For example, the Grand Commandant was renamed "Siyun," the Grand Minister of Works became "Sizhi," and the Grand Minister of Agriculture became "Siruo." The Minister of Finance was renamed "Xi He," later changed to "Nayan." The Minister of Justice was renamed "Zuoshi," the Minister of Ceremonies became "Zhizong," the Grand Herald was renamed "Dianle," the Minister of the Household became "Gonggong," and the Superintendent of Waterways became "Yuyu." These offices were subordinated to the Three Excellencies. Each office had three senior officials, each of whom oversaw three assistants, resulting in a total of 27 senior officials and 81 assistants managing various affairs.

In addition, the Minister of the Imperial Household was renamed "Sizhong," the Minister of the Imperial Carriages became "Taiyu," the Minister of the Guards became "Taiwei," the Commander of the Capital Guard became "Fenwu," and the Commander of the Central Region became "Junzheng." A new office, the "Grand Surplus Official," was created to oversee the emperor's clothing and carriages, later assuming military authority. This position was ranked among the chief ministers and referred to as one of the "Six Supervisors." Governors of commanderies were renamed "Dayin," commandery commanders became "Taiwei," county magistrates were renamed "Zai," and imperial censors became "Zhifa." The Office of the Imperial Carriages was renamed "Four Gates of the Royal Road."

Wang Mang also renamed many places and ranks. For instance, the Changle Palace was renamed "Eternal Happiness Hall," the Weiyang Palace became "Hall of Long Life," and Chang'an was renamed "Eternal Peace." Official salaries were reclassified into nine ranks, ranging from 100 bushels to 2,000 bushels, and were renamed "common scholar," "junior scholar," "middle scholar," "appointed scholar," "principal scholar," "junior grandee," "middle grandee," "senior grandee," and "minister." Carriages, clothing, and ceremonial etiquette were adjusted according to these ranks.

Finally, Wang Mang established new positions such as "Supervisor of Reverence," "Supervisor of Virtue," "Supervisor of Clarity," "Supervisor of Hearing," and "Supervisor of Justice." He also created positions like "Poetry Recitation Official" and "Banquet Removal Steward" to monitor officials' conduct. In his edict, he stated: "I have heard that sages who wish to manifest their virtue must strictly cultivate themselves to pacify distant lands. Thus, I have established these positions to oversee five categories of duties. I hope you do not conceal faults or act deceitfully. Be clear in your judgments, maintain impartiality, and uphold the path of righteousness." He also ordered the placement of banners for "Promoting Virtue," wooden boards for "Prohibiting Slander," and drums for "Encouraging Remonstrance" along the Royal Road to facilitate public petitions. Additionally, he appointed four remonstrance officials to be stationed at the gates of the Royal Road to listen to the people's grievances.

During the mourning period, members of the Wang family were granted noble titles based on the type of mourning attire they wore: those wearing *qisui* (a type of mourning garment) were made marquises; those wearing *dagong* mourning attire were made earls; those wearing *xiaogong* mourning attire were made viscounts; and those wearing *sima* mourning attire were made barons. The women of the Wang family were all given the title of "Ren." Male members were given titles with the character "Mu" (Harmony), while female members were given titles with the character "Long" (Prosperity), and both were granted official seals. Wang Mang also ordered the vassals to establish titles for their dowager consorts, consorts, and heirs, all of whom were also granted official seals.

He further declared: "There cannot be two suns in the sky, nor two kings on earth. This is an unchanging principle through the ages. Some Han vassals were granted the title of king, and even among the barbarian tribes, some have claimed the title of king. This violates ancient rites and disrupts the unity of the state. Henceforth, all vassal kings will have their titles changed to 'duke,' and among the barbarian tribes, those who have usurped the title of king will also have their titles changed to 'marquis.'"

Wang Mang also said: "The way of emperors is to pass down their legacy through generations, and the blessings of great virtue can endure for a hundred generations. I believe that figures such as the Yellow Emperor, Emperor Shaohao, Emperor Zhuanxu, Emperor Ku, Emperor Yao, Emperor Shun, Yu the Great, Gao Yao, and Yi Yin all possessed sacred virtues and received Heaven's grace. Their achievements were great, and their benevolence widespread. I deeply admire them and have worked to locate their descendants to continue their ancestral sacrifices." The Wang family, being descendants of Emperor Shun, traced their lineage back to Emperor Ku. The Liu family, as descendants of Emperor Yao, traced their heritage back to Emperor Zhuanxu. Thus, Wang Mang granted the following titles: Yao Xun was made Marquis of Chumu to honor the descendants of the Yellow Emperor; Liang Hu was made Earl of Xiuyuan to honor the descendants of Shaohao; Wang Mang's grandson, Duke Gonglong Qian, was designated to honor the descendants of Emperor Ku; Liu Xin was made Earl of Qilie to honor the descendants of Emperor Zhuanxu; Liu Xin's son, Liu Die, was made Marquis of Yixiu to honor the descendants of Emperor Yao; Gui Chang was made Marquis of Shimu to honor the descendants of Emperor Shun; Shan Zun was made Viscount of Baomou to honor the descendants of Gao Yao; and Yi Xuan was made Viscount of Baoheng to honor the descendants of Yi Yin.

The Han dynasty's descendant, Liu Ying, Duke of Ding'an, was designated as a guest of the Xin dynasty. The Zhou dynasty's descendant, Ji Dang, Duke of Wei, was re-titled Duke of Zhangping and also made a guest. The Yin dynasty's descendant, Kong Hong, Duke of Song, was relocated and re-titled Marquis of Zhangzhao, serving in an official capacity. The Xia dynasty's descendant, Si Feng of Liaoxi, was made Marquis of Zhanggong, also serving in an official capacity. The descendants of these four ancient dynasties were honored in the Ming Hall sacrifices alongside Emperor Shun, the ancestral founder of Wang Mang's lineage. The descendants of the Duke of Zhou, Ji Jiu, Viscount of Baolu, and Confucius' descendant, Kong Jun, Viscount of Baocheng, had already been granted titles.

Wang Mang further stated: "When I previously served as regent, I constructed the Suburban Palace and established the locations of the ancestral temples and the altar of state. The spirits responded with omens—some descended from the heavens in the form of crows, while others manifested as auspicious yellow auras—confirming the virtues of the Yellow Emperor and Emperor Shun. From the Yellow Emperor to the Marquis of Jinan, the ancestral surnames are divided into five major lineages. The Yellow Emperor had twenty-five sons who were granted twelve different surnames. The ancestors of Emperor Shun received the surname 'Yao,' which was later referred to as 'Gui' during the Tao Tang period, 'Chen' during the Zhou dynasty, 'Tian' in the state of Qi, and 'Wang' in Jinan."

Wang Mang said: "I deeply revere the imperial progenitor, the Yellow Emperor, and the ancestral founder, Emperor Shun. Therefore, I have established ancestral temples in the Ming Hall to honor them. Five ancestral temples have been set up for their distant ancestors, and four temples for their immediate ancestors, with their empresses sharing in the sacrifices. The suburban sacrifices to the Yellow Emperor are offered to Heaven, while sacrifices to the Yellow Emperor's empress are offered to Earth. Additionally, I have appointed Dong Di, Marquis of Xindu, as the Grand Sacrificer to oversee seasonal sacrifices. All sacrifices across the realm will follow this standard. The surnames Yao, Gui, Chen, Tian, and Wang are all descendants of the Yellow Emperor and Emperor Shun and are thus part of my lineage. Does not the *Book of Documents* say, 'Cherish the nine branches of kin'? Therefore, I have ordered these five surnames to be registered as members of the imperial clan, exempting them from taxes and corvée labor for all generations. They are also prohibited from intermarrying with other surnames to maintain the purity of kinship." Wang Mang also granted titles to Chen Chong as Marquis of Tongmu to honor the descendants of King Hu, and Tian Feng as Marquis of Shimu to honor the descendants of King Jing.

Among the governors and commandery administrators across the realm, those who demonstrated loyalty and filial piety, such as Zhai Yi and Zhao Ming, were made barons, while those who defended cities were granted auxiliary titles. Additionally, the descendants of Dai Chong, Jin She, Ji Hong, Yang Bing, and others were also made barons.

Wang Mang dispatched the Commandant of Cavalry, Xiao, and others to oversee the imperial tombs of the Yellow Emperor at Shangdu Qiaozhi; Emperor Shun's tomb at Jiuyi in Lingling; King Hu's tomb in Chen, Huaiyang; King Jing's tomb in Linzi, Qi; King Min's tomb in Ju, Chengyang; the Marquis of Jinan's tomb at Dongpingling, Jinan; and the Marquis of Ru's tomb at Yuancheng, Weijun. Envoys were sent to perform sacrifices at these tombs seasonally. Since the realm had just been pacified, joint sacrifices were performed in the Ming Hall.

The ancestral temple of Emperor Gaozu of Han was designated as the Temple of Literary Ancestors. Wang Mang remarked: "My ancestral founder, Emperor Shun, inherited the mandate from Emperor Yao, while the Han dynasty's progenitor, Emperor Gaozu, also symbolized the transfer of the mandate. I myself received the golden edict in front of Emperor Gaozu's spirit. How could I forget their era while honoring the past? The Han dynasty's ancestors spanned seven generations. Following the rites, I have established ancestral temples for them in the state of Ding'an. Their mausoleums and temples in the capital will remain preserved, and sacrifices will continue as before. In the ninth month of autumn, I personally entered the ancestral temples of Emperor Gaozu, Emperor Yuan, Emperor Cheng, and Emperor Ping of Han. The descendants of the Liu clan were re-registered under household records, managed by the Grand Administrator of Jingzhao. They retained their exemption from labor service until their deaths. Governors were instructed to visit them regularly and ensure they were not mistreated."

