Real Histories
They say that women are naturally beautiful, kind-hearted, intelligent, and shrewd, making them the most exquisite beings in the world. They do not have sharp claws to satisfy their appetites, nor strong limbs to avoid danger, nor feathers to withstand the cold and heat, so they must rely on external resources to survive, depending on kindness, fairness, and smarts rather than brute force, which is why they are so precious. Therefore, without love, people cannot unite; without unity, they cannot overcome external challenges; and without overcoming these challenges, survival is impossible. But even with unity, scarce resources breed conflict. Those sages, from the beginning, prioritize respect and love, and everyone was completely won over and followed her. Following her, a group forms; her followers become her subjects, making her a ruler. As the *Hong Fan* states, "The emperor is the father and mother of the people, the king of the world." The sages define the monarch based on this principle, saying that the monarch is like a parent, explaining that benevolence, virtue, and humility are the foundation of kingship. Respect sustains love, authority sustains virtue; hence the rituals promoting respect and laws upholding authority.
Since the sage possesses a wise nature, he must be able to understand the ways of heaven and earth. Therefore, he established rituals, created education, and enacted laws and punishments, all to reflect the will of the people and mirror the order of heaven and earth. Thus, it is said that the ancient kings established rituals to "mirror the light of heaven and earth." Punishments, including imprisonment, were seen as mirroring the power of heavenly thunder and retribution; benevolence and harmony reflected the cyclical nature of life in heaven and earth. The "Book of Documents" states that "Heaven has its own rites and order; heaven punishes the guilty." Therefore, the sage established the Five Rites according to the order of heaven and the Five Punishments according to its retribution. The most severe punishments involved the sword, followed by the axe; less severe punishments involved knives and saws, or drilling; the lightest punishment was whipping. Major crimes were punished by execution in the wilds; lesser crimes in the marketplace. These punishments, then, were divinely ordained.
The Yellow Emperor's victory at Zhuolu quelled the problem of fire; Zhuanxu suppressed Gonggong's rebellion and ended the great flood. Even under the peaceful reigns of Yao, Shun, Yu, and Tang, rebellions flared up. Gonggong, Fuxun, and Sanmiao rose up in revolt. Gun had to be executed to restore order. Even the Xia dynasty, known for the Gan Shi oath, relied on warfare, as did the Shang and Zhou dynasties that followed.
Once things settled down, they put down their swords and spears and started using culture and morals to teach the people right from wrong. At the same time, they retained official positions such as Sima, established an army, and collected taxes according to the well-field system. One li of land is a well-field; ten well-fields make up a unit, ten units make up a group, and a group is ten li square. Ten groups make up a region, ten regions make up a province, and a province is one hundred li square. Ten provinces make up a state, and ten states make up a territory, which is one thousand li square. There are two types of taxes in the country: taxes are used to ensure that the people have food to eat, while levies are used to support the army. Therefore, four well-fields make up a village, and four villages make up a county. A county has sixteen well-fields, equipped with one horse, three cows. Four counties make up a district, and a district has sixty-four well-fields, equipped with four horses, one chariot, twelve cows, three armored soldiers, and seventy-two soldiers, fully equipped with weapons. This is called the "cavalry system."
A region (one hundred li square) has ten thousand well-fields. Excluding mountains, rivers, cities, residences, gardens, roads, etc., there are three thousand six hundred well-fields left, which can collect taxes equivalent to six thousand four hundred well-fields, equivalent to four hundred horses and one hundred chariots. This is the largest scale of land for a lord, known as the "hundred chariots family." A province (three hundred and sixteen li square) has one hundred thousand well-fields, which can collect taxes equivalent to sixty-four thousand well-fields, equivalent to four thousand horses and one thousand chariots. This is the largest scale of land for a noble, known as the "thousand chariots country." The Emperor's territory in the capital is one thousand li square, with one million well-fields, which can collect taxes equivalent to six hundred forty thousand well-fields, equivalent to forty thousand horses and ten thousand chariots. That's why they called him the "lord of ten thousand chariots."
The war horses, vehicles, and weapons were all ready. Spring brought troop patrols, summer saw them going to war, fall was for army training, and winter was for large-scale military exercises, all during the farming off-season. Five countries formed a division with a leader, ten countries formed a brigade with a commander, thirty countries formed a regiment with a captain, and two hundred and fourteen countries formed a province with a governor. The troops in a brigade had to inspect vehicles annually, the troops in a regiment had to inspect soldiers every three years, and the troops in each province had to conduct large-scale inspections of vehicles and soldiers every five years. This was the general strategy of ancient emperors for establishing a country and maintaining a powerful army.
The system of the Zhou Dynasty declined, and laws were relaxed, until Duke Huan of Qi appointed Guan Zhong. The country became prosperous, and the people lived in peace and contentment. Duke Huan asked Guan Zhong about the strategy for leading troops in battle. Guan Zhong said, "If you want to organize the army and repair weapons and equipment, a large country will do the same. If a small country only prepares for these, it will be difficult to achieve its goals quickly." So, Guan Zhong first managed internal affairs well, then integrated military discipline into them. As a result, the army was orderly in the countryside, and military management extended to the outskirts. He grouped the soldiers into teams of ten and five, letting them live together, sharing weal and woe. Night battles found them supporting each other. Daylight battles saw the same. They were brothers in arms, ready for anything. Once the army was well-trained, Duke Huan of Qi launched expeditions against neighboring tribes, respected the Emperor internally, and brought peace to the warring states.
After Duke Huan of Qi died, Duke Wen of Jin took over. He first brought stability to the people, established the Beilu system (a kind of militia system), led the vassal states, and rotated as the alliance leader. However, his ritual system was pretty lavish, and he often cut corners in pursuit of quick success, so he did not completely follow the Zhou royal system. After Duke Huan of Qi and Duke Wen of Jin, the vassal states gradually declined. By the time of Duke Cheng of Lu, the Qiujia system (a kind of conscription system) was introduced, and during the reign of Duke Ai, land tax was levied. The activities of recruiting, hunting, military drills, and grand reviews all went by the wayside. The "Spring and Autumn Annals" recorded and criticized these events to uphold the king's authority. As a result, wars occurred frequently, the people were worn out, and the spirit of giving their all for the country was lost. Confucius was deeply saddened by this and said, "If you don't train your people to fight, you're abandoning them." So he praised Zilu, saying, "Zilu, a kingdom with a thousand chariots, you can let him manage the tax." Zilu also said, "A kingdom with a thousand chariots, caught between bigger powers, facing war and famine, if I were to govern, within three years, I could make the people brave and disciplined." This refers to managing taxes, the army, and instilling discipline. During the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, small states were annexed, leading to the seven warring states. Each state began to focus on military exercises as entertainment and a show of force. The state of Qin even rebranded wrestling (Jiaodi), causing the rituals of the former kings to be drowned out by debauchery.
At that time, many outstanding military strategists seized the opportunity, using ruthless power plays against each other. Figures like Sun Wu, Sun Bin, Wu Qi, and Shang Yang all achieved brilliant military successes and left behind influential works on military strategy. The states were locked in a constant struggle for power, forging alliances and then shattering them in a whirlwind of conflict. King Min of Qi relied on a formidable army, King Hui of Wei on an elite fighting force, and King Zhao of Qin on a highly disciplined military, all of them achieving victories. The pursuit of power and territory consumed everyone, and military strategists looked to Sun Wu and Wu Qi as their guiding lights. Only Mr. Sun Qing saw through the true principles of righteous governance. He criticized, "Sun Wu and Wu Qi pursued interests and advocated cunning schemes; they applied these in chaotic and incompetent countries, where there was estrangement between ruler and minister, discord between superiors and subordinates, and poor political strategies. This is why they could win using schemes. If a benevolent ruler is in power and the people support him, like children protecting their family, bound by loyalty and love, who can defeat him? When neighboring countries see us, they are as close as family and as welcoming as a blossoming garden, but when they see our ruler, they are as fearful as seeing enemies. Why would the people attack those they love and support those they despise? Therefore, a tyrant might defeat another tyrant, but attempting to deceive a righteous ruler is like cracking an egg against a stone—utterly futile. The Book of Songs says, 'King Wu raised the flag, holding the jade tablet devoutly, as fierce as fire; no one dared to stop him.' This shows that a ruler who governs with benevolence and righteousness is invincible!"
The military tactics of the state of Qi could earn a reward for every head they brought back, allowing for surprise attacks against small enemies; however, they were completely inadequate when facing more powerful foes. This is the army of a doomed nation! The soldiers of the state of Wei wore triple-layered armor, carried crossbows that could pierce twelve layers of armor, and had fifty arrows on their backs. They also wielded spears, donned helmets, carried swords, and brought three days' worth of rations. Capable of marching one hundred miles a day, they were given land and restored to full citizenship after winning battles. Despite their vast land and large population, tax revenue was low because their physical strength would decline in a few years. This system, however, was inherently unstable!
The people of the state of Qin lived in hardship, ruled through terror, grinding their people into poverty, dangling rewards before them, and enforcing their will with brutal laws. Survival depended on service, and service meant rewards and advancement. Merits and rewards continued to increase, with five-man squads responsible to five families, establishing a clear system of responsibility, which is why the state of Qin could dominate for generations. However, this was a system based purely on reward, lacking stability and moderation. Thus, despite having a vast territory and a strong army, they constantly feared a coalition of their enemies.
As for the armies of Duke Huan of Qi and Duke Wen of Jin, they maintained discipline even in enemy territory. However, they had not yet based their actions on benevolence and righteousness. Therefore, Qi's tactics were no match for Wei's, Wei's for Qin's, Qin's for those of Huan and Wen, and those of Huan and Wen paled in comparison to the righteous armies of King Tang and King Wu.
A master strategist can subdue the enemy without displaying their formations; those skilled in deploying troops can win without engaging in battle; those adept in battle will not be defeated; and those who handle defeat well will not perish. Look at Emperor Shun who governed the world, appointing Jiuyao as his prime minister. Despite the chaos of "rebels and bandits," he was able to govern well without resorting to punishment, which is an example of being skilled in warfare without displaying formations.