Wang Mang also stated: "When I was in the Great Grove, I deeply contemplated the calamities of the Han dynasty's three cycles of seven generations. The red virtue (representing the Han dynasty) has run its course. I sought ways to preserve the Liu clan but ultimately could not reverse Heaven's will. Confucius, in the *Spring and Autumn Annals*, established the laws of succession for later kings. From the 14th year of Duke Ai of Lu, marking the end of an era, to the present day, this corresponds exactly to the 14th year of Duke Ai. The red virtue's mandate has been exhausted and cannot be forcibly extended. Heaven has revealed the great mandate of the yellow virtue, entrusting the realm to me. Now, the people all say that Heaven has replaced the Han dynasty with the Xin dynasty, abolishing the Liu clan and elevating the Wang clan. The character 'Liu' (刘) is composed of 'mao' (卯), 'gold' (金), and 'knife' (刀), yet the auspiciousness of the mao day and the sharpness of the metal blade can no longer prevail. After consulting with my ministers, we unanimously agree that Heaven's will and the people's hearts are clear. Thus, we abolish the use of 'gangmao' as an ornament and prohibit the circulation of 'knife coins.' In accordance with Heaven's will and the people's desires, we have minted new small coins with a diameter of six fen and a weight of one zhu, inscribed with 'Small Coin Worth One,' to circulate alongside the previous large coins valued at fifty. To prevent private minting, individuals are prohibited from possessing copper or charcoal."

In April of this year, Liu Kuai, the Marquis of Xuxiang, gathered several thousand people and rebelled in his fiefdom. Liu Kuai's elder brother, Liu Yin, who was originally the King of Jiaodong during the Han dynasty, had been re-titled as the Duke of Fuchong. Liu Kuai launched an attack on Jimo, but Liu Yin closed the city gates and defended himself, even voluntarily imprisoning himself in the city jail. Officials and commoners united to resist Liu Kuai, and ultimately, Liu Kuai was defeated, fled, and died in Changguang. Wang Mang said, "My ancestor, the Marquis Min of Jinan, was once besieged by the Yan army and retreated from Linzi in Qi to Ju. At that time, Tian Dan, a member of the clan, used clever strategies to kill the Yan general and restore the state of Qi. Today, the scholars and officials of Jimo have similarly united to eliminate the rebels. I greatly commend their loyalty and also sympathize with the innocent victims. Therefore, I pardon Liu Yin and others, except for Liu Kuai's wife and close relatives. No one else will be held accountable. I also offer condolences to the injured and deceased, granting each deceased victim 50,000 coins for funeral expenses. Liu Yin, understanding righteousness and detesting Liu Kuai's crimes, voluntarily submitted himself for punishment. His fiefdom consists of 10,000 people and spans an area of 100 square li." At the same time, Wang Mang rewarded over ten officials involved in the suppression.

Wang Mang stated, "In ancient times, the well-field system ensured that every eight households shared a plot of land, with each household allocated 100 mu. A tenth of the harvest was paid as tax. This system brought wealth to the state, peace to the people, and constant praise. It was the governing method of Tang Yao and Yu Shun, and the system followed by the Three Dynasties (Xia, Shang, and Zhou). However, the Qin dynasty, lacking virtue, increased taxes to satisfy its own extravagance and exploited the people for private gain, destroying the sages' system and abolishing the well-field system. This led to land annexation and greed. The strong amassed over a thousand mu of land, while the weak had no place even to drive a stake. Markets for slaves were even established, treating people like cattle and horses, violating the principle that humanity is the most precious of all things. The *Book of Documents* says, 'I will punish those who do not obey.' Only those who break the law should face punishment. Yet, although the Han dynasty reduced land taxes to a nominal one-thirtieth, in reality, it was closer to one-fifth. The people labored year-round but could not make ends meet. The wealthy lived in luxury, while the poor suffered from hunger and cold, ultimately leading to crime and frequent punishments."

Wang Mang continued, "When I was in the Great Grove, I began implementing the well-field system, and even auspicious signs such as harmonious grain appeared. However, the effort was temporarily halted due to rebellions. Now, I am renaming all the land in the realm as 'royal fields' and slaves as 'private dependents,' prohibiting their sale. Households with fewer than eight males but possessing more than one well's worth of land must distribute the excess land to their extended families, neighbors, and local communities. For those without land, allocations will be made according to regulations. Anyone who dares to violate the sacred well-field system or incites unrest will be exiled to the frontier to prevent further harm, just as was done during Emperor Shun's time."

At the time, the people were accustomed to using the Han dynasty's five-zhu coins, but the new coins minted by Wang Mang were inconsistent in size, difficult to recognize, and frequently changed. The people distrusted them and continued to use five-zhu coins in private transactions. Rumors even spread that the large coins would soon be abolished, and no one was willing to use Wang Mang's currency. Enraged by this, Wang Mang issued another decree: "Anyone found in possession of five-zhu coins or spreading rumors about the abolition of the large coins will be punished as severely as those who violate the well-field system and exiled to the frontier." This led to widespread unemployment among farmers and merchants, economic collapse, and even public weeping in the streets. The number of people punished for trading land, slaves, or minting coins privately—ranging from nobles and officials to commoners—was too numerous to count.

In the autumn, Wang Mang dispatched five generals, including Wang Qi, along with twelve officials, to distribute forty-two volumes of "prophetic documents" throughout the realm. These documents were divided into three categories: "Virtuous Omens" (five items), "Prophecies" (twenty-five volumes), and "Fortunate Signs" (twelve items), totaling forty-two. The "Virtuous Omens" described auspicious events, such as the appearance of yellow dragons during the reigns of Emperor Wen and Emperor Xuan in Chengji and Xindu, as well as the growth of branches and leaves on the catalpa tree at the tomb of Wang Mang's ancestor, Wang Bo. The "Prophecies" mentioned mysterious objects like well stones and golden caskets. The "Fortunate Signs" included phenomena such as "hens turning into roosters." Although these writings appeared to be ancient and elegant, they were actually fabricated, with the core message being that Wang Mang was destined to replace the Han dynasty and become the ruler of the world.

In summary, the prophetic documents declared: "When an emperor receives the mandate of Heaven, virtuous omens and auspicious signs will appear, in harmony with the five heavenly mandates, and these will be confirmed by fortunate signs. Only then can great achievements be established, blessings passed down to future generations, and the mandate of Heaven enjoyed eternally. Thus, the rise of the Xin dynasty began after the thirty-seventh generation of the Han dynasty. The mandate of the Xin dynasty originated in Xindu, received its auspicious signs in Huangzhi, was founded in Wugong, confirmed in Zitong, and completed in Badang, with twelve fortunate signs verifying it. This demonstrates Heaven's profound and steadfast favor for the Xin dynasty."

The prophecies further stated, "The cinnabar stone of Wugong appeared at the end of Emperor Ping's reign, symbolizing the exhaustion of the Han dynasty's fire virtue and the rise of the earth virtue. Heaven favored the Xin dynasty, revealing the mandate through the cinnabar stone. The emperor (Wang Mang), in humility, governed as regent but did not fully align with Heaven's will. Thus, in July, Heaven sent another sign, granting three literary horses. The emperor again declined to ascend the throne, and Heaven subsequently bestowed iron contracts, stone turtles, Shun's talismans, jade tablets, black seals, the stone inscription of Maoling, the black dragon stone, the divine well, the great divine stone, bronze talismans, and silk maps—twelve auspicious signs in total. These signs became increasingly evident, and by the twelfth, it was officially declared that Wang Mang was the new emperor."

Wang Mang, reflecting on the majesty of Heaven, abandoned the title of "Acting Emperor" and adopted the title "Provisional Emperor," changing the era name to "Initial Beginning" to signify his acceptance of Heaven's mandate and alignment with the will of the Supreme Deity. However, this still did not fully satisfy the intent of the heavenly prophecies. On the same day, another heavenly sign appeared. The court attendant Wang Xu, standing before the Wanglu Hall, saw a man dressed in a white cloth robe with a red square collar and a small crown. The man said to him, "Today, Heaven and humanity are united, entrusting the people of the world to the emperor." After speaking, the man turned and left. When Wang Xu walked a dozen steps and looked back, the man had vanished.

On the evening of the *bingyin* day, a golden casket containing a celestial edict appeared in the ancestral temple of Emperor Gaozu of Han. The inscription read: "Gaozu received the heavenly mandate and now passes the state to the new emperor." The next morning, the loyal and filial Marquis Liu Hong reported this event. Wang Mang summoned his ministers to discuss it, but before a decision could be made, the human-shaped statue on the divine stone spoke, saying, "Quickly have the new emperor go to the ancestral temple of Emperor Gaozu to receive the heavenly mandate without delay!" Wang Mang then rode to the temple of Emperor Gaozu and formally accepted the mandate. This occurred on the *dingmao* day. The character *ding* represents fire, symbolizing the Han dynasty's fire virtue, while *mao* is part of the character for "Liu" (刘), signifying the end of the Han dynasty's fire virtue and the transfer of the mandate to the Xin dynasty.

Despite Wang Mang's repeated humility and reluctance, the twelve heavenly signs left no room for refusal. Filled with both reverence and fear, he also felt regret for the fall of the Han dynasty and helplessness toward his ministers. For three consecutive nights, he did not sleep, nor did he eat for three days, repeatedly summoning dukes, marquises, and ministers to seek their advice. They all unanimously agreed, "We must obey Heaven's mandate." Thus, Wang Mang formally changed the era name, established a new regime, and declared the beginning of the "Xin Dynasty." After the establishment of the Xin dynasty, the spirits rejoiced, auspicious signs continued to appear, and blessings followed one after another. The *Book of Songs* states: "Bring blessings to the people, receive fortune from Heaven; protect and uphold the mandate, as Heaven affirms it." This perfectly described the Xin dynasty.

The Five Commanders of Might were tasked with carrying the prophetic documents and seals to various regions, where they changed the titles and names of officials from marquises and below to the new titles of the Xin dynasty, while also retrieving the old seals of the Han dynasty. Even the Xiongnu, Western Regions, and borderland tribes were issued new Xin dynasty seals, and their old seals were confiscated. Officials were granted promotions by two ranks, commoners were promoted by one rank, and women were rewarded with sheep and wine for a hundred households. For the tribes, items such as cloth and silk were distributed based on their circumstances. At the same time, a general amnesty was declared across the empire.

When the Five Commanders of Might traveled, they rode in chariots symbolizing the Mandate of Heaven, known as the Qianwen Chariots, pulled by six Kun horses. The chariots were adorned with feathers of the zhidi bird, and their attire was exceptionally ornate. Each commander was accompanied by five deputies, positioned to the left, right, front, rear, and center, with their clothing, chariots, and horses' colors corresponding to the directions they represented. The commanders carried symbolic tallies and referred to themselves as "Envoys of Taiyi" (the Supreme Unity), while the deputies carried banners and referred to themselves as "Envoys of the Five Emperors." In his official decree, Wang Mang stated, "Under Heaven, in all four directions, there is no place we will not reach." The eastern envoy reached Xuantu, Lelang, Goguryeo, and Buyeo; the southern envoy crossed the borders into Yizhou and demoted the King of Juting to the rank of marquis; the western envoy reached the Western Regions and demoted their kings to marquises; and the northern envoy arrived at the Xiongnu Chanyu court, where the Chanyu was granted a new seal, with the Han dynasty's character for "seal" (*xi*, 玺) replaced by the Xin dynasty's character for "emblem" (*zhang*, 章).

The Xiongnu Chanyu demanded to keep the old seal, but Chen Rao, one of the envoys, smashed it on the spot. This incident is recorded in the *Records of the Xiongnu.* The Chanyu was furious, and later, regions such as Juting and the Western Regions also rebelled as a result. Upon returning to the capital, Chen Rao was rewarded with the title of Grand General and granted the noble title "Son of Mighty Virtue."

In the winter, thunder and lightning struck, and the parasol trees bloomed out of season. Wang Mang established the positions of "Five Commanders of Destiny" and "Generals of the Four Gates of the Central City." The Five Commanders of Destiny were tasked with overseeing officials ranked below High Duke, while the Central City Generals were responsible for guarding the twelve city gates. In his decree to Chen Chong, the Marquis of Unified Harmony, Wang Mang stated, "Chen Chong, those who disobey orders are the roots of unrest; deceitful and cunning individuals are the scourge of the state; counterfeiters of coins disrupt the economy; excessive arrogance and extravagance are the seeds of disaster; leaking palace secrets leads to calamity; and those who receive titles in the royal court but express gratitude in private homes are the foundation of rebellion. These six issues are the pillars of state governance. Therefore, I appoint you as the Commander of Destiny, and I hope you will balance firmness with gentleness, avoid oppressing the weak, and stand unafraid of the strong, thereby maintaining control over the court."

Wang Mang also appointed other generals: Cui Fa, the Marquis of Prophetic Decree, as the "General of the Central Gate of the Five Commanders" to oversee the central defenses; Wang Ji, the Marquis of Bright Might, as the "General of the Forward Gate of the Five Commanders" to guard the southern Jing and Chu regions; Wang Jia, the Marquis of Loyal Harmony, as the "General of the Rear Gate of the Five Commanders" to defend the northern Zhao and Yan regions; Wang Qi, the Marquis of Hall Might, as the "General of the Left Gate of the Five Commanders" to protect the eastern Zheng and Wei regions; and Wang Fu, the Viscount of Huaiqiang, as the "General of the Right Gate of the Five Commanders" to station in the western Qian and Long regions, guarding against the Rong and Di tribes.

Additionally, Wang Mang dispatched fifty court advisors to various commanderies and states to mint new coins.

That year, a madwoman named Bihu in Chang'an shouted in the streets, "The Grand Emperor (Liu Bang, the founder of the Han dynasty) is furious! Return my country immediately! Otherwise, in September, you will all be killed!" Wang Mang had her arrested and executed. The official in charge of her case, Chen Cheng, resigned in protest.

In Zhending, Liu Du and others conspired to rebel, but their plot was uncovered, and they were all executed. Heavy rain mixed with hail fell in the regions of Zhending and Changshan.

In the second month of the following year, Wang Mang once again declared a general amnesty across the empire.

The Five Commanders of Might and the seventy-two deputies returned to Chang'an to report their mission's completion. All the Han dynasty's princes who had been demoted to dukes surrendered their seals and were reduced to commoners, with no one daring to resist the orders. Wang Mang rewarded the Five Commanders of Might with the title of viscount and the deputies with the title of baron.

Wang Mang began implementing the "Six Controls" policy, which placed the government in charge of monopolizing the trade of wine, salt, and iron, as well as the minting of new coins. Taxes were imposed on those who exploited resources from famous mountains and great lakes. Market officials were established to regulate prices, buying goods at low prices and selling them at high prices. Loans were also offered to the people, with interest set at three percent for a term of one hundred months. Furthermore, "wine inspectors" were appointed to oversee the wine trade, with one inspector per commandery, traveling by courier to ensure profits from the wine industry.

The private possession of crossbows and armor was prohibited, and violators were exiled to the Western Sea region.

The Xiongnu Chanyu once again requested the return of the old seal, but Wang Mang refused. Enraged, the Chanyu invaded the border regions, killing officials and civilians and looting property.

In November, the General of National Establishment, Jian, submitted a report: "The Western Region envoy Qin reported that on the *xin-si* day of September, the subordinate officer Chen Liang of the Wujiao Commandery conspired with Zhong Dai to rebel. They killed the Commandant Diao Hu, looted officials and soldiers, declared themselves 'Great General of the Abolished Han,' and fled to the Xiongnu. Additionally, on the *gui-you* day of this month, a man stopped my carriage and claimed, 'I am Liu Ziyu of the Han dynasty, the posthumous son of Emperor Cheng. The Liu clan will rise again, so vacate the imperial palace immediately!' I apprehended this man and found that he was actually a commoner from Chang'an, surnamed Wu and styled Zhong. All these people are defying Heaven's mandate and committing treason. I request that Wu Zhong, along with the relatives of Chen Liang and others, be punished." The request was approved.

Emperor Gaozu of Han left behind a directive, instructing that the Liu clan should no longer be persecuted but treated as honored guests. This was intended to preserve the Mandate of Heaven and safeguard the descendants of the Liu family. However, the ancestral temples of the Han dynasty should no longer remain in the city of Chang'an, and the titles of the Liu clan's marquises should be abolished along with the Han dynasty. Out of benevolence, Your Majesty has delayed making a decision. Previously, Liu Chong, Marquis of Anzhong, Liu Kuai, Marquis of Xuxiang, Liu Zeng, Marquis of Lingxiang, and Liu Gui, Marquis of Fuen, repeatedly gathered people to rebel. Now, there are even more audacious individuals, some claiming to be the "General of the Fallen Han," while others falsely declare themselves to be "Ziyu, the son of Emperor Cheng." These continuous rebellions stem from the root cause that Your Majesty has not eradicated these threats early on. I believe that Emperor Gaozu of Han should be treated as an honored guest of the Xin dynasty and receive sacrifices in the Mingtang (Hall of Light), but figures such as Emperor Cheng and Emperor Ping should no longer be enshrined in the ancestral temples. Emperor Yuan, due to his close relationship with the Empress Dowager and the deep favor he received, may retain sacrifices. I request that all Han dynasty ancestral temples within the capital be abolished, and that the Liu clan marquises be reclassified into five ranks based on the size of their registered households, stripped of their titles, and returned to the status of commoners. Those members of the Liu clan holding official positions should all be dismissed and sent home to await further instructions. This will align with the will of Heaven and eliminate the seeds of rebellion."

Wang Mang agreed and said, "Liu Gong, the Duke of Jiaxin, Liu Jia, the Marquis of Ceremonial Propriety, and thirty-two others deeply understand the Mandate of Heaven. Some have offered heavenly talismans, some have provided loyal advice, and some have reported rebels, achieving significant merit. For these members of the Liu clan who share the same lineage as these thirty-two individuals, their status need not be abolished, but they shall be granted the surname 'Wang' instead." However, the Duke of Jiaxin was exempt from this surname change because his daughter was married to Wang Mang's son. Additionally, the title of Empress Dowager Ding'an was changed to "Sovereign of the Yellow Imperial Household," severing her ties to the Han dynasty completely.

In the twelfth month of winter, thunder roared.

Wang Mang changed the title of the Xiongnu Chanyu to "Xiangnu Fuyu" ("Submissive Slave in Servitude"). He declared, "Xiangnu Fuyu disrespects the Mandate of Heaven, defies the Five Elements, betrays the four righteous principles, invades the Western Regions, and harms the borderlands and their people. His crimes warrant the extermination of his entire clan. However, considering that his ancestor, Huhanye Chanyu, was loyal and filial through generations and safeguarded the frontier, I cannot bear to destroy the entire family because of one individual's crimes. Therefore, I have decided to divide the Xiongnu's land and population into fifteen parts and appoint fifteen descendants of Huhanye Chanyu as new Chanyus." He dispatched Zhonglang Generals Lin Bao and Dai Ji to the frontier to summon the successors of these new Chanyus. At the same time, all Xiongnu people implicated by the Chanyu's crimes were granted amnesty.

Wang Mang sent the following generals on military campaigns: General of Five Commanders Miao Xin and Tiger Guard General Wang Kuang departed from Wuyuan; General of Suppressing Difficulties Chen Qin and General of Conquering the Di Wang Xun departed from Yunzhong; General of Raising Might Wang Jia and General of Pacifying the Di Wang Meng departed from Dai Commandery; General of Supporting Might Li Zhen and General of Securing the Frontier Li Weng departed from Xihe; General of Punishing the Mo Yang Jun and General of Eradicating the Hui Yan You departed from Yuyang; and General of Advancing Might Wang Jun and General of Stabilizing the Hu Wang Yan departed from Zhangye. In total, 180 officers, including subordinate commanders, were involved. He also conscripted 300,000 prisoners, able-bodied men, and soldiers from across the empire. Grain, weapons, and clothing were requisitioned from various commanderies, and local officials were ordered to transport these supplies to the northern frontier, with couriers dispatched to oversee the delivery. The military mobilization caused widespread unrest across the empire. The first troops to arrive were stationed at the borderlands, awaiting adequate supplies before launching their campaigns simultaneously.