When King Tang and King Wu went to war, although they displayed their formations and called upon their armies, they easily overthrew Jie and Zhou without engaging in battle, which is an example of being skilled in deploying troops and winning without fighting. Duke Huan of Qi conquered the powerful Chu state in the south, making Chu pay tribute to Zhou; he also defeated the Mountain Rong in the north, opening up a path for the Yan state. He salvaged a crumbling kingdom and became the leader of the vassal states, which is an example of being skilled in battle and not being defeated.
King Zhao of Chu was invaded by King Helu of Wu, and his country was destroyed. He fled, and the folks are all back! King Zhao said, "Are we still lacking a king?" The elders replied, "With you leadin' us, we're good!" Everyone followed him. Some folks ran to Qin, beggin' for help, and Qin sent troops. With the combined efforts of both states, they defeated the Wu army, and that's how King Zhao got his kingdom back!
The state of Qin, relying on the victories of four generations, occupied strategic positions and employed brutal generals like Bai Qi and Wang Jian, who were bloodthirsty, conquering cities and territories, ultimately annexing the six states and unifying the realm. However, their brutal conquests and merciless rule led to discontent among the people and resentment among the soldiers. Eventually, they crumbled under the weight of chaos, leading to the downfall of the Qin dynasty. This is the consequence of failure. The bottom line is, the use of military force should be to defend the country, protect it from threats, and eliminate harm. Therefore, generals like Yi Yin and Lv Shang, and their descendants, were able to establish states alongside the Shang and Zhou dynasties.
Later on, those who relied only on trickery and brute force, satisfying greed and brutality, attacked cities and killed people, leaving streets and fields piled high with corpses in their quest for land and power. Sun Wu, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and Bai Qi—despite their battlefield victories—all met their ends, their states falling with them. Their downfall was swift—karma's a bitch.
After the establishment of the Han dynasty, Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang, gathered numerous heroes and eliminated the Qin dynasty and Xiang Yu through his bravery and benevolence. He employed civil officials like Xiao He and Cao Shen, strategists like Zhang Liang and Chen Ping, and implemented a system of rites like that of Shusun Tong, excelling at both governing and warfare. After unifying the realm, the Han dynasty followed the system of the Qin dynasty, putting officials in charge of the counties and keeping the Northern and Southern armies in the capital.
During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, they conquered the Southern Yue, added seven military academies domestically, and strengthened naval forces with regular drills to enhance military readiness. In the era of Emperor Yuan of Han, they did away with things like the Corner Market, but they didn't really reform or train their army.
They say, "The heavens have created all kinds of things, and the common people must use them all. You can't do without any of them. Who can cancel war?" You can't do without discipline at home, the country's punishments cannot be abolished, and you can't stop wars. You gotta use 'em wisely, and know when to push and when to hold back. Confucius said, "To do a good job, one must first sharpen one's tools." A good ruler needs kindness as his main tool, and force as backup. The deeper the influence of benevolent governance, the more military force can conquer; the wider the scope of benevolent governance, the wider the control of military force. During the golden age of the three dynasties, punishments were rarely used, and there were almost no wars because they handled things in an orderly manner, which was the highest achievement of emperors.
The laws of the Zhou Dynasty formulated three types of punishments to govern the country according to its situation, targeting different circumstances:
- The first type, for newly established countries, uses relatively light punishments.
- The second type, for peaceful countries, uses moderate punishments.
- The third type, for chaotic countries, uses relatively heavy punishments.
Five hundred lashes for each of these crimes: facial tattoos, nose-cutting, castration, foot-cutting, and death. Anyone who commits murder is paraded through the marketplace; those who receive tattoos are made to guard the city gates; those who are nose-cut are made to guard the passes; those who receive castration are made to guard the palace; those who are foot-cut are made to guard the gardens; those who have not received any punishment are made to guard the warehouses. Their slaves, men do hard labor, women pound rice. Nobles, the elderly, and children were exempt from slavery.
After the Zhou Dynasty's weakening, King Mu was a lousy and debauched ruler, so he allowed Fu Hou (a high-ranking official) to establish a new set of laws to govern the country according to the situation at that time. There were one thousand laws related to branding, one thousand laws related to slashing faces, five hundred laws related to kneecapping, three hundred laws related to eunuching, and two hundred laws related to death. These five punishments totaled three thousand, much more than the five hundred punishments typical of a peaceful time.
During the Spring and Autumn period, things were pretty chaotic, the king's authority was crumbling, education failed, and Zichan, the Prime Minister of the State of Zheng, drew up a new legal code.
Duke Xiang of Jin disagreed. He said, "In the past, wise kings governed the country by governing through systems and institutions, not by intimidating people with laws. Even if people harbor conflict, it's hard to prevent entirely. Therefore, they led with morality, corrected with good governance, regulated behavior with ritual, maintained order through honesty, and ruled with benevolence. They established official positions and titles to encourage hard work, used severe punishments to deter those who violate the law and discipline, and fostered loyalty, diligence, and good conduct. Additionally, they needed wise and insightful officials, loyal and trustworthy administrators, benevolent superiors, and compassionate teachers. Only then could the common people obey orders, society be stable, and unrest be avoided. If the common people know that there are legal provisions to rely on, they will not fear their superiors. Once they have thoughts of conflict, they will take legal provisions to court, win by chance, which would be a disaster! The Xia Dynasty established the Yu punishment due to political chaos, the Shang Dynasty established the Tang punishment due to political chaos, and the Zhou Dynasty established the Nine punishments due to political chaos. These three severe punishments all appeared during the decline of the dynasties. Now, as the Prime Minister of the State of Zheng, you have established such severe punishments and created a penal code in order to stabilize the people. This is too difficult! The *Classic of Poetry* says, 'The rites and laws reflect the virtue of King Wen, bringing peace to the four directions every day.' It also says, 'Following the system of King Wen, all the princes of the world are convinced.' If this is so, why the need for harsh laws? Once the common people know they can fight with legal provisions, they will abandon etiquette and rely on legal provisions to solve problems. People would squabble over anything, lawsuits would multiply, and bribery would become rampant."
Before you die, the state of Zheng will be utterly ruined!
Zichan replied, "Like you mentioned, my abilities are limited, and I cannot do as you said. I'm merely hoping to avert disaster." Imprudent policies proliferated. Confucius felt regretful and said, "Moral guidance and ritual observance foster a sense of shame, leading to a stable society. Superficial obedience masks a loss of shame if only political means are used to restrain the people and criminal law is employed for punishment." Prosperous ritual and music are essential for just punishment; without them, the people will not know how to act. Meng Shi dispatched Yang Fu, his judge, to consult Zengzi. Zengzi also said, "The elite have strayed, leaving the populace fragmented. Understanding the people's plight demands compassion, not schadenfreude."
During the Warring States period, Han Zhao Hou appointed Shen Bu Hai, and the Qin state employed Shang Yang. They both implemented collective punishment and established cruel punishments, increasing corporal and capital punishments, including such tortures as decapitation, rib extraction, and boiling alive.
Speaking of Qin Shi Huang, after unifying the six states, he abolished the laws of the previous kings, eliminated the official positions for education in rituals and music, and ruled solely through punishment. He personally handled documents, judged cases during the day, reviewed memorials at night, and dealt with so many public affairs every day that they piled up like mountains of stones. As a result, the number of wicked people increased, prisoners in scarlet garb clogged the streets, prisons overflowed like marketplaces, and the populace seethed with discontent, leading to a rebellion that overthrew his rule.
After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, Liu Bang had just entered Guanzhong and formulated the "Three Chapters Law": those who kill will die, and those who injure or steal will be punished. His simplification of harsh laws brought great relief to the common people. However, foreign tribes remained unsubdued, and warfare persisted. The "Three Chapters Law" was not enough to govern the wicked, so Xiao He referred to the laws of the Qin Dynasty, selected some articles suitable for the current situation, and formulated the Nine Chapters Law.
During the reigns of Emperor Hui and Empress Dowager Gao, the common people had just escaped from the cruel rule of the Qin Dynasty. Everyone hoped to live peaceful lives and honor their parents. Xiao He and Cao Shen served as prime ministers and adopted a hands-off approach, following the will of the people and not disturbing them. As a result, people were getting richer, and the use of punishments decreased.
After Emperor Wen of Han ascended to the throne, he governed diligently and encouraged the development of agriculture and sericulture, reducing taxes. The government officials at that time were all old veterans who had followed him in conquering the world. Although their cultural level was not high, they were honest and kind-hearted. Having seen what happened under the Qin, they advocated for leniency and kindness in their discussions, unwilling to easily blame others for their faults. This atmosphere spread throughout the country, reducing the phenomenon of mutual reporting. Officials were content with their duties, the people lived in peace and prosperity, savings in every household increased year by year, and the population gradually grew. Society was more honest, and the laws were more relaxed. Emperor Wen even appointed Zhang Shizhi as the Minister of Justice, leaning towards lighter sentences for cases in doubt. As a result, the use of punishments greatly decreased, with as few as four hundred cases judged in a whole year, which was extremely rare at that time.
It is said that Chunyu Gong, the magistrate of Taicang, had served for thirteen years and committed a crime, facing punishment. The court ordered him to be arrested and sent to the prison in Chang'an. Chunyu Gong had no sons, only five daughters. Seeing that he was about to be taken away, he angrily scolded his daughters, saying, "All these daughters, and not a single son to help me now!"
His youngest daughter, Tiying, was heartbroken to hear this, sobbing her heart out. She followed her father to Chang'an. When they arrived in Chang'an, she wrote a letter to the emperor, saying: "My father used to be an official in Qi, where everyone said he was a man of integrity. Now, he’s facing punishment for breaking the law. I feel so upset—once a person's dead, they're dead; once they've been punished, there's no going back. Even if they want to make amends in the future, they won’t have the chance. I’m willing to be a servant to redeem my father’s sins and give him a chance to start afresh."
After reading Tiying's letter, the emperor was moved by her filial piety and issued a decree: "Listen up, officials! I've heard that way back when, in the days of Emperor Yao, they only used different hats and clothes to distinguish criminals, and the people dared not commit crimes. That was some effective governance! Now, even though there are three types of corporal punishment in the law, crimes keep piling up. Is it because of my failure to guide my people? I’m truly ashamed! The ancients said that if the people aren’t properly educated, they’ll make mistakes. The Book of Songs says: 'A kind and compassionate ruler is like the people's parents.' Nowadays, some people make mistakes, but before they can be taught, they’re punished. Some want to reform, but they have no chance. I truly pity them! Those barbaric punishments—mutilation—are lifelong suffering, too cruel, with no benefits at all! This isn’t how a parent of the people should act! Therefore, we must abolish corporal punishment and replace it with other penalties; we also need to specify appropriate punishments based on the severity of the crime so that criminals can't escape and can be released after serving a few years in prison. Let’s get this decree established right away!"
Prime Minister Zhang Cang and Chief Inspector Feng Jing submitted a memorial, saying: "The use of corporal punishment to punish wrongdoers has been around for a long time. Your Majesty, by issuing this decree, shows sympathy for those who have made mistakes, exempting them from lifelong punishment and giving them the opportunity to reform themselves. Such benevolence far exceeds our capacity for admiration! Therefore, we suggest amending the law: those who should receive castration will instead be sentenced to hard labor; those who should receive facial tattoos will have their heads shaved and be put in leg irons for hard labor; those who should be subjected to nose-cutting will be whipped three hundred times; those who should have their left toes amputated will be whipped five hundred times; those who should have their right toes amputated, as well as those who voluntarily surrender after committing murder, officials who take bribes and pervert the law, embezzle public funds, and those who should have been sentenced to death but also receive whipping, will all be sentenced to death. After serving three years of hard labor, they will clean graves and pound rice for a year, then serve a year as a slave before regaining their freedom. Two years of slavery, or one year as a minor official, also grants freedom. This doesn't apply to escapees or those with more serious crimes. Those who have served hard labor without being imprisoned will be exempt from punishment based on their years of service. We're risking our necks on this, Your Majesty. Please approve." The Emperor said, "Approved!" However, although the punishment appeared to be lighter, in reality, it made it easier for people to die. Ironically, the reforms often proved fatal; those who should have their right toes amputated still ended up dead, those who should have their left toes amputated were whipped five hundred times, and those who should have been subjected to nose-cutting were whipped three hundred times, resulting in many deaths.
In the first year of Emperor Jing's reign, the emperor decreed, "Whipping is no different from a serious crime. Even if they survive, they'll be a wreck. Therefore, the laws will be modified: five hundred lashes will be reduced to three hundred, and three hundred lashes will be reduced to two hundred." However, prison conditions remained dire. By the sixth year of Emperor Jing's reign, the emperor decreed again, "Sometimes people die before the whipping is finished, and my heart goes out to them. Therefore, three hundred lashes will be reduced to two hundred, and two hundred lashes will be reduced to one hundred." He also said, "Whipping is for their education, so the specifications of the whip must be regulated." Prime Minister Liu She and Chief Imperial Censor Wei Wan suggested, "The whip should be five feet long and an inch thick, made of bamboo. The tip should taper to half an inch, and the nodes must be smoothed. When whipping, the buttocks should be targeted. Each charge gets its own whipping, no switching between crimes." Since then, those subjected to whipping were able to survive, but the cruel officials still used whipping to intimidate people. The death penalty was harsh, but whipping was too lenient, leading to a rise in crime.
During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, there were some victories in external battles, but internally, there was a lot of flashy nonsense, constant drafting of people for forced labor, and the people were impoverished. Poor people who committed crimes faced harsh punishments from cruel officials, and corruption was everywhere. Zhang Tang and Zhao Yu were then appointed to formulate laws and regulations, implementing a strategy of winking at cases involving the powerful while quickly sentencing minor cases. As a result, cunning individuals exploited legal loopholes, competing with each other, which led to increasingly stringent laws and regulations. There were a total of 359 chapters of laws, 409 articles related to capital punishment, 1,882 specific charges, and over 13,472 cases resulting in the death penalty! The palace was filled with memorials, and officials couldn’t keep up. Consequently, law enforcement was inconsistent across regions, with different punishments for the same crimes. Corrupt officials took advantage of this loophole to line their pockets, fixing things for their friends and framing people to persecute the common folks.
Emperor Xuan, having witnessed these chaotic circumstances among the people, received a report from Ting Shilu Wenshu, stating that one of the reasons for the fall of the Qin Dynasty was still unresolved—the officials responsible for hearing cases. You can read all about it in *Wenshu's Biography*. Emperor Xuan sympathized with this and decreed, "Recently, law enforcement officials have become increasingly adept at manipulating words, and this is my fault. The false and unjust cases have caused good people to suffer and allowed the wicked to escape justice, causing grief to families. This really gets to me. I will send Ting Shi to various regions to settle cases. Their salaries won't be high, and four Ting Ping officials will be appointed with a salary of 600 stones. They are to handle cases fairly and meet my requirements." Thus, Dingguo was appointed as Ting Wei, and honest and upright individuals like Huang Ba were selected as Ting Ping officials. They began hearing cases after autumn. At that time, the emperor often handled cases in the Xuan Room after fasting, and things were said to be running smoothly in the prisons.
At this time, the Prefect of Zhuo County, Zheng Chang, submitted a memorial, saying: "A good emperor establishes advisors not to show off his power, but to prevent arrogance and complacency; the point of laws is to prevent the decline of the country. Your Majesty is perceptive; even without establishing a court, justice will be clear. If we think about future emperors, it would be better to amend the laws. Simple laws help the common people know what to do, and crooked officials won't be able to get away with anything. Not fixing the real problem now, but just dealing with the symptoms by establishing a court, if the emperor's lazy and things are rotten, those guys will run amok and cause a whole heap of trouble." Emperor Xuan had not yet had the chance to amend the laws.
When the Yuan Dynasty was newly established, the emperor decreed: "Laws are supposed to suppress violence, support the weak, and make people afraid to break them while being easy to avoid breaking. But there are too many complicated and confusing laws; even lawyers are confused, and they expect everyone to follow them? No way! We should discuss which laws can be abolished or lightened, then report it, with the sole purpose of keeping everyone happy and safe."
Next, during the reign of Emperor Yuanchengzong of the Yuan Dynasty, the emperor issued a decree saying, "The *Fu Xing* says there are three thousand crimes related to the five punishments, and two hundred related to the death penalty. However, there are now over a thousand regulations related to the death penalty, and the laws are complex and lengthy, with over a million words. All sorts of weird add-ons and side clauses are popping up all the time; even lawyers are scratching their heads, let alone the average Joe! Using such complex laws to restrain the common people leads to innocent people being wronged, and even losing their lives—this is very sad! Let's get the top brass, the legal eagles, and the experts together to hash this out, see how to reduce the death penalty, which laws can be abolished or simplified, and make the legal provisions clear and easy to understand before we submit them. Like it says, 'You gotta be careful with punishments!' Everyone must carefully review; it must comply with the spirit of ancient laws, and I will carefully review it." However, those officials, unlike Zhongshan's father, who was a talented man capable of widely promoting the emperor's grace according to the changes of the times, establishing a complete system, and formulating laws suitable for this era, only focus on trivial matters to get by and deal with things perfunctorily. Therefore, major reform plans have not been implemented until now. Some people say that laws should not be changed frequently; this is because those clueless bureaucrats do not understand and suspect that it blocks the way of governing the country, which is a problem that wise and enlightened monarchs often worry about. So, let me give you a quick rundown of how laws have evolved since the Han Dynasty, looking at both the past and present.
During the early days of the Han Dynasty, although there were just three basic laws, the legal system had numerous loopholes, like a sieve that even large fish could slip through. However, in terms of capital punishment, there was still the cruel practice of collective punishment. The law stipulated: "Those facing collective punishment must first be branded, then have their noses cut off, their toes amputated, before being whipped to death, beheaded, and their remains displayed in the marketplace." If one committed slander or cursing, their tongues would be cut off first. This is why it is called the "Five Punishments" (a historical concept in Chinese law). People like Peng Yue and Han Xin were subjected to such cruel punishments.
It was not until the first year of the reign of the first emperor of the Han Dynasty, Gaozu, that the practice of collective punishment and the charge of spreading false rumors were abolished.
In 178 BC, Emperor Han Wen issued an order to the prime minister, grand marshal, and imperial censor, saying: "The law is the standard for governing the country, used to prohibit evil and protect the good. Those who have broken the law have already been punished, but their parents, wives, children, and siblings have also been arrested due to their involvement. I'm strongly against this. Let's discuss this matter."
Prime Minister Zhou Bo and Prime Minister Chen Ping submitted a memorial saying: "Arresting parents, wives, children, and siblings due to their involvement will undermine their morale and make them more likely to commit crimes again. This practice of collective punishment has been going on for a long time. In our opinion, it is better to follow the old rules."
Emperor Han Wen said again: "Fair laws make honest people; clear penalties ensure obedience. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of officials to educate and guide the people. If officials cannot do this and use unjust laws to punish them, the law will harm the people and become tyranny. It might be easier this way, but we need to think this through."
Zhou Bo and Chen Ping said, "Your Majesty, showing such mercy to the people – letting the guilty off without punishing their families, and the innocent go free – you have truly performed a great deed. As your subjects, we cannot reach this level. We have followed your decree and completely abolished the laws of guilt by association and the provisions of implication."
Later, Xinyuan Ping plotted a rebellion and once again implemented the severe punishment of implicating three generations. From this incident, it can be seen that social customs can change. Human nature may be similar, but habits can vary greatly. Even a good guy like Emperor Wen of Han, and smart guys like Zhou Bo and Chen Ping, could screw up this badly, let alone those who are incompetent and only concerned with immediate benefits.
The "Rites of Zhou" stipulates five hearings, eight deliberations, three inquiries, three pardons, and three amnesties as methods for handling cases. The original text of the "Rites of Zhou" is here, so I will not translate it. In simple terms, five hearings meant a thorough investigation; eight deliberations involved considering the various special identities and circumstances of the offenders; three inquiries meant collecting information widely; three pardons allowed for forgiving minor faults; and three amnesties involved pardoning certain special groups. As for the specific sentencing, the book states: serious crimes meant ankle and wrist shackles; moderate crimes, ankle shackles; and minor crimes, just wrist shackles; members of the royal family wore handcuffs, those with titles wore ankle shackles, and so on, depending on the circumstances.