Due to the poor circulation of the new currency, Wang Mang issued another edict stating, "The people rely on grain for survival and currency for trade. Among the Eight Policies, grain is the foremost. If currency is too heavy, it is inconvenient to use; if too light, it is troublesome to transport. Currency must have appropriate weights and denominations to facilitate circulation and satisfy the people." Thus, he minted five new types of currency, as detailed in the *Treatise on Food and Money*. However, the people only accepted two types: small coins and large coins, while the other three types were ignored. The private minting of counterfeit coins persisted despite repeated bans. Wang Mang imposed harsher punishments: if one household was caught minting counterfeit coins, five neighboring households would be implicated, and all individuals involved would be confiscated as slaves. Officials and commoners were required to carry cloth coins as identification when traveling; without them, they would be denied lodging at postal stations and subjected to strict inspections at checkpoints. Even high-ranking officials entering the palace had to present cloth coins, as Wang Mang sought to enforce the use of the new currency through such measures.

At the time, many people forged prophetic decrees in hopes of receiving noble titles. Those who did not participate mocked each other, saying, "Don't you have a decree from the Heavenly Emperor?" Commander Chen Chong reported to Wang Mang, "This will allow treacherous individuals to exploit the situation for personal gain, disrupting the Mandate of Heaven. It must be strictly prohibited." Wang Mang, growing increasingly annoyed by the situation, ordered Imperial Secretary Zhao Bing to investigate thoroughly. Any prophetic decrees not issued by the Five Commanders were deemed fraudulent, and those involved were imprisoned.

Initially, Zhen Feng, Liu Xin, and Wang Shun were close confidants of Wang Mang. They advocated for Wang Mang's virtues in court, proposed titles such as "Protector of Han" and "Supreme Chancellor," and suggested granting noble titles to Wang Mang's mother, two sons, and nephew. As a result, they received substantial rewards and enjoyed immense wealth and power. However, they did not genuinely wish for Wang Mang to ascend the throne. In fact, the idea of Wang Mang becoming emperor was first proposed by Liu Qing, Marquis of Quanling; Xie Xiao, former Marquis of Huiguang; and Tian Zhongshu, Magistrate of Chang'an. Once Wang Mang's power was firmly established, Zhen Feng and others complied with his ambitions, and Wang Mang further rewarded their descendants. However, Zhen Feng and his associates were secretly fearful, especially of opposition from the Han royal family and the powerful elites across the empire.

Zhen Feng, being strong-willed, aroused Wang Mang's suspicion. Wang Mang reassigned him as General of Restoration, placing him on the same level as a pancake vendor named Wang Sheng, intending to humiliate him. Zhen Feng and his son dared not voice their anger. At the time, Zhen Feng's son, Zhen Xun, held multiple positions, including Palace Attendant, Governor of Jingzhao, and Marquis of Maode. He forged a prophetic decree claiming that the Xin dynasty should divide its territory into two regions, similar to the Zhou dynasty's dual leadership of Duke Zhou and Duke Shao, and suggested appointing Zhen Feng as the "Right Duke" and Grand Tutor Ping Yan as the "Left Duke." Wang Mang accepted the suggestion and appointed Zhen Feng as the Right Duke. However, Zhen Xun later forged another decree, claiming that the Han Emperor Ping's empress, the "Sovereign of the Yellow Imperial Household," should marry him.

Wang Mang was furious, declaring, "The Sovereign of the Yellow Imperial Household is the mother of the realm. What nonsense is this?" He ordered Zhen Xun's arrest. Zhen Xun fled, and Zhen Feng committed suicide. Zhen Xun later hid with a mystic on Mount Hua but was captured a year later. He implicated Liu Xin's son Liu Gen and hundreds of other ministers and marquises, all of whom were executed. Zhen Xun had the characters "Son of Heaven" tattooed on his arm. Upon seeing this, Wang Mang remarked, "This could mean 'One Great Son' or 'One Six Son.' Six means 'execution,' so it foretells the execution of Zhen Xun and his father." Liu Gen was exiled to Youzhou, Zhen Xun to Sanwei, and Liu Gen's corpse was displayed at Mount Yu.

Wang Mang was an arrogant and overbearing person with peculiar features: a large mouth, a high nose, protruding and reddish eyes, and a hoarse voice. He was seven feet and five inches tall, liked to wear thick-soled shoes and tall hats, and adorned his clothing with fur. His demeanor was haughty, and he always looked down on those around him. At the time, there was an attendant in the palace skilled in divination. When someone asked him about Wang Mang's appearance, the attendant replied, "Wang Mang looks like a creature with 'owl eyes, a tiger's mouth, and the voice of a wolf.' He can devour others, but in the end, he will also be devoured by others." 

This remark reached Wang Mang's ears, and he had the attendant executed, rewarding the person who reported it. From then on, Wang Mang often used mica screens to cover his face, allowing only those close to him to see him.

That year, Wang Mang appointed Yao Xun, the Marquis of Chumu, as the General of Ning Shi.

Details

Written by: Realhistories

Category: The Book of Han (漢書)

Published: 14 December 2024

Created: 14 December 2024

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In the fifth year of the Emperor's reign, during the first month, a grand ancestral worship ceremony was held at the Ming Hall. Attending the ceremony were 28 feudal kings, 120 marquises, and over 900 members of the imperial clan, all gathered to assist in the rituals. After the ceremony concluded, 36 individuals, including Xin, the great-grandson of Emperor Xuan, were granted the title of marquis, while others received various levels of rewards in gold and silk.

At this time, both the common people and officials submitted petitions regarding Wang Mang's refusal to accept the lands of Xinye. The total number of petitions reached an astonishing 487,572. Witnessing this, feudal kings, princes, marquises, and members of the imperial clan all knelt down to plead, insisting that the title and rewards for An Han Gong (Wang Mang) should be increased. In response, Wang Mang submitted a memorial, stating:

"As an external relative of the imperial family, I dare not overstep my boundaries or claim undue honor. Reflecting on the Emperor's virtuous governance, which aligns with the Mandate of Heaven, establishing rituals to govern the people and music to transform customs, we see that people from all corners of the empire are rushing to comply, and even distant barbarians have submitted. At the time of parting, who does not shed tears? Without sincerity, how could anyone offer such heartfelt tributes?

From feudal kings to officials and commoners, all are aware of my deep familial ties with Your Majesty. Furthermore, as I have been entrusted with official duties, whenever merits are attributed to the court's achievements, my name is often mentioned. Witnessing the feudal lords speak on my behalf, I cannot help but break into a sweat, feeling deeply ashamed. Though I am dull by nature, I am sincerely aware of my own lack of virtue and ability. My high position and responsibilities often leave me anxious, fearing that I might tarnish the reputation of this sacred dynasty.

Today, with the empire stable, customs unified, and distant lands submitting, it is all due to Your Majesty's divine virtue and direct governance. The Grand Tutor Guang, the Grand Protector Shun, and other ministers have assisted in governance, while all officials have been loyal and competent. This is why such achievements have been made in just five years. I, Wang Mang, have contributed no extraordinary strategies or plans; I have merely followed the Empress Dowager's commands and conveyed them downward, achieving less than one-tenth of what was intended. Even when adopting the advice of wise ministers, I have achieved less than one-fifth of its potential. If I were to be blamed for my inadequacies, I would willingly accept punishment, for my sole intention in remaining here is to fulfill my duty to Your Majesty and to work in harmony with the court.

Your Majesty, unwilling to disregard public opinion, has repeatedly referred these matters to the council for discussion. I had previously considered ceasing my petitions, fearing that others would not relent. Now that the grand ceremony has concluded and the assisting participants have departed, I feel an overwhelming desire for all petitions to cease and for me, Wang Mang, to dedicate myself fully to completing the tasks of ritual and music. Once these are accomplished, they can be shared with the world, bringing peace and harmony to the empire. If any faults arise, I am willing to bear responsibility for misleading the court. If no faults are found, I hope to retire in peace and avoid obstructing the paths of the virtuous. Such is my personal wish. I humbly beg Your Majesty for compassion!"

Zhen Han and others reported this to the Empress Dowager, who issued an edict stating: "It shall be so. The merits and virtues of the Duke shine brightly across the land, which is why feudal lords, princes, marquises, members of the imperial clan, scholars, and commoners all speak in unison, even gathering at the palace gates in petition. Thus, this decree is issued. When the feudal lords and members of the imperial clan took their leave, they once again reiterated their requests. Despite being informed and dismissed, they refused to depart. Upon being told that rewards would be distributed in the first month of summer, they rejoiced and left, shouting 'Long live the Emperor!' Now, whenever the Duke is summoned, he weeps and kneels, expressing his desire to decline any rewards. Even if additional honors are bestowed, he insists on stepping down. As the matter remains unresolved, it must be decided by the Duke. Once the preparations are complete, the council shall submit a report. As for the previous deliberations, the Nine Bestowments ceremony must be urgently addressed."