In the seventh year of Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang's reign, he issued an order to the imperial censors, saying: lots of cases were stumping officials, leading to delays in sentencing those who should be sentenced and wrongful imprisonments. From now on, when local officials encounter difficult cases, they must seek judgment from higher-ranking officials (officials of the second rank), who must report based on legal provisions. If they are unable to make a decision, they should transfer the case to the Court of Judicial Review, which must also report. If the Court of Judicial Review is still unable to make a decision, they must write a detailed memorial explaining the legal provisions they are basing their decision on and submit it.
The emperor said so, but the officials below still did not implement it effectively. Therefore, in the fifth year of Emperor Jing's reign, he issued another decree, saying: For those difficult cases, even if they comply with legal provisions, if they seem unjust, they can be directly judged. As a result, the officials below began to find ways around the law again and did not work seriously. In the first year of Emperor Wu of Han's reign, he issued another order, saying: Judging cases is serious business; people vary in intelligence, and officials hold different positions. When encountering difficult cases, they must make careful judgments. Even if a judgment has been made, if it is later found to be incorrect, the person who made the judgment will not be considered wrong.
Since then, judicial trials have become more detailed and closer to ancient legal principles emphasizing careful consideration and leniency. Three years later, he issued another order, saying: The elderly and children should be respected and pitied; the elderly without family should be especially pitied. Therefore, it was stipulated that those over eighty years old, under eight years old, pregnant women who have not breastfed, and teachers and scholars who have committed crimes should be treated leniently.
In the fourth year of Emperor Xuan of Han's reign, he issued another decree, saying: I've considered that the elderly, frail and without rebellious intent, are unjustly imprisoned by technicalities, unable to die peacefully. I sympathize with them. From now on, those over eighty years old, if not accused of false charges or murder, will not be held accountable for other crimes. In the first year of Emperor Cheng of Han's reign, it was stipulated that children under seven years old, even if they commit serious crimes such as murder, should be reported to the court first to reduce punishment. These laws reflect the ancient practice of pardoning the elderly and infirm. These examples show how the law evolved to better serve the people, incorporating older principles of fairness and compassion.
Confucius said: "If there is a sage ruler, it takes a generation to achieve just rule; if virtuous people govern the country for a hundred years, it can reduce violent crime and unjust killings." When a sage ruler rises in a country that is declining and chaotic, and cultivates virtuous behavior among the people, it must take a generation for just rule to be established; even with indirect rule, governing the country for a hundred years can reduce violent crime and unjust killings. This is the basic law of governance. Now the Han Dynasty is strong and has lasted for over two hundred years. During the reigns of Emperor Zhao, Emperor Xuan, Emperor Yuan, Emperor Cheng, Emperor Ai, and Emperor Ping, the number of death sentences was about one thousand per year, while the actual number of people who should be sentenced to death is more than three times that. The ancients said: "You can't have a party when someone's crying in the corner." The ruler, in relation to the people of the country, is like the people drinking in the room; if someone doesn't receive fair treatment, the ruler will also feel sad. Now, thousands of people in various counties are executed every year, there are over two thousand prisons nationwide, countless innocent people have been executed, and the number of those detained in prisons is not decreasing but increasing. This explains the absence of social harmony.
Prisons are overflowing because there are no real rules or laws, people are poor, the rich and powerful are calling the shots, evil deeds go unpunished, and prison management is unjust. An old saying from the Book of Documents goes: "If Boyi implements a system of rites and laws, the people will only be subject to legal sanctions." It's saying that good laws and social norms prevent crime, like a dam controls floods. Now that the dam is broken, the rites are not established; there are too many death sentences, and even minor offenses are easily punished; people are starving and freezing, so criminals run wild; the powerful abuse their authority and line their pockets; evil deeds are concealed, making them even more rampant. Confucius put it this way: in the old days, good law meant less crime. Now, it's all about locking everyone up. Judges these days are always looking for reasons to hand out the death penalty. It's better to let a guilty person go free than to wrongly execute an innocent one. Prison guards just passed the buck, and being tough was the way to get ahead. There’s a saying: "It's like those coffin makers who hope for a plague every year – they don't hate people, they just profit from death." These are the main reasons for all the harsh punishments. Things were a lot calmer from Jianwu to Yongping. People were just trying to rebuild their lives after the wars, kind of like in the days of Gaozu and Huidi. Crime was way down. However, this doesn’t mean it was better than the golden ages of ancient times, but there were still problems, and the laws themselves weren't perfect.
Wow, Sun Qing's discussion on criminal law is really insightful! He said: "It's commonly believed that ancient governance was good, so there was no corporal punishment, only light punishments like facial tattoos or branding. Wearing straw sandals and ochre robes is not considered a real punishment, which is incorrect. If ancient governance was good, people would not commit crimes at all, so why would there be a need for corporal punishment? Not to mention those light punishments. If someone commits a crime and the punishment is very light, then murderers go unpunished, and those who inflict harm escape consequences. If the crime is serious but the punishment is light, the populace would be emboldened, and chaos will reign. The fundamental purpose of establishing criminal law is to deter violence and crime. If murderers go unpunished and those who harm others escape consequences, this is condoning violence! Therefore, those light punishments did not arise from the flourishing ancient times, but from the chaotic present. Titles, ranks, rewards, celebrations, and punishments must be in balance. Mismatches between virtue and rank, merit and reward, and crime and punishment are ominous signs. Quelling rebellion and executing traitors is the mark of a strong ruler. Murderers pay with their lives, and those who harm others are punished; this principle has been upheld by emperors throughout history, though its origins remain obscure. Therefore, in times of peace and prosperity, punishments are severe; in times of chaos, punishments are light. If you commit a crime in times of peace and prosperity, the punishment is severe; if you commit a crime in times of chaos, the punishment is light. As the *Book of Documents* states, 'Punishments vary in severity,' illustrating this very point." The principle of 'clear punishments' means that the law should reflect natural order; therefore, trivial penalties like wearing straw sandals and ochre robes are inappropriate.
Sun Qing is right. Let's analyze it from the perspective of popular opinion. He said that after Yu inherited the throne from Yao and Shun, he felt that his moral character was not as good as theirs, so he established corporal punishments. Tang and King Wu continued to use these punishments because things were much worse than in the time of Yao and Shun. Now, the Han Dynasty has inherited the aftermath of the decline of the Zhou Dynasty and the tyranny of the Qin Dynasty. Society is worse now than it was under Xia, Shang, and Zhou, yet the criminal laws still reflect the era of Yao and Shun. It's like trying to control a wild horse with a silken thread, which goes against the need to adapt to the times. Furthermore, the original intention of abolishing corporal punishment was to show compassion for the people. Now, with the removal of punishments like shaving the head and shackling, the use of the death penalty has increased to scare the common people. Doesn't this defeat the purpose? Therefore, the thousands of death row inmates each year are all due to the severity of the punishment. As for those who steal, fight and injure others, engage in promiscuity, and corrupt officials, light punishments like shaving the head are simply not enough to deter them. Hundreds of thousands are sentenced each year. The common people are neither afraid nor ashamed because the punishments are too lenient. Corrupt officials use killing thieves as a means of establishing authority, and those who specialize in killing are promoted and become wealthy, while those who act according to the law do not receive recognition. This undermines the legal system, creating countless problems. Therefore, even with strict prevention measures, it is impossible to stop evil. The heavier the punishment, the more unruly the people become. Generations of disregard for righteousness and centuries of brutality stem from this lack of ritual and justice.
We should seriously think about how to clean up the government, simplify the laws, cut back on some laws, and reduce the number of death penalty laws to around two hundred. For other crimes, bring back floggings and whippings for things like assault, theft, corrupt officials, and adultery. We should revert to corporal punishment for about three thousand offenses. Let's get rid of all the pointless, petty laws. This way, people will fear the punishment, and it’ll scare people straight. No more officials murdering innocent people, and there won't be any more confusing laws. Punishments will fit the crimes, protecting people's lives and being fair and just, like in the old days, which will help achieve social stability. We might not get back to the light punishments of the Cheng-Kang era, but at least we can strive to be as fair in judgments as Emperor Xiao Wen. The old saying goes: "Treat the people right, and Heaven will reward you," and as the old books say, "Do good work, and you'll live a long life." It's all about one person's good fortune bringing good luck to everyone.
The Six Classics, in the end, all point to the same truth, but getting the rituals and music right is key. If you’re a bit slack with etiquette, you'll end up a real brute; if the government ignores etiquette, the whole country goes to pot. We're full of heaven and earth's energy, and all those emotions – joy, anger, sorrow, happiness. We're born with these feelings, but we can't always control them; wise people can help us manage them, but they can't get rid of them entirely. Therefore, sages emulate heaven and earth, establishing ritual and music systems to communicate with the divine, regulate human relationships, rectify emotions, and control all things.
We have romantic feelings and jealousy, so we have wedding rituals; there's a pecking order, so we have these village drinking rituals; we grieve for the dead and miss those far away, so we have funeral rites; we respect our elders, hence the court ceremonies. Weeping is how we deal with grief; singing and dancing, with joy. Good people can express themselves freely; bad people are kept in check by rituals. Therefore, if marriage rituals are neglected, marriages will be miserable, and there'll be more adultery; if village drinking rituals are neglected, the pecking order falls apart, and everyone ends up fighting; if funeral rituals are neglected, families fall apart, and we get more ungrateful people; if court ceremony rituals are neglected, rulers and subjects get confused, and everyone starts stepping on each other. Therefore, Confucius said, "To keep the powerful happy and the people in line, nothing beats good manners; to change people's ways, nothing beats music." Get the etiquette, music, politics, and law right, and you'll have a good society.
Music is used to cultivate inner harmony, uniting people; etiquette is used to establish social order, differentiating individuals. Unity leads to harmony and closeness, while distinctions lead to mutual respect. With harmony and closeness, there is no resentment; with mutual respect, there is no conflict. Ruling the world through deference is the role of ritual and music. Ritual and music go hand in hand, forming a unity. The feeling of respect is difficult to express directly, so it is manifested through rituals such as ceremonial prostrations, courtesy, and bowing; the feeling of harmony and closeness is difficult to express directly, so it is conveyed through poetic recitation and orchestral music. The system of ritual and music emphasizes respect, not material possessions; it emphasizes joy, not noise. Therefore, Confucius said: "Is etiquette just about jade and silk? Is music just about bells and drums?" This is the essence of ritual and music. Understanding the essence of ritual and music can create it, while understanding the norms can pass it down; those who create it are sages, and those who pass it down are wise leaders.