Thus, the Grand Councilors, court officials, scholars, and marquises, including Zhang Chun, Marquis of Fuping, totaling 902 individuals, submitted their collective opinion: "The holy emperors and wise kings of the past sought to recruit the virtuous and reward the capable, granting high positions to those of great virtue and significant rewards to those of great merit. Accordingly, loyal ministers were bestowed with the Nine Bestowments and elevated to the rank of Duke. Today, the nine branches of kinship are harmonious, the people are thriving, the empire is united, and the populace is at peace. Signs of divine favor are abundant, and an era of great peace has arrived. The prosperity of the current reign rivals that of Tang and Yu, while the contributions of the Prime Minister match those of Yi Yin and Zhou Gong. Such achievements, though arising in different times, align perfectly with the principles of governance. Drawing upon the teachings of the Six Classics and the precedents found in the Zhou Rites and the Book of Rites, we propose the conferral of the Nine Bestowments. We humbly request an imperial decree to enact this." The proposal was approved, and the imperial edict proclaimed:

"On the fifth day of the fifth month in the fifth year of Yuanshi, under the auspices of the Empress Dowager, the following decree is issued: 'Duke, approach and listen to Our words. Previously, you served as a loyal guardian to Emperor Cheng for sixteen years, faithfully submitting strategies and exposing the crimes of the former Marquis of Dingling, Chunyu Chang, thereby quelling chaos and uncovering treachery. You were appointed Grand Marshal, tasked with internal governance. When Emperor Ai ascended the throne, concubines sought power, and treacherous ministers plotted rebellion. You personally impeached Gaochang Marquis Dong Hong, correcting the improper seating arrangements of the mother of the former King Gong of Dingtao. From that moment onward, court discussions adhered strictly to the classics. Resigning due to illness, you returned to your residence but were later framed by traitorous ministers. After being exiled to your fiefdom, Emperor Ai recognized your loyalty and recalled you to Chang'an. Even as his illness worsened, he did not forget your merits and restored your position as Special Advisor. On the very night of his passing, with no heir apparent and traitorous ministers in power, the state was on the brink of disaster. Recognizing that the stability of the nation depended on you, We summoned you to court, immediately dismissed Gao'an Marquis Dong Xian, and prevented further leaks. Your loyal strategies restored order, and the nation's framework was fully reestablished. During the reigns of Emperor Cheng and Emperor Ai, under your guidance, all affairs were managed, and no calamities arose. For the past five years, you have assisted Us in governance, rectifying human relations and stabilizing the cosmos. By reverently honoring the deities and managing the seasons, you have revived ancient practices and corrected historical errors. The empire is united, and the people are harmonious. The rituals of the Zhou dynasty, the systems of Shang, and the designs of Gaojing and Shangyi have been revived. You have illuminated the foundational virtues of past emperors, demonstrated the moral excellence of the ancestors, upheld the principle of honoring Heaven alongside the forefathers, and established grand rituals for ancestral and state worship, thereby glorifying filial piety. Consequently, the four seas are at peace, the empire is admired by all, and even distant barbarians willingly submit, adopting our customs and contributing rare treasures to assist in ceremonies. By following ancient paths and valuing tradition, all endeavors have succeeded, achieving balance and harmony. Your profound virtue and adherence to the Way resonate with the divine, bringing blessings from the ancestors. The heavens have responded with auspicious signs, heralding an era of great unity. With the appearance of the qilin, phoenix, tortoise, and dragon, over 700 auspicious omens have manifested. You have established rituals and music, securing the altars of the ancestors and the state. Across the land, all rely on you. As the Prime Minister and Duke, your contributions are unparalleled. Thus, We bestow upon you the Nine Bestowments to assist in ceremonies, uniting civil and military responsibilities and honoring your ancestors. How glorious this is!'"

Wang Mang once again bowed his head to the ground, expressed his gratitude, and accepted the ceremonial items: the green ceremonial robes and crown, jade ornaments (Yangbang and Yangbi), ceremonial shoes, a chariot adorned with bells and drawn by horses, the dragon banner with nine tassels, leather caps and white silk robes, military chariots and horses, scarlet bows and arrows, black bows and arrows, a red battle axe on the left, a golden battle axe on the right, a full set of armor, two vessels of millet wine, two jade ceremonial objects (Gui and Zan), two green jade scepters symbolizing the Nine Bestowments, and a red-doored palace with a staircase. 

He was also granted officials for religious rites, blessings, divination, and historical records, along with 300 elite guards (Huben), a steward, and assistants for the religious, divination, and historical offices, all to support the An Han Duke (Wang Mang). At his central residence and outer estate, the elite guards served as gatekeepers, managing the registration of those entering and exiting. For official matters involving the Four Assistants or the Three Excellencies, communications were carried out through official couriers. The residence of the King of Chu was designated as the residence of the An Han Duke, and it underwent extensive renovations, with walls and defenses modeled after the Zhou dynasty. Ancestral temples and sleeping quarters were outfitted with red doors and staircases. Chen Chong submitted a proposal: “When the An Han Duke visits his ancestral temple outside the city gates, the city gate commander should assign cavalry to escort him. When entering, there should be gate guards; when exiting, there should be cavalry. This demonstrates the state's emphasis on protocol.” The proposal was approved.

That autumn, due to auspicious omens related to the Empress giving birth to descendants, Wang Mang ordered the construction of the Ziwu Road, a direct route from Duling to the southern mountains and leading to Hanzhong.

Eight envoys who had been dispatched to observe local customs returned, reporting that customs across the empire were unified. They fabricated folk songs in the various commanderies and kingdoms, praising Wang Mang's virtues and achievements, totaling over 30,000 characters. Wang Mang formalized these as decrees. He also proposed that markets should not have competing merchants, government offices should have no lawsuits, towns should have no thieves, villages should have no hungry people, roads should have no lost items, and men and women should walk separately. Violators would be punished with tattooing (a form of corporal punishment).

Liu Xin, Chen Chong, and ten others were granted the title of marquis for their contributions in managing the Ming Hall and promoting education and culture.

Wang Mang claimed to have achieved peace and prosperity: the northern frontier pacified the Xiongnu, the eastern regions opened trade routes across the seas, and the southern lands established relations with Huangzhi. However, the western frontier remained undeveloped. Wang Mang sent Zhonglang General Ping Xian and others with large amounts of gold and silver to entice the Qiang tribes to offer land and submit to Han rule. Ping Xian and his delegation reported: “The Qiang leaders, including Liangyuan, with a population of 12,000, are willing to become subjects of the empire and offer the Xianshui Sea, salt lakes, and lush pastures as tribute. They are also willing to serve as a defensive barrier in the rugged terrain. When asked about their willingness to surrender, Liangyuan replied: ‘The Empress Dowager is wise, and the An Han Duke is supremely benevolent. The empire is at peace, and harvests are abundant. Some crops grow over ten feet tall, some rice plants yield grains over three inches long, and some crops grow naturally without being sown. Sweet dew falls from the heavens, and sweet springs flow from the earth. Phoenixes have appeared, and divine birds have descended. For four years, the Qiang people have suffered no hardships, and thus we wish to submit.’ It is appropriate to establish protectorates to manage these territories.”

The matter was presented to Wang Mang, who submitted another memorial: “During the years of the Empress Dowager’s governance, her benevolence has spread widely, and harmonious energy has prevailed. Even distant regions with different customs have been drawn to righteousness. The Yuechang tribe sent white pheasants through multiple translators, Huangzhi sent live rhinoceroses from 30,000 miles away, the kings of the Eastern Yi crossed the sea to present treasures, and the Xiongnu Chanyu complied with our regulations, even removing two of their own titles. Now, Liangyuan and others from the Western Regions have offered land and pledged allegiance. In ancient times, during the reign of Tang Yao, all under heaven submitted. Today’s achievements are comparable.

Currently, we have established the Eastern Sea, Southern Sea, and Northern Sea Commanderies, but there is no Western Sea Commandery. I propose accepting the land offered by Liangyuan and others to establish a Western Sea Commandery. Furthermore, I have heard that the sage kings mapped the heavens and divided the land, organizing regions based on mountains, rivers, and local customs. The Han Empire is vast, encompassing the territories of the Two Emperors and Three Kings, with a total of thirteen provinces. However, many provincial names and boundaries are inconsistent with ancient texts. In the Canon of Yao, twelve provinces were established, later reduced to nine. Given the vastness of Han territory, where provincial governors travel distances of over 30,000 miles, it is unreasonable to limit the divisions to nine provinces. I respectfully propose rectifying the names and boundaries of twelve provinces in accordance with the classics, aligning with the principle of proper governance.” The proposal was approved. Wang Mang also introduced fifty new laws, with violators exiled to the Western Sea. The number of exiles reached into the millions, leading to growing resentment among the people.

Liu Qing, Marquis of Quanling, submitted a memorial: “When King Cheng of Zhou was young, he was referred to as the 'young sovereign,' and the Duke of Zhou acted as regent. Today, the Emperor is in his prime, and the An Han Duke should act as regent and handle the affairs of the Son of Heaven, just as the Duke of Zhou did.” The court officials all agreed: “This should be done as Liu Qing suggested.”

In the winter, the planet Mars appeared in the center of the moon.

Emperor Ping fell ill. Wang Mang drafted a prayer to the Tai Shrine, offering his life in exchange for the Emperor’s. He presented jade discs and scepters, wrapped in gold, and placed them in the main hall, instructing the officials not to speak of it. In December, Emperor Ping passed away, and a general amnesty was declared. Wang Mang summoned the Minister of Rites, Zongbo Feng, and others, along with all officials of rank 600 dan or higher, to observe a three-year mourning period. He proposed elevating Emperor Cheng's temple to the status of the main ancestral temple and designating Emperor Ping's temple as the "First Ancestor Temple."

At the time, Emperor Yuan’s lineage had ended, but five descendants of Emperor Xuan’s great-grandsons remained, including Guangqi Marquis Xian and 48 others. Wang Mang, disliking the idea of them growing up, declared: “Brothers cannot succeed one another as heirs.” He selected the youngest among the great-great-grandsons, Ying, the son of Guangqi Marquis, who was only two years old, claiming that divination indicated he was the most auspicious choice.

That same month, former official Hui Guang and Xie Xiao submitted a report stating that Meng Tong, a magistrate in Wugong, had excavated a well and discovered a white stone. The stone was round on top and square on the bottom, with red inscriptions carved into it, reading: “Proclaiming that An Han Duke Wang Mang shall be Emperor.” This marked the beginning of the so-called “heavenly mandate” proclamations. Wang Mang instructed the officials to report this to the Empress Dowager. The Empress Dowager responded: “This is a deception meant to mislead the world and must not be implemented!” However, Grand Protector Shun advised the Empress Dowager: “The situation has already reached this point and cannot be stopped. Even if we try, our efforts will be in vain. Wang Mang does not seek anything else; he merely wishes to act as regent to consolidate power and stabilize the empire.” The Empress Dowager reluctantly agreed, and Shun and others jointly issued an order on her behalf:

“It is said that Heaven creates the people, but they cannot govern themselves, so a ruler is established to provide guidance. When a ruler is young and immature, there must be a regent to act on their behalf, implementing the will of Heaven and nurturing the people. The Book of Documents states: ‘Heaven’s work is carried out by people.’ Following the untimely passing of Emperor Ping, we have ordered officials to search among the great-grandsons of Emperor Xuan to select a suitable heir to succeed Emperor Ping. However, the chosen heir is still an infant and cannot yet fulfill the role of a virtuous ruler. Who can ensure stability? The An Han Duke, Wang Mang, has served as regent for three reigns, guiding the Han dynasty through turbulent times. His actions align with those of the Duke of Zhou, though from a different era. Now, with the appearance of the inscribed stone from Wugong, proclaiming ‘An Han Duke Wang Mang as Emperor,’ I have deeply reflected on its meaning. The phrase ‘to be Emperor’ refers to acting as regent in the Emperor’s stead. There are established laws and traditions; without a sage, these laws would cease to exist. Therefore, let the An Han Duke act as regent and assume the throne temporarily, following the precedent of the Duke of Zhou. The county of Wugong shall be granted to the An Han Duke as his fief, named the ‘Han Guang Territory.’ The details of the ceremonial procedures shall be submitted for review.”

The court officials submitted a memorial, saying: “The Empress Dowager’s sacred virtue is evident, deeply aligned with Heaven’s will, and thus she has decreed that the Duke of An Han shall act as regent. I have heard that during the time of King Cheng of Zhou, he was young, and the Zhou dynasty’s governance was not yet fully established. King Cheng could not perform the rituals of Heaven and Earth or carry on the legacy of Kings Wen and Wu. Therefore, the Duke of Zhou temporarily assumed the regency, enabling the Zhou dynasty to flourish and the royal court to stabilize. Without this regency, the Zhou dynasty might have lost the Mandate of Heaven. The Book of Documents states: ‘I inherited the affairs of my ancestors, but I could not harmonize the upper and lower realms, causing the light of my predecessors to be dimmed. At home, I did not understand the difficulty of maintaining the Mandate. Heaven sent omens, indicating a loss of the dynasty’s mandate.’”

It continued: “The Duke of Zhou wore the emperor’s ceremonial crown, faced south to receive the court officials, issued orders, and always acted in the name of the King. The virtuous Duke of Shao did not understand the sage’s intentions, so he did not comment on this. The *Record of the Bright Hall* states: ‘The Duke of Zhou received the feudal lords in the Bright Hall, where the Son of Heaven stood with his back to the ceremonial axe, facing south.’ This indicates that the Duke of Zhou acted as the Son of Heaven, met with feudal lords for six years, established rites and music, and brought order to the world. The Duke of Shao did not mention that the Duke of Zhou assumed the position of regent from the beginning, rather than waiting six years to ascend to power.”

The memorial further stated: “The *Lost Book of the Grain of Harmony* records: ‘The Duke of Zhou held the ritual wine and stood on the ceremonial steps, assisting King Cheng in ascending the throne. The ceremonial official proclaimed: “Acting as regent for the King, diligently bringing harmony to the realm.”’ This describes the regency of the Duke of Zhou. Once King Cheng came of age and donned the crown of adulthood, the Duke of Zhou returned authority to him. The *Book of Documents* says: ‘I restore to you your enlightened rule,’ meaning the Duke of Zhou often issued decrees in the name of the King, exercising authority without needing to report back. Thus, it is said, ‘I restore to you your enlightened rule.’ I humbly request that the Duke of An Han act as regent and ascend the throne, donning the emperor’s robes and crown, standing with his back to the ceremonial axe between the palace doors, facing south to receive the court officials and govern the realm. His carriages and attire should follow imperial protocol, with guards clearing the way. The people and officials should address him as “Your Majesty,” adhering to the customs of the Son of Heaven.”

“In the suburbs, he should perform sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, worship at the Bright Hall, offer sacrifices to the ancestral temples, and make offerings to the gods. During these ceremonies, the ceremonial officials should refer to him as the ‘Acting Emperor,’ while the people and officials call him the ‘Regent Emperor.’ He himself should use the term ‘I’ in self-reference. When handling state affairs, decrees should be issued in the form of imperial edicts, aligning with the will of Heaven, supporting the Han dynasty, and safeguarding the young heir of Emperor Ping. This would fulfill the entrusted responsibility and promote the governance of peace. When paying respects to the Grand Empress Dowager and the Empress, he should maintain the etiquette of a subject. In his governance of the palace, household, and state, he should follow the precedents of the rites for feudal lords. I humbly submit this request.” The Empress Dowager approved, saying: “It shall be so.” The following year, the era name was changed to “Regency.”

In the first month of the first year of the Regency, Wang Mang performed sacrifices to Heaven at the southern suburb, welcomed the spring at the eastern suburb, held the grand archery ceremony at the Bright Hall, and hosted the “Three Elders and Five Seniors” (respected elders) for a banquet. After completing the rituals, he departed. He established the “Five Historians of the Pillar,” whose ranks were equivalent to censors, to oversee governmental affairs and record his words and actions.

In March, on the day of Jichou, Wang Mang appointed Liu Ying, the great-grandson of Emperor Xuan, as Crown Prince, calling him “Ruzi” (the Young Lord). Wang Shun was appointed as Grand Tutor and Left Assistant, Zhen Feng as Grand Guardian and Right Aide, and Zhen Han as Grand Protector and Rear Supporter. Additionally, four Junior Tutors were appointed, all with salaries equivalent to 2,000 bushels of grain.

In April, the Marquis of Anzhong, Liu Chong, conspired with Minister Zhang Shao, saying: “The Duke of An Han, Wang Mang, has monopolized power and will inevitably harm the Liu family. Although the people of the empire dare not act first, this is a disgrace to the imperial clan. If we take the lead, the entire realm will surely unite in harmony.” Zhang Shao and others, leading over a hundred men, attacked Wancheng but failed to breach the city and were defeated. Zhang Shao was the elder cousin of Zhang Song. Zhang Song and Liu Jia surrendered themselves at the capital, and Wang Mang pardoned them. Zhang Song then submitted a memorial on behalf of Liu Jia, stating:

“During the reigns of Jianping and Yuanshou, the great lineage of the Han dynasty nearly collapsed, and the imperial clan was almost abandoned. Thanks to Your Majesty’s sacred virtue, the nation was supported and saved, and the imperial clan was restored. You presided over the court and issued decrees, prioritizing the imperial clan and elevating the nine kinship groups. At the same time, you recorded distant relatives, established them as kings and marquises, and granted them independent positions, now numbering in the hundreds. You restored severed lineages, preserved the living, and continued the legacies of the deceased, allowing them to stand side by side once more, forming ranks and assisting the Han state, supporting the imperial lineage.”

“You established the Biyong Academy, set up the Bright Hall, disseminated the laws of Heaven, spread sacred teachings, and met with the feudal lords to demonstrate cultural virtue. The imperial clan and feudal lords all gained additional lands. The people of the realm spoke in unison, praising Your Majesty, with songs of gratitude filling the air. The nation’s reputation, blessings, and glory—are these not the result of the Empress Dowager’s constant deliberation and Your Majesty’s vigilance day and night? Why? In times of chaos, you restored order; in times of danger, you brought stability; in times of disaster, you turned misfortune into blessings; in times of extinction, you continued the lineage; when the heir was young, you took on the responsibility. Day and night, through cold and heat, you worked tirelessly without rest, all for the sake of the realm and the Liu family. Even the most ignorant of subjects, whether male or female, understand your intentions.”

“Yet the Marquis of Anzhong, Liu Chong, harbored rebellious intentions, plotted treason, raised troops, and sought to endanger the ancestral temples. Such acts are intolerable and deserve death without pardon. He is truly an enemy of the subjects, a foe of the imperial clan, a traitor to the nation, and a scourge to the world. Thus, his relatives were shocked and reported his crimes, and the people scattered and abandoned their weapons. He could not advance a single step and was ultimately trapped in disaster. Even his hundred-year-old mother and infant children were executed, their heads displayed on poles, with earrings and ornaments still intact. To think such a plan existed—is this not absurd?”

“I have heard that in ancient times, when rebellious states were punished, their palaces were turned into cesspools, filled with filth, and called ‘Accursed Halls.’ Though vegetation might grow there, no one would eat it. The walls of their ancestral shrines were surrounded, and wooden planks covered the top to signify prohibition. Feudal lords passing by would see it and take it as a warning. Now that the world knows of Liu Chong’s rebellion, everyone wishes to draw their swords against him. The first to arrive would cut his throat, stab his chest, dismember his body, and carve his flesh; the later arrivals would tear down his doors, destroy his walls, level his houses, and burn his belongings, with the sounds of destruction shaking the heavens. The imperial clan is especially enraged, their words filled with hatred. Why? Because he betrayed kindness and loyalty, failing to uphold virtue. Though the imperial clan resides far away, Liu Jia, upon hearing this, could not suppress his anger. He wishes to lead the charge for the imperial clan, with his family bearing tools, rushing to Nanyang to destroy Liu Chong’s residence, making it conform to ancient practices. Liu Chong’s ancestral shrine should be treated like the shrine at Bo, given to the feudal lords as a permanent warning. I hope the Four Assistants, ministers, and officials will deliberate on this matter to clarify right and wrong and examine the four directions.”

Wang Mang greatly approved of this. The ministers said: “All should follow Liu Jia’s proposal.” Wang Mang requested the Empress Dowager to issue an edict: “Liu Jia and his family, though related to Liu Chong, did not show favoritism. When they saw rebellion brewing, they reported it together. Once the disaster occurred, they shared in the hatred. Following ancient customs, their loyalty and filial piety are evident. Grant Liu Jia a fief of 1,000 households as the Marquis of Shili, and bestow titles of Marquis Within the Pass to his seven sons.” Later, Zhang Song was also enfeoffed as the Marquis of Shude.