They say that for a country to be strong, it must follow the old ways and adjust flexibly according to the changes of the times, cut what needs cutting, and add what needs adding to meet the will of the people. Gradually improving and perfecting, eventually achieving a golden age, the rituals will naturally be refined. The Zhou dynasty inherited the rituals of the Xia and Shang dynasties, with a very complete system of etiquette, rules for everything, and safeguards against trouble. Therefore, the Zhou dynasty had as many as three hundred ritual texts and three thousand rules of conduct. At that time, education flourished, people lived in peace, there were no disasters or wars, and the jails sat empty. This situation lasted for more than forty years. Confucius praised, "What a great age of culture! I will emulate the Zhou dynasty!" However, the Zhou dynasty later declined; the nobles broke the law, felt that the rituals were restricting them, and destroyed those texts. Later, the Qin dynasty burned books and buried scholars alive, ultimately leading to the downfall of the country. After the establishment of the Han dynasty, there were many things to fix, but Emperor Gaozu ordered Shusun Tong to establish a system of etiquette to regulate the hierarchy between ruler and subject. Emperor Gaozu grinned, "Now I know what it means to be emperor!" So he appointed Shusun Tong as the ritual master, allowing him to establish a system of etiquette. It wasn't perfect, but Shusun Tong got it done.
During the reign of Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty, Jia Yi believed: "The Han Dynasty has inherited the corrupt customs of the Qin Dynasty, where decency and morality have been abandoned. The situation has become so severe that some people are killing their parents and siblings, while others are stealing from temples. Court ministers are passing the buck over paperwork, leading to a decline in moral standards in society. People have become accustomed to this and think it is normal. To change these customs and get people back on track is not something that ordinary officials can achieve. The relationships between ruler and subject, superior and inferior, and family members aren't divinely ordained. They're human constructs. And as human constructs, they must be maintained, for neglect will lead to deterioration. The Han Dynasty has been established for over twenty years now, and it should establish systems and promote rites and music in order for the nobles to each know their place and for the people to be upright and virtuous, thereby reducing litigation." Jia Yi then drafted relevant ritual systems, which pleased Emperor Wen of Han. However, the ministers Jiang and Guan opposed it, so Jia Yi's suggestions were ultimately not adopted.
After Emperor Wu of Han ascended the throne, he wanted to promote outstanding talents, discuss the construction of a Mingtang, and establish ceremonial attire in order to create a peaceful and prosperous era. Unfortunately, Empress Dowager Dou favored Huang-Lao philosophy and wasn't keen on Confucianism, so the whole thing got shelved.
Later, Dong Zhongshu wrote a letter to the emperor, saying, "Your Majesty, if you wish to achieve great things, you should seek the root from the Way of Heaven. The greatest feature of the Way of Heaven lies in Yin and Yang. Yang represents virtue, while Yin represents punishment. The Yang energy in the sky resides in summer, nurturing all things; winter's Yin energy lies dormant, conserving its strength and not easily exerting its influence. Therefore, it is clear that Heaven values virtue over punishment. Yang energy bestows blessings upon all things, directing the cyclical rhythm of the year; Yin energy lurks underground, assisting Yang energy when needed. Without the support of Yin energy, Yang energy alone cannot complete the annual cycle. Kings should follow the Way of Heaven, thus emphasizing governance through virtue and moral cultivation, while reducing punishment. Punishment cannot be used to govern the world, just as Yin energy cannot complete the cycle of the four seasons alone. By abolishing the previous emphasis on governance through virtue and moral cultivation, and relying solely on law enforcement officials to govern the people, it is difficult to spread virtue throughout the world. Therefore, the ancient sage kings prioritized education, establishing universities for nationwide instruction and local schools for ethical cultivation in each county. With clear instruction, society would be harmonious, with minimal conflict, and there would be very little crime. However, during the Zhou dynasty, rulers became cruel, losing control of the world. The Qin dynasty followed, becoming even more severe. History shows that chaos never begets order, resulting in the downfall of the world like the Qin dynasty. Customs deteriorated, and people deceived each other. Even now, during the Han dynasty following the Qin dynasty, it is impossible to govern effectively. After laws are enacted, corruption flourished, and deceit was rampant after orders were issued. There are countless cases throughout the year, like trying to quench a fire with more fire; it only makes matters worse. For example, when a musical instrument is out of tune, it must be dismantled and readjusted to play a harmonious melody. When governing a country fails, serious changes must be made to govern effectively. Therefore, since the Han dynasty took power, they have been striving to govern diligently, but have not been able to eliminate cruelty and killings because they have not made necessary changes. As the ancients said, 'Wishing for fish is less effective than casting a net.' Now that you have been in power for over seventy years, it is better to step back and embrace change. By embracing change, Your Majesty can secure lasting peace and prosperity for the empire."
At that time, the court was busy conquering the barbarians, focusing solely on military achievements and paying no attention to all that fancy etiquette and book learnin'. During the reign of Emperor Xuan, Langye Marquis Ji served as a censor and wrote to the emperor: "A truly great leader who governs a country well is not something that happens often. The officials and ministers of the court are fortunate to be in such a good era, but they have failed to establish a governance strategy that can be passed down through the ages, nor have they been able to recommend wise and virtuous monarchs like in the prosperous eras of the past. They were all caught up in handling documents, adjudicating cases, and listening to lawsuits, which are not the essence of good times!"
"Nowadays, the methods used by ordinary officials to govern the people lack proper rules and right ways. They rely on their own ideas to make whatever they felt like. This led to cheating and forgery everywhere, harsher punishments, and people losing their kindness and caring for each other. Confucius said, 'To keep things running smoothly, and look after the people, nothing beats proper rules and ways of doing things.' This is not just empty talk! I hope Your Majesty, along with the ministers and scholars, can restore the ancient system of rituals and clarify the rules and regulations of the emperor, guiding the people of the world towards a good life. Wouldn't our people be just as good, and live just as long?" The emperor did not accept his advice, and Wang Ji resigned from his position due to illness.
During the reign of Emperor Cheng of Han, sixteen ancient stone tablets were unearthed by the river in Jianwei County, which was seen as a good omen. Liu Xiang took this opportunity to advise the emperor: "We should build that Bi Yong place, establish schools, get everyone singing and dancing to the right tunes, spread nice tunes and songs, demonstrate nice manners and respect, and use these to educate the people of the world. If that didn't work, I'd be gobsmacked!"
Some people say we can't pull off such a lavish ceremony. Liu Xiang explained: "The fundamental purpose of ceremonies is to educate people. If we screw up the ceremonies, then we're teaching people all wrong. If punishments are messed up, it may lead to death and injury. The punishments we use now aren't as perfect as the legal system in the Gaotao era. Officials just chop and whack as needed. But when it comes to rituals and music, they say they dare not. So they're cool with killing people, but scared to teach them right from wrong? Just because of a few glitches in the rituals and music, they simply give up and don’t do them. This is trading small problems for huge ones, which may have more serious consequences! Punishment's a light touch compared to education; it's like ditching the important stuff to rush the unimportant stuff. Furthermore, education is the foundation of governing the world, while punishment is just a supplementary means. Dump the foundation, rely on band-aids—how's that gonna work? From spoiled royals to death-row inmates, the problems never end—all because they haven't learned the principles of the Five Constants properly! We inherited the mess left by the Zhou and Qin dynasties, and now everyone's rotten to the core—greedy, cruel, sneaky, and deceitful—with no sense of right and wrong. If we don't show them the right way and just keep hitting them with punishment, nothing will change. That's why it is said: 'Lead 'em with rituals and music, and they'll be harmonious.'"
When Shusun Tong first tried to set up a new system of rituals, he got pushback from scholars in the Qi and Lu states. But he ended up becoming a big deal in Han Confucianism, and his work's still remembered today – proof that systems can work. Emperor Cheng took Liu Xiang's advice and had the bigwigs hash it out. Then Liu Xiang kicked the bucket, so the PM and Grand Minister told the Emperor to build the Bi Yong. They selected a location south of Chang'an City, but before construction began, Emperor Cheng passed away. The court used that to decide on the Emperor's posthumous name.
Wang Mang, wanting to show off, threw a huge Bi Yong party. It backfired – he used it to grab the throne and the whole country revolted. Then Emperor Guangwu Liu Xiu brought the Han back from the brink, cleaned up the mess, and moved the capital to Luoyang. He ruled for thirty years, all the neighbors bowed down, people were well-off, and things ran smoothly. Only then did they build the Mingtang and Bi Yong.
His son, Emperor Hanming, took over and kept up the ceremonies, sacrificing to Emperor Guangwu at the Mingtang and honoring the Three Elders and Five Elders (top court honors) at the Bi Yong. It was a big, impressive show. But virtue hadn't spread far and wide, the rituals and music were still a work in progress, folks didn't have much to learn from, schools were few and far between, and it didn't really work. Confucius said, "Building a mountain? If you stop before you've even got a basketful of dirt, I'm stopping too!"
Shusun Tong's rituals are in the government archives, along with the laws, but the Legalists ignored them, and nobody talked about Han Dynasty rules much. After Shusun Tong died, Prince Xian of Hejian collected over 500 ancient ritual texts. But later scholars just copied them without understanding, applying them to the Emperor without thinking, and messing up the whole system. So, the rules of how rulers and subjects, elders and youngsters, should act just got more and more confused.
Music is loved by wise rulers and can also be used to educate the people. Music has a profound influence on individuals and can change customs and habits. Therefore, ancient sages attached great importance to music education.
Ordinary people are born with natural vigor and understanding, but they do not have fixed emotions of sorrow, joy, anger, or happiness; these emotions only arise in response to external stimuli. Delicate, sorrowful music induces sorrow; harmonious, cheerful music brings joy; rough, stirring music instills strength; pure and righteous music evokes solemnity and reverence; broad and peaceful music fosters compassion; while debauched and dissolute music leads to licentiousness. The ancient sages detested this chaos, so they established the music of the Yayue, which is based on human emotions, follows certain rules, and aligns with ritual systems. This music helps maintain a person's calmness, adheres to the principles of the Five Constants (benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faith), prevents excessive leakage of yang energy (positive/masculine energy), prevents excessive retention of yin energy (negative/feminine energy), curbs excessive anger from strong energy, and mitigates excessive fear from weak energy. It ensures the smooth flow of these four types of energy within the body, allowing them to be expressed externally without interference. This music can touch the hearts of kind individuals and prevent evil energy from intruding. This, then, was the ancient sages' approach to musical governance.