In Chang’an, people said: “If you seek a title, go to Zhang Bosong; fighting in battle is less effective than crafting a good memorial.” Wang Mang also rewarded over a hundred contributors from Nanyang and turned Liu Chong’s residence into a cesspool. From then on, all rebels’ residences were called cesspools.

The court officials again submitted a memorial: “Liu Chong and others rebelled because Wang Mang’s authority was insufficient. It is appropriate to elevate him to consolidate the realm.” In May, on the day of Jiachen, the Empress Dowager decreed that Wang Mang should address her as the “Acting Emperor.”

In winter, on the first day of the tenth month, on the day of Bingchen, there was a solar eclipse.

In December, the court officials submitted a request: “Expand the Duke of An Han’s palace and household staff, establish new positions such as Commanders of the Temple, Stables, and Kitchen, along with various attendants, including Middle Chamberlains and over a hundred Tiger Guards and others. Additionally, create a force of 300 guards. The Duke of An Han’s residence will be referred to as the ‘Regency Office,’ his estate as the ‘Regency Hall,’ and his mansion as the ‘Regency Palace.’” The request was approved.

Wang Mang submitted a memorial to the Empress Dowager, requesting an edict: “Although the former Grand Tutor Guang has already passed away, his contributions have been recorded. Grand Protector Shun, Grand Minister of Works Feng, General of Light Chariots Han, and General of Foot Soldiers Jian all contributed to advancing strategies against the Chanyu. They also managed the Spirit Terrace, Bright Hall, Biyong Academy, and the Four Suburban Sacrifices, established systems, opened the Ziwu Road, and worked in harmony with the imperial administration, promoting virtue and uniting efforts. Their merits are evident. I propose conferring noble titles as follows: Shun’s son Kuang as Marquis of Concord, Lin as Marquis of Promoting Virtue, Guang’s grandson Shou as Marquis of United Intent, and Feng’s grandson Kuang as Marquis of Combined Effort. Additionally, increase the landholdings of Han and Jian by 3,000 households each.”

That year, Pang Tian, Fu Fan, and others from the Western Qiang, angered by Wang Mang’s seizure of their lands to establish Xihai Commandery, attacked the Commandery Governor Cheng Yong, who fled. Wang Mang executed Cheng Yong and sent Protector-General Dou Kuang to suppress them.

In the second year of the Regency, during spring, Dou Kuang and his forces defeated the Western Qiang.

In May, a new currency system was introduced: the “Chopped Knife” coin, valued at 5,000; the “Inscribed Knife” coin, valued at 500; and large coins, valued at 50. These circulated alongside the Five-Zhu coins. Many people began counterfeiting the new currency. A prohibition was issued, forbidding anyone below the rank of marquis from privately possessing gold. Gold was to be submitted to the imperial treasury in exchange for currency, but the exchange system was ineffective.

In September, Zhai Yi, Governor of Dong Commandery, attempted a coup. He mobilized troops and proclaimed Liu Xin, Marquis of Yanxiang, as emperor. He sent announcements to the commanderies and kingdoms, accusing Wang Mang of “poisoning Emperor Ping, usurping the throne, and seeking to extinguish the Han dynasty. Now, let us carry out Heaven’s punishment and bring justice to Wang Mang.” This caused confusion among the commanderies and kingdoms, and over 100,000 people gathered. Wang Mang was so terrified that he lost his appetite and spent day and night holding the Young Lord (Liu Ying) while praying at the suburban temples. He issued a grand edict and dispatched Censor-in-Chief Huan Tan and others across the empire to explain that his regency was for the sake of protecting the Young Lord. Wang Mang also sent generals Wang Yi, Sun Jian, and six others to attack Zhai Yi, stationing troops at various passes to block and defend.

Meanwhile, Zhao Ming, Huo Hong, and other men from Huaili raised an army, intending to join forces with Zhai Yi. They discussed, saying, “The elite troops of the generals are all in the east, leaving the capital defenseless. We can attack Chang’an.” Their numbers grew to over 100,000. Wang Mang, deeply alarmed, dispatched Generals Wang Qi and Wang Ji to resist them. He appointed Grand Protector Zhen Han as Grand General, granting him the ceremonial staff from the High Temple to command all military forces. Zhen Han held the imperial seal in his left hand and a hammer in his right, stationing himself outside the city. Wang Shun and Zhen Feng patrolled the palace day and night.

In December, Wang Yi and others defeated Zhai Yi at Yu. Surveillance Officer Chen Chong reported: “Your Majesty adheres to the great principles of Heaven, your heart aligned with the sacred tortoise, receiving the divine mandate, foreseeing success and failure, and responding to omens. This is what it means to be in harmony with Heaven. The ruler in harmony with Heaven can influence the weather with thought, affect animals with speech, and achieve growth with action. When I read the imperial edict, I privately calculated the timing: just as Your Majesty’s sacred thoughts began to manifest, the rebels were defeated; as the edict was issued, the rebels suffered great losses; as the decree was announced, the rebels were utterly destroyed, even before our forces had fully united. Before I could offer my humble insights, the matter was already resolved.” Wang Mang greatly praised this.

In the third year of the Regency, an earthquake occurred in spring. Wang Mang declared a general amnesty across the empire.

Wang Yi and others returned to the capital. In the west, they joined forces with Wang Ji and others to attack Zhao Ming and Huo Hong, ultimately defeating them. (Details can be found in the *Biography of Zhai Yi*.) Wang Mang held a banquet in the White Tiger Hall of Weiyang Palace to reward and commend the generals and commanders. He issued an edict assigning Chen Chong to oversee the evaluation of military achievements and rank them accordingly. Wang Mang then submitted a memorial: “In the enlightened ages of the past, the state was filled with virtuous individuals. Thus, during the times of Tang and Yu, houses could be granted as fiefs, and rewards were given when achievements were completed. At the assembly of Tushan during the Xia dynasty, envoys from ten thousand states presented jade and silk; feudal lords offered jade, and vassals offered silk. On the banks of Mengjin during the Zhou dynasty, there were 800 feudal lords. The Duke of Zhou, acting as regent, performed sacrifices to Hou Ji in the suburbs to align with Heaven and worshipped King Wen in the Bright Hall to align with the Supreme Deity. Thus, all within the four seas fulfilled their roles in the sacrifices, numbering 1,800 feudal lords. The *Rites of Zhou* records a system of 1,700 states, and Confucius wrote in the *Classic of Filial Piety*: ‘One must not overlook the ministers of small states, let alone the dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons.’ Thus, the Son of Heaven won the hearts of ten thousand states and served his ancestors. This is the filial piety of the Son of Heaven. The Qin dynasty, following a path of destruction, eradicated the feudal lords and converted their territories into commanderies and counties, seeking to monopolize the benefits of the empire. As a result, it fell within two generations. Emperor Gao received the mandate, restored what had been destroyed, and rewarded merit, establishing hundreds of states. However, over time, these dwindled, leaving only a few. The Grand Empress Dowager personally oversaw the governance of the state, widely granting titles to encourage virtue and restoring extinct lineages to ensure their continuation. Thus, great reforms were achieved in a short period. When the Qiang rebels invaded Xihai Commandery, and the traitors spread rumors in Dong Commandery, loyal ministers and filial sons were all outraged. The campaigns against these rebels have now been successfully concluded, and the Son of Heaven is at peace. At present, as we establish rites and music, we should examine the ranks of the Zhou dynasty: five levels of nobility and four grades of land, clearly documented. The Yin dynasty had three ranks, which are discussed but not fully recorded. Confucius said, ‘The Zhou dynasty drew lessons from the two previous dynasties, and its culture flourished. I follow the Zhou.’ I propose that the generals and commanders who are to receive titles and fiefs be granted the five ranks of nobility and four grades of land.” The proposal was approved. Thus, the highest-ranking individuals were titled as marquises or earls, followed by viscounts and barons. Those prepared to be granted the title of Marquis Within the Pass were renamed as Attached City Lords, numbering several hundred. Those who fought in Xihai were given the designation “Qiang,” those in Huaili were named “Wu,” and those against Zhai Yi were called “Lu.”

The court officials submitted another memorial: “The Empress Dowager has recorded merits and virtues, recognizing achievements from both ancient times and the present. Some are honored with civil titles, others with military ranks, with varying levels of distinction. Now that the Regent Emperor has assumed the throne, his status should differ from when he governed as a minister. Although the ceremonial system is not yet complete, we propose elevating his two sons to the rank of duke. The *Spring and Autumn Annals* states: ‘Goodness should extend to one’s descendants,’ and ‘The descendants of the virtuous should possess land.’ King Cheng of Zhou generously enfeoffed the six sons of the Duke of Zhou, granting them territories. Similarly, the renowned chancellors and generals of the Han dynasty, such as Xiao and Huo, saw their collateral branches honored. Therefore, we propose first enfeoffing the Regent Emperor’s nephew Guang as a marquis. Once the system is complete, the Grand Minister over the Masses and the Grand Minister of Works should submit their names as per the previous edict.” The Empress Dowager issued an edict: “Elevate the Regent Emperor’s son, Marquis of Baoxin, An, to Duke of Xinjv; reward the Marquis of Shangdu, Lin, by elevating him to Duke of Baoxin; and enfeoff Guang as Marquis of Yanggong.” At this time, Wang Mang returned to the state of Xindu. The court officials submitted another memorial to enfeoff Wang Mang’s grandson Zong as Marquis of Xindu. Having defeated Zhai Yi, Wang Mang believed his power and virtue were at their peak, supported by both Heaven and man, and thus began planning his ascension to the throne.