Ages ago, before beginning to create new music, rulers would use the music of former kings to get the people hooked on it, and then they would compose new pieces to sing their praises. The I Ching says: "The music of the former kings is used to advocate virtues. The Yin Dynasty offered this music to God to worship their ancestors." Here are some examples of rulers who composed music: the Yellow Emperor composed "Xianchi," Zhuanxu authored "Liu Jing," Emperor Ku produced "Wu Ying," Yao created "Da Zhang," Shun composed "Zhao," Yu created "Xia," Tang produced "Huo," King Wu composed "Wu," and Duke of Zhou created "Shao."
- "Shao" means carrying on the ancestors' teachings.
- "Wu" refers to using military might to pacify the world.
- "Huo" signifies saving the people.
- "Xia" represents inheriting the achievements of the two emperors of the Xia Dynasty.
- "Zhao" means continuing the legacy of Yao.
- "Da Zhang" indicates demonstrating merits.
- "Wu Ying" describes being prosperous and glorious.
- "Liu Jing" suggests being all-encompassing.
- "Xianchi" refers to a complete body of music.
Since the Xia Dynasty, many musical pieces have been lost, with only the hymns from the Yin Dynasty remaining. The Zhou Dynasty's *Shijing* (Book of Songs) was a comprehensive collection, the musical instruments were well prepared, and detailed records can be found in the *Rites of Zhou*. Those responsible for court music and dance—from nobles and musicians down to blind musicians—are all selected for their moral character, practicing daily to teach the noble children. These noble children, known as *guozi*, must learn the songs of the Nine Virtues, recite the Six Poems, practice the Six Dances, and learn the harmony of the Five Tones and Eight Sounds. Therefore, Emperor Shun commanded Kuai, saying: "You are in charge of music and must teach the noble children. Be honest and gentle, generous and cautious, strong but not tyrannical, simple but not arrogant. Poetry expresses aspirations; singing conveys meaning; voices follow the chants; musical notes coordinate the sounds; and the Eight Sounds must be harmonious." This is the meaning. In addition, music is used to reward the merits of the feudal lords and educate the nobility. The rituals were visually stunning, the music was captivating, and the poetry moved the heart, so hearing music feels harmonious, learning poetry makes aspirations upright, and understanding the rules of music establishes order.
During sacrifices at the suburban temples, the spirits enjoy the offerings. During court performances, the courtiers harmonize. During school performances, the people unite. Listeners show respect and sincerity, joyfully accepting education. As a result, people all over the world know the virtues of heaven, follow its customs, shine with brilliance, progress upward, and cultivate goodness, often without understanding why. This harmony prevents all things from perishing, ensuring that heaven and earth remain in balance and auspicious responses abound. Therefore, the *Book of Songs* says: "The bells and drums boomed, the stone chimes clanged, showering down blessings." The *Book of Documents* says: "Striking stones and playing stones, all beasts dance in unison." If birds and beasts can respond, how much more can humans? How much more can spirits? So, music was how wise rulers connected with heaven and earth, kept the people happy, and improved society.
However, since the rise of the "Ya" and "Song," some music carrying the echoes of decay and disorder still exists; this licentious, brutal, and tyrannical music needs to be prohibited. When society decays, people scatter, villains oppress gentlemen, and the populace lacks discernment, evil will prevail over justice. The preface of the "Book of Documents" says: "King Zhou of Shang abandoned the ancestral music and created licentious music to disrupt orthodox music and please women." Court musicians and wandering bards fled with their instruments everywhere; some sought refuge with vassals, while others escaped to the rivers and lakes. Music originates from human emotions and nature, penetrating deep into the skin and bone marrow. Even after thousands of years, its influence lingers to this day. By the time of the Spring and Autumn Period, a prince of Chen fled to the state of Qi. Chen is a descendant of Emperor Shun, and the "Zhao" music was kept alive there. So when Confucius heard the "Zhao" music in the state of Qi, he did not eat meat for three months, saying: "I had no idea music could achieve such heights!" This is a high praise for music.
During the decline of the Zhou Dynasty, satirical poems criticizing the government began to appear. When the Zhou court lost its authority, these poems could no longer be written. The official system of the Zhou Dynasty collapsed, and the musical traditions of "Ya" and "Song" were in chaos, until Confucius came to restore order to them. Confucius said, "It was only after I returned from the State of Wei to the State of Lu that I was able to restore the traditional musical system. 'Ya' and 'Song' were each placed in their proper positions." By that time, the Zhou Dynasty had completely declined, and the feudal lords did as they pleased, building lavishly, constructing grand palaces, and showing off their luxurious chariots in the streets. Powerful ministers like Guan Zhong and Ji Shi even performed the eight-part dance in the court using the three bows of the "Yong" ritual; the ritual and musical systems completely collapsed, gradually declining and never able to recover. Various popular songs, like "Sangjian" and "Pushang," as well as the decadent music from Zheng, Wei, Song, Zhao, and other regions emerged. Palace life was sapped by this music, harming people's health; outside the court, it disrupted governance and harmed the people. Those in power used this music to mask their greed and extravagance. People fought amongst themselves and between states for profit. Therefore, Duke Mu of Qin abandoned the Rong and Di, and Youyu fled Qin; Qi bribed Lu, forcing Confucius to leave. By the time of the Warring States period, Marquis Wen of Wei still appreciated ancient culture. He once told Zixia, "Ancient music puts me to sleep, but I can't get enough of the music from Zheng and Wei." Zixia tried to explain, but Marquis Wen wouldn't hear it, and from then on, the rituals and music completely declined.
After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, there was an institution in the Music Bureau specifically responsible for the musical system. They meticulously documented the music and dances but couldn't articulate their deeper meaning. During the reign of Emperor Gaozu of Han, Shusun Tong created new music for the ancestral sacrifices based on compositions from Qin Dynasty musicians. The high priest welcomed the spirits at the temple gate with the performance of "Jia Zhi," which resembled the ancient music used to summon spirits during sacrifices. When the emperor entered the temple, they played "Yong Zhi" to match his steps, echoing the ancient pieces "Cai Ji" and "Si Xia." "Deng Ge" was performed during the emperor's sacrifices, featuring only singing and no instrumental accompaniment, ensuring that all officials present could hear the song clearly, similar to the ancient song "Qing Miao." After "Deng Ge," they played the music "Xiu Cheng" to praise the spirits for enjoying the offerings. When the emperor sat down in the eastern chamber to drink wine, they played "Yong An" to celebrate the completion of the sacrificial ceremony. Additionally, there was "Fang Zhong Ci Yue," created by Lady Tangshan, the wife of Emperor Gaozu. During the Zhou Dynasty, it was known as "Fang Zhong Yue," and during the Qin Dynasty, it was renamed "Shou Ren." In general, music must conform to the era in which it was created, and rituals must not forget their origins. Emperor Gaozu was really into Chu music, so "Fang Zhong Yue" also had the musical style of the Chu region. In the second year of Emperor Huidi, he instructed Xiahou Kuan to improve the xiao and guan and renamed this set of music "An Shi Yue." Speaking of dances, the Gaozu Temple featured dances like "Wu De," "Wen Shi," and "Wu Xing," while the Xiaowen and Xiaowu Temples had an even wider repertoire, including "Zhao De," "Wen Shi," "Si Shi," and "Wu Xing."
So, "Wu De Dance" was created in the fourth year of Gaozu's reign, meaning to use dance to show that everyone was thrilled to support him and to use force to quell rebellion. As for "Wen Shi Dance," it was actually modified from Emperor Shun's "Inviting Dance" and renamed "Wen Shi" in the sixth year of Gaozu's reign, a name change to distance itself from the past. The "Five Elements Dance" was originally a dance from the Zhou Dynasty and was renamed "Five Elements" in the twenty-sixth year of Qin Shihuang's reign. Then, the "Four Seasons Dance" was composed by Emperor Xiao Wen himself, representing a peaceful and harmonious empire.
Composing your own dances showed the emperor's creativity and unique style. Performing dances from previous reigns demonstrated respect for tradition and adherence to established norms. Later, Emperor Xiao Jing revised "Wu De Dance" and renamed it "Zhao De Dance" to honor Gaozu's ancestral temple. During the reign of Emperor Xiao Xuan, he revised "Zhao De Dance" into "Sheng De Dance" to honor the ancestral temple of the founding emperor. These three dances—"Wen Shi," "Four Seasons," and "Five Elements"—were frequently performed at imperial temples.
In the sixth year of Gaozu's reign, he also created "Zhao Rong Music" and "Li Rong Music." "Zhao Rong Music" is similar to the ancient "Zhao Xia," mainly accompanying the "Wu De Dance"; "Li Rong Music" mainly accompanies the "Wen Shi Dance" and "Five Elements Dance." Dancers wouldn't dare play music before the emperor unless the dance was flawless; if they could use musical accompaniment, it meant that the dance was successful and could be completed smoothly. In essence, many of these dances were rooted in Qin Dynasty traditions.
After Liu Bang won the empire, he returned to his hometown of Pei County, where he drank and sang with his old fellow villagers, feeling both joy and sorrow. He even wrote a song called "The Wind Rises" and taught 120 children in Pei County to sing it. When it was the time of his son, Emperor Xiaohui, he turned the palace in Pei County into Liu Bang's ancestral temple and had 120 children learn to sing, dance, and play instruments, maintaining this scale. During the reigns of Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing, it was just done in a perfunctory way by the court officials.
When Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty came to power, he established the rituals for sacrifices to the gods of the land and sky, worshiping the god Taiyi in Ganquan on high ground and the god Hou Tu in Fenyin on the low plains. He then set up a music office to collect folk songs, read and recite them at night, and gathered various folk songs from the states of Zhao, Dai, Qin, and Chu. Emperor Wu also appointed Li Yannian as the Director of Music and brought in Sima Xiangru and dozens of others to create poetry and prose, study musical tones, adjust the harmony of the eight tones, and compose a 19-chapter song. On the first day of the first month, a sacrifice was held at the altar in Ganquan, where 70 boys and girls sang together from nightfall until dawn. In the evening, lights like shooting stars often lingered on the altar, and Emperor Wu emerged from his palace to pay his respects from afar. The hundreds of officials participating in the sacrifice were all moved and awestruck.
The "Song of Anshi's House" consists of 17 chapters, with verses such as:
Great filial piety is complete, virtuous deeds shine brightly. High and mighty, the four counties, joy fills the official courtyard. Fragrant trees in the feather forest, clouds in the distant sky, gold branches and jade leaves, various banners and flags.
"Qishi" and "Huashi," solemnly chant in harmony. The gods come to feast, all should listen. The melodious music is delivered, expressing delicate human emotions. Suddenly riding the blue mystery, the festive matters are completed. Clear thoughts are profound, the principles are deep.
I determine the calendar, people reveal their hearts. Command oneself to be cautious, teach and spread knowledge. Then establish ancestral temples, reverently honor and respect ancestors. Great is the filial piety and reverence, extending to the four corners of the earth.
The noble and virtuous had attentive and upright neighbors. The offerings were pure, and the Emperor was known for his filial piety and virtue. Great achievements were accomplished, bringing peace throughout the land. Traitors stirred up chaos in the northeast. The army was mobilized and disciplined, its officers carrying out their duties. Amidst the revelry, treachery and malice festered. Order was restored, securing peace in the Yan Kingdom.
The great sea gathers all waters, and wise rulers bring joy to their people. The great mountains are towering, and the myriad plants flourish. What do the people value? They value virtue.
Essentially, Emperor Wu of Han staged a massive musical performance for a sacrifice, commissioning new songs; the spectacle was so grand, it was said to have involved miracles! This song, "An Shi Fang Zhong Ge," celebrates his filial piety and achievements.
Contentment and happiness bring prosperity to future generations. Consider the dragon, soaring even in autumn! Only noble leaders ensure the well-being of their people. The lush vegetation, like a beautiful woman's robes—a truly wondrous sight! But who can truly achieve such perfection? Nothing surpasses moral education; nothing endures like its boundless spread.
Thunder and lightning—symbols of a virtuous state, founded on just laws. With this foundation, blessings can spread widely, earn the emperor's favor, and everyone can protect each other, spreading virtues and longevity to their descendants.
The air was sweet with the scent of lychees and osmanthus. Filial piety shines like the sun and moon, a celestial mandate. Four black dragons bore him swiftly north, the feathered banners a magnificent display! And so, filial piety endures through the ages. This is "Guihua."
Be cautious and follow the way of Heaven. My study of the Book of Changes has been extensive, offering insights into all things. Compassion and grace, like beautiful virtues, are profound and unpredictable, yet they can lead to lasting happiness. "If Beautiful"
Steady and solid, imitating the firmness of mountains. Ah, how filial! Having pacified the Rongdi, the barbarians are happy to pay tribute and bring good fortune. Loving all under heaven ultimately leads to no more wars.
Lavish offerings presented, sacrifices made to the spirits. After the sacrifices, moral influence flourishes. Only with virtue can it permeate the land and become the standard for rulers. Carrying the grace of heaven, beautiful wishes are never forgotten.
The brilliant glory washes away the faults of the princes, inheriting the harmony of heaven and earth, enjoying the prosperity that comes with it. Not neglecting political affairs in pleasure, this should be the example for the people.
Explore the root causes, learn the morals of the sages, and the people can prosper. Beautiful wishes continue to this day; be cautious and diligent.
Prudence is key to aligning with the way of Heaven. The people are peaceful, and the descendants can enjoy glory. Reverence and benevolence lead to receiving the grace of heaven. Sacred gifts, wishes for long life, are never forgotten.
Inheriting the bright virtues of the emperor, firm like mountains. Grace extends to the people, forever enjoying good fortune. Careful conduct reflects the way of Heaven. The people are peaceful, enjoying endless prosperity.
In the nineteenth chapter of the "Jiao Si Ge," the poem reads:
(The original poem is transcribed)
The day of the sacrificial rites rehearsal has arrived. People are full of hope, the scent of offerings fills the air, and visitors from afar gather. Heaven's gates swung open, the deities descended, blessings were bestowed, and peace and prosperity abounded. The chariot of the deities was wrapped in dark clouds, driven by flying dragons, with banners fluttering. The spirits arrived in a majestic display, their descent bringing life-giving rain to nourish all things. As the deities made their presence known, an auspicious atmosphere prevailed; people were joyous and filled with awe. After the deities took their seats, harmonious music filled the air from dawn till dusk as people prayed devoutly. The offerings were abundant, the aroma of wine wafted through the air, and people from all corners of the land gathered together. The deities lingered peacefully while people recited poetry, admired the scene of the sacrifice, and gazed at the distant Yao Terrace. The women participating in the sacrifice were all beautiful and elegant, like the exquisite blooms of the white camellia, dressed in gorgeous attire and adorned with exquisite jewelry, displaying dignified manners and grace. On a beautiful night, the fragrance of orchids pervaded the air as people raised their glasses and offered heartfelt toasts. "Sacrificial Rites Rehearsal" Part One: The emperor presides over the main sacrificial ceremony in the central altar, and people from all directions come to pay their respects. The sacrificial activities are orderly, and everything is prepared properly. There is peace between heaven and earth, in accordance with the principles of the five elements. The empire enjoyed a time of peace, prosperity, and flourishing arts and military might. The spirits of the earth protect the harvest, and the light of the sun, moon, and stars shines everywhere. A scene of tranquility unfolds, with the emperor wearing a yellow robe, majestic and noble. "The Emperor's Arrival" Part Two: In spring, all things revive, plants grow lush, and rain and dew nourish everything, promoting vigorous growth. With the sound of spring thunder, all things thrive, with withered plants regaining vitality and fulfilling their missions. The people live in peace and happiness, from infants to the elderly, all of creation basked in the spring sunshine.
"Qingyang" Part Three by Zou Zile
In the summer, the sun shines brightly, everything grows lush, the branches of the Wutong trees are flourishing with leaves, showing no signs of decay. Flowers bloom, fruits are plentiful, crops are abundant, and the spirits are held in awe. We held a grand ceremony, never forgetting the meaning of the ritual, praying for the blessings of the deities, for national peace and prosperity to be passed down through generations.
"Zhuming" Part Four by Zou Zile
In autumn, the clouds in the western sky change unpredictably, the autumn wind rustles, crops ripen, continuing the scene of past bountiful harvests. The wicked dare not cause trouble, disasters are hidden, the borders are stable, and neighboring tribes pay tribute. People revere the majesty of the gods, admire their virtues, obey without arrogance, and are filled with a sense of justice.
"Xihao" Part Five by Zou Zile
In late autumn, the weather is cold, the ground freezes, insects hibernate, grass and trees wither, winter is coming. We must eliminate chaos, eradicate evil, and restore the people to simple virtue, embracing a heart of innocence. We must follow the principles of trust and righteousness, emulating the solemnity of the Five Sacred Mountains. When it comes time to collect taxes, we must properly gather the grains.
- "Xuanming" Part Six by Zou Zile
The great Taiyuan Heavenly Emperor blesses the prosperity of the spirits; he oversees the operation of heaven and earth, creating the four seasons. He carefully arranges the movements of the sun, moon, and stars, the cycle of yin and yang and the five elements. Clouds, wind, thunder, and lightning bring down dew and rain, the people thrive and prosper, all following the rules of the Heavenly Emperor. Those who inherit the throne work diligently, following the auspicious path of the dragon. The abundant offerings are neatly arranged, and everyone feasts together, disasters are eliminated, and peace and prosperity spread throughout the world. Bells, drums, and music filled the air as dancers waved the sacred banners; the nine barbarian tribes came to pay homage.
——"The Only Great Beginning" Chapter Seven: In the first year of Jiànshǐ, Prime Minister Kuāng Héng had abolished "Luán Lù Lóng Lín" and composed the poem "Juān Xuǎn Xiū Chéng" (meaning "A Selection of Good Fortune").
Everything in the world is changing, yet I am reminiscing about the past, so I came to the Purple Altar, contemplating the path to the past. Respectfully performing sacrifices, everything was perfectly prepared for the sacrifice, to honor the spirits. A thousand children danced in eight formations, celebrating the era of peace together. After the performance of nine songs, the music was beautiful, and the musicians playing the qin, yu, and se gathered in the Xuanzhu Hall. The jade and stone chimes and golden drums sounded; the spirits seemed very pleased, and the officials performed their duties with precision. Abundant sacrificial offerings were placed on the altar, and the spirits seemed to reside, overlooking the mortal world. The ceremony was splendid and awe-inspiring, observed throughout the changing seasons, in accordance with Heaven's will. The music and poetry complemented each other, the jade and stone instruments produced crisp sounds, and the music fluctuated in pitch, creating new movements that would endure. The sound of music spread far and wide, like the cry of a phoenix; the spirits seemed very satisfied, enjoying the sacrifice.
——"Heaven and Earth" Chapter Eight: Prime Minister Kuāng Héng had abolished "Fǔ Xiù Zhōu Zhāng" and composed the poem "Sù Ruò Jiù Diǎn."
The sun rises and sets—a simple truth. Times change, people change. Spring, summer, autumn, winter—none of it feels like mine anymore. I'm as calm as the ocean, watching the world go by—what difference does it make? I know where my happiness lies, and watching the six dragons dance fills me with joy. What gives? Why can't I catch a break?
This poem is about the Heavenly Horse. As the sun rises, the Heavenly Horse descends from the sky, its body soaked in sweat, with red sweat streaming like crimson rivers. It has high aspirations and an extraordinary spirit, drifting like a cloud and speeding like lightning. Its posture is graceful, able to run thousands of miles; what horse could match it? Only a dragon can be its friend. Legend tells us that, in the third year of Yuanshu, this horse was born in the Wowa water.