In September, Wang Mang’s mother, Lady Gongxian, passed away. Wang Mang showed no signs of grief and instructed the Empress Dowager to issue an edict to discuss the mourning rites. Shao’a, Xihe Liu Xin, and 78 scholars, including the Erudites, collectively stated:  

“The principle of regency lies in upholding the divine mandate, elevating the imperial way, establishing laws and systems, and pacifying the realm. In the past, when King Tang of Shang passed away, his crown prince died young, and his grandson Tai Jia was too young and inexperienced. Yi Yin placed Tai Jia in the Tong Palace and assumed the regency to revive the Shang dynasty. Similarly, after King Wu of Zhou passed away, the Zhou dynasty was not yet firmly established, and King Cheng was still a child. The Duke of Zhou secluded King Cheng and assumed the regency to complete the Zhou dynasty’s governance. Thus, the Shang dynasty achieved transformative order, and the Zhou dynasty accomplished great merit.  

Now, the Grand Empress Dowager has faced misfortune within her family and entrusted the Duke of An Han with the administration of the court, balancing the empire. With the Young Lord being too young to govern, Heaven bestowed auspicious omens, revealing the red jade stone as a divine sign. Therefore, the Grand Empress Dowager, following the will of Heaven, decreed that the Duke of An Han act as regent and ascend the throne to establish the sacred legacy of the Han dynasty, comparable to the glory of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. The Regent Emperor then opened the secret archives, gathered scholars, formulated rites and music, finalized the bureaucratic system, and completed the heavenly mandate. His sacred wisdom is comprehensive and unparalleled, reviving the *Rites of Zhou* to illuminate the past, examining antiquity to make adjustments, akin to Confucius hearing the *Shao* music, which is as unattainable as the sun and moon. Without a sage, who could achieve this? The governance structure has been fully established, resulting in the preservation of the sacred Han dynasty and the pacification of the people.  

Now that Lady Gongxian has passed away, the rites state: ‘When a prince is succeeded by a collateral son, the mother mourns for him.’ The *Commentary* says: ‘One who shares the body with the sovereign must not mourn for private relatives.’ The Regent Emperor, with his sacred virtue, has received the mandate of Heaven and the decree of the Empress Dowager to act as regent and ascend the throne. He bears the heavy responsibility of the state, with the heavens and ancestral altars above and the concerns of the people below, leaving him unable to attend to private family matters. Therefore, the Grand Empress Dowager has established her great-grandson, the Marquis of Xindu, as the heir to Lady Gongxian, naming him Marquis Ai. This demonstrates that the Regent Emperor shares the body with the sovereign, performing sacrifices for the ancestral temples and caring for the Grand Empress Dowager, making it inappropriate for him to mourn private relatives.  

The *Rites of Zhou* states: ‘The king wears mourning for the feudal lords in coarse hemp cloth with a hemp cap.’ For relatives of the same surname, hemp is worn; for different surnames, kudzu is used. The Regent Emperor should wear coarse hemp mourning for Lady Gongxian, with a hemp cap and white sash, akin to the mourning attire of a Son of Heaven for feudal lords, in accordance with the sacred system.” Wang Mang followed this advice, performing one condolence visit and two mourning ceremonies. He appointed Marquis Zong of Xindu as the chief mourner, who observed mourning rites for three years.

Surveillance Officer Chen Chong submitted a report stating that Marquis Guang of Yangong privately instructed Dou Kuang, Commander of the Imperial Guards, to commit murder. Dou Kuang was detained and subjected to legal punishment. Wang Mang was enraged and severely reprimanded Guang. Guang’s mother said to him, “Do you think you are more important than the eldest and second grandsons?” Consequently, both mother and son chose to commit suicide, and Dou Kuang also died shortly after. Initially, Wang Mang had acted under the guise of caring for his mother, supporting his sister-in-law, and looking after his brothers, but later he became ruthless, using such acts to demonstrate his sense of justice. Guang’s son Jia inherited the marquisate.

Wang Mang issued a decree stating: “The principle of the *Rites of Zhou* dictates that in the final month of winter, sacrifices are performed in the suburbs, and the eight tones of music should be played. Among kings, dukes, ministers, and officials, how should musical instruments be allocated according to their rank? What are the classifications of the five sounds and eight tones? I request that you, along with the scholars under your jurisdiction, exhaustively explain these principles in detail.”

That year, Liu Jing, Marquis of Guangrao; Huyan, a general of the chariots and cavalry; and Zang Hong, an official of the Grand Protectorate, submitted reports regarding divine omens. Liu Jing reported the discovery of a new well in Qi Commandery; Huyan reported a stone ox in Ba Commandery; and Zang Hong reported a stone in Fufeng Commandery. Wang Mang accepted all these reports. On the 1st day of the 11th month, Wang Mang submitted a memorial to the Empress Dowager: “Your Majesty, in your supreme wisdom, has endured family misfortune and witnessed the end of the Han dynasty’s twelve generations and thirty-seven reigns. Receiving the mandate of Heaven, you entrusted me, Wang Mang, to act as regent and manage the affairs of the empire on behalf of the Young Lord. I have been diligent and fearful of failing in my duties.  

Liu Jing, Marquis of Guangrao, submitted a report stating: ‘In mid-July, Xin, the head of Changxing Pavilion in Linzi County of Qi Commandery, dreamt at night of a messenger from Heaven who said: “I am a divine envoy. Heaven has decreed that the Regent Emperor is the rightful ruler.” The pavilion head did not believe him, but a new well indeed appeared in the pavilion.’ The pavilion head verified this the next morning and found a well 100 feet deep.  

On the winter solstice in the 11th month, reports of the stone ox from Ba Commandery and the stone from Fufeng Commandery were delivered to the front hall of Weiyang Palace. I, along with the Grand Protector, Marquis Shun of Anyang, and others, examined the objects. A celestial wind arose, stirring up dust, and after the wind subsided, a bronze talisman and silk scroll were found before the stone. The inscription read: ‘Heaven bestows the imperial talisman; those who present it shall be ennobled. Accept the mandate of Heaven and act according to divine command.’ Cavalry Commandant Cui Fa and others witnessed this. Reflecting on Emperor Ai’s decree in the 2nd year of Jianping, which changed the reign title to the 1st year of Taichu Yuanjiang, I reviewed the records in the Orchid Pavilion archives. The satirical writings of Gan Zhongke and Xia Heliang were also preserved there. I believe the reign title *Yuanjiang* referred to the regency of a grand general, which aligns with the current situation.  

The *Kang Gao* chapter of the *Book of Documents* states: ‘The king said: “My uncle, Marquis Meng, my younger brother, Xiaozi Feng.”’ This is precisely the language used by the Duke of Zhou during his regency. The *Spring and Autumn Annals* does not explicitly mention Duke Yin’s ascension, yet it was a regency. These two classics, established by the Duke of Zhou and Confucius, serve as models for later generations. Confucius said: ‘Revere the mandate of Heaven, respect great men, and heed the words of sages.’ How could I, Wang Mang, dare to disobey? I request that we jointly serve the gods and ancestral temples, and that the Grand Empress Dowager and Empress Xiaoping be referred to as the Provisional Empresses. In decrees to the empire, it shall no longer be stated that I am acting as regent. Let the 3rd year of the Regency be renamed as the 1st year of the New Beginning. The water clock shall be adjusted to 120 beats per day to align with the mandate of Heaven. I shall continue to nurture and educate the Young Lord, guiding him to emulate King Cheng of Zhou, and proclaim the virtues of the Grand Empress Dowager to all corners of the realm. When the Young Lord reaches maturity and assumes the throne, it will follow the precedent of the Duke of Zhou.” This proposal was approved.  

The people came to understand that Wang Mang had received the divine mandate. The officials widely discussed and submitted further proposals to observe the gradual realization of his legitimacy.  

Meanwhile, Zhang Chong and five other guards conspired to abduct Wang Mang and install the King of Chu as emperor. The plot was discovered, and they were all executed.  

Ai Zhang, a man from Zitong, was a scholar in Chang’an who had no moral integrity and was known for boasting. Upon seeing Wang Mang’s regency, he crafted a bronze box with two compartments. One was labeled “Seal of the Celestial Emperor and the Gold Box Diagram,” and the other was labeled “Seal of the Red Emperor and the Gold Records Passed to the Yellow Emperor.” The “Red Emperor” referred to Emperor Gaozu of Han. The inscriptions declared that Wang Mang was the true Son of Heaven, and the Empress Dowager acted according to the will of Heaven. The diagrams listed Wang Mang’s eight ministers and included the names of Wang Xing and Wang Sheng. Ai Zhang even changed his own name and appointed himself and ten others as officials to support Wang Mang.  

After hearing about the new well in Qi and the stone ox, Ai Zhang donned yellow robes, holding the bronze box, and presented it at the High Temple, delivering it to the Supervisor. The Supervisor reported the matter. On the day Wuchen, Wang Mang went to the High Temple to receive the divine decree from the gold box. Wearing the imperial crown, he paid homage to the Empress Dowager and returned to the front hall of Weiyang Palace to issue a decree:  

“I, lacking virtue, am entrusted as a descendant of Emperor Huang, progeny of Emperor Shun, and a distant relative of the Grand Empress Dowager. The Supreme Heaven has bestowed its great favor, issuing a mandate to unify the realm. The talismans, diagrams, and inscriptions in the gold box are divine decrees, entrusting me with the empire and its people. The spirit of Emperor Gaozu of Han, the Red Emperor, has received Heaven’s mandate and passed down the golden records to the nation. I am deeply reverent and dare not refuse. On the day Wuchen, I shall don the imperial crown and formally ascend as the true Son of Heaven, establishing the name of the empire as ‘Xin.’  

The calendar shall be reformed, the colors of attire shall be changed, sacrificial animals shall be altered, banners and insignias shall be redesigned, and ceremonial objects shall be modified. The 1st day of the 12th month, marked by the day Guiyou, shall be the beginning of the founding year of the Xin dynasty, with the first month starting anew. The time of day shall be marked by the crowing of roosters. Attire shall be yellow to correspond with virtue, sacrificial animals shall be white to signify correctness, and the flags and banners of envoys shall be pure yellow. Their titles shall be inscribed as ‘Envoys of the Five Powers of Xin,’ bearing the mandate of the Supreme Heaven.”