Second paragraph:
Here comes the Heavenly Horse! It comes from the farthest place in the west, crossing the quicksand; all Nine Yi tribes bowed before it. The Heavenly Horse emerges from the spring water, with a back like a tiger's spine, its form, ghostly and magnificent. The Heavenly Horse passes through barren lands, traveling a thousand miles a day, racing along the road to the east. The Heavenly Horse arrives on time, about to soar into the sky; who can make an appointment with it? The Heavenly Horse opens the door to the distance, straightens its body, and gallops towards Kunlun Mountain. The Heavenly Horse is here! It is the messenger of the dragon, sporting near the Celestial Gate, observing the Jade Platform.
The third paragraph continues the poem's majestic portrayal of the Heavenly Horse.
This poem describes the grand scene of the heavenly horse being presented to the emperor: the heavenly gate is wide open, creating a majestic atmosphere as the emperor warmly welcomes it to attend a magnificent banquet. The brilliance of the heavenly horse illuminates the night, enhancing the emperor's virtue and reputation; its spiritual nature is as light as a goose feather, heralding a long-lasting era of peace and prosperity. The palace is decorated magnificently, built with precious jade stones and adorned with jade ornaments, accompanied by music and dance performances. With elegant posture, the heavenly horse seems to gaze into the distance. The stars themselves seem to pause in awe, the mountains pale in comparison, and it illuminates the purple curtains, with pearls shimmering like golden light. Colorful flags swirl like wings, and the prancing sheep dance in pairs to celebrate. The moonlight shimmered like liquid gold, and the sun blazed brilliantly. The clear breeze blows as the emperor raises his cup to drink heartily. The heavenly horse seems to linger, prompting the emperor to write this poem. May this happiness last forever; even the heavens will take note! The heavenly horse descends from the sky, eagerly responding to the emperor's anticipation. May the country prosper and flourish, happiness and peace spread everywhere. The heavenly horse soared with all its might, flying through the nine heavens, piercing through the clouds, and plunging towards the sea.
In the fifth year of Yuanding, I stumbled upon this incredible Ding in Fenyin. It was truly an auspicious sign from heaven! Look at the stars shining in the sky, like a celestial announcement, with the sun observing everything closely. "参侔开阖，爰推本纪" (The opening and closing of the stars, as if pushing the chronicle forward) — these are all auspicious signs given by heaven! The Ding unearthed by the Fen River symbolizes the prosperity of the dynasty. All things are difficult in the beginning, and now this prosperous era is just beginning. The music was harmonious and beautiful, and the solemnity of the sacrificial ceremonies filled the air, with various musical instruments playing together; you could hear the music for miles. The sound of the qin, a traditional string instrument, resonated, symbolizing the prosperity of the country, the succession of four generations, and the arrival of envoys from all directions. A carp was presented as an offering, a sign of good fortune, alongside sumptuous sacrificial wine and food. And the wine? The best Zhejiang wine, of course! All of this moved me deeply. Cultivating virtue can make one renowned throughout the world. I found myself traveling around, pondering national affairs. May we all have a prosperous and happy future!
In the second year of Yuanfeng, Lingzhi sprouted in the Qifang of Ganquan Palace, a true sign of auspiciousness! Nine stems, lush and green, caught the attention of the palace children, who found it rare and came to see this magical sight. This Lingzhi, a gift from the heavens, appeared, indicating the prosperity of the country, increasingly flourishing, truly extraordinary!
Later, we held a grand sacrificial ceremony at the Jiatan of the former emperor, wearing black and yellow sacrificial robes, praying for the blessing of heaven. Jizhou was brimming with auspicious signs, indicating that we would soon receive the grace of heaven. All directions were peaceful and harmonious, all ethnic groups united, our nation grew stronger, our borders expanded, and peace reigned throughout the land.
Finally, let me talk about the grand sacrificial event! The scene was truly unprecedented! "With glorious splendor, the spirits arrived," the gods descended, passing through the heavenly gate, with a seemingly endless procession of chariots and horses, majestic and magnificent, all the way to Kunlun Mountain. The spirits emerged from the jade chamber, traveled around, and arrived at the Orchid Hall. As the deities journeyed, banners fluttered, and the procession of chariots and horses continued without end, creating a spectacular scene. The gods descended, and heavenly dew fell, auspicious clouds gathering. When the spirits arrived at the altar, guests from Jiuyi Mountain and the mythical Kui dragon danced gracefully. The spirits sat down, the auspicious time had come, and everyone prayed together, seeking blessings and prosperity. The spirits accepted the sacrifice, bestowing abundant blessings upon us, bringing prosperity to the land and peace to its people. The heavens bestowed generous grace upon us; the Fen River shone with golden light, its waves surging like clouds. The people rejoiced, their songs echoing to the heavens.
Oh, this poem is truly magnificent! It speaks of five immortals, governing the surrounding lands, with vast territories where even the floating clouds have to make way. The sacrificial platform was adorned with fragrant herbs and exquisite jade, shining brightly, symbolizing the prosperity and longevity of the country. The immortals all attended the sacrifice, as if graciously receiving our tribute, and the scene was grand, with everyone raising their glasses in toasts. The immortal procession was majestic and magnificent. The ceremony concluded, leaving no regrets! The magnificent spectacle subsided, leaving a profound sense of calm.
The next poem is about the Emperor's tour to Yongdi in the first year of Yuan Shou. He unexpectedly obtained a miraculously appearing white qilin while standing on the high Longshan, looking towards the western border. Suddenly, the heavens opened with thunder and lightning, and he actually obtained the auspicious white qilin! This is a symbol of auspicious signs of imperial virtue! Seizing this opportunity, the Emperor used this auspicious event as a mandate to decisively defeat the Xiongnu and bring peace to the land. All the officials came to celebrate, and the land itself seemed to celebrate. The Emperor happily turned the chariot and rode away, as if blessed by the heavens. Shooting stars seemed to signal divine favor, the clouds returned to calm, and the Emperor's heart was full of joy.
This poem is about the Emperor's tour to the East Sea in the third year of Taishi. He obtained the crimson goose! Look, that crimson goose, its feathers, though crimson, seemed to glow with an ethereal light, gathered in the west, feeding on celestial dews and drinking from sacred springs. There were many crimson geese, colorful and rare to see! This is a symbol of heaven's blessing! The Emperor ascended to Mount Penglai, as if he wanted to live as long as heaven and earth, forever.
The last poem tells the story of the Emperor encountering the red dragon (or Jiao) during his tour! The red dragon pulled the chariot, a magnificent yellow canopy shaded the land, dewdrops at night, and the sun shining during the day. All the officials came to pay their respects, the chariot pulled by six dragons, offering fine wine, and the immortals appeared to be in high spirits. After enjoying the offerings, the immortals bestowed upon us auspiciousness, radiant light, longevity, and eternal prosperity! An aura of auspiciousness permeated the land, blessing all the people, bringing peace to the world! The immortals departed in a majestic procession, their banners streaming like serpentine dragons. Music played, the immortals were about to leave, leaving behind supreme grace, blessing our country with eternal prosperity!
The rest of the emperor's journeys and sacrifices aren't detailed here.
So, back in those days, King Xian of Hejian was a real intellectual. He believed that governing a country solely through ceremonial music was insufficient, so he presented the refined court music he had collected to the emperor. The emperor then appointed officials in charge of music to have the musicians practice these high-brow tunes regularly, just in case they were needed for special occasions. However, the emperor rarely used this refined court music in normal times, not even for the music used in worshipping the heavens and ancestors. Nevertheless, these songs were passed down to future generations, and descendants could still learn from them or get something out of them.
Just think, the "Ya" and "Song" of the Yin and Zhou dynasties can be traced back to the earliest ancestors like You Sheng, Jiang Yuan, Hou Ji, and Qi, all the way to the great rulers and ministers of the Zhou dynasty, including Xuan Wang, Gong Liu, Gu Gong, Da Bo, Wang Ji, Jiang Nu, Da Ren, Tai Si, and others. Every man and woman, ruler and minister, who had merits were celebrated. Their achievements were so well-known that their fame spread far and wide at that time, and their good names continued to be passed down to future generations.
However, the music and hymns used for worshipping the heavens and ancestors in the Han dynasty do not contain any content that praises ancestors at all. Although the sounds of the musical instruments sound harmonious, they do not actually conform to the standards of music theory. In the court, there are musicians in the Yeting and Yufu of Shanglin Garden, all playing the lightweight music - Zheng Sheng.
During the reign of Emperor Cheng, there was a guy named King Yu of Changshan who particularly liked the music of Hejian State and understood the meaning behind it. His students, like Song Ye and others, wrote to the emperor about this matter, and then the court had officials like Ping Dang come and study it.
Ping Dang said, "After the Han Dynasty inherited the Qin Dynasty, the tradition was broken. Thanks to our brilliant emperor, who encouraged free speech, overhauled the government, and even established universities. King Xian of Hejian recruited talents widely, searched for recluses, and promoted court music to educate the people. At that time, the great Confucianists Gong Sun Hong and Dong Zhongshu believed that the music of Hejian was very orthodox and the legitimate grand music. However, the rites and music of the Spring and Autumn Period are now handled by the academy, and the performances are sparsely performed and poorly explained. Therefore, the bigwigs only hear the booming sounds and do not understand the meaning behind them. They even want to use it to educate the common people, which just wouldn't work! Therefore, although this court music has been passed down for more than a hundred years, it hasn't had much impact on educating the people. Now, Song Ye and others insist on studying this ancient music mainly to promote education and enlighten the people. Whether this knowledge thrives or dies depends on the people. We should keep this classical music alive and well. Confucius once said, 'It's people who spread the Way, not the Way that spreads itself.' Although Hejian is just a minor kingdom, they love learning, respect ancient culture, and have preserved these things, which are still praised by the people today! Moreover, with our wise emperor and favorable conditions, we can restore the old culture, make the music closer to the style of court music, and educate the world to be renowned for generations to come. This is huge!" This matter was later reported to the court officials, who thought it was all too ancient to verify, so they just dropped it.
At that time, there were many popular songs of debauchery. The famous musicians in the palace, like Bingqiang and Jingwu, were rich and powerful. The prominent relatives of the emperor, such as Dingling Marquis and Fuping Marquis, were even more extravagant, even vying with the emperor for women and musicians. Emperor Ai disliked these when he was Prince Dingtao. He himself did not enjoy listening to those licentious tunes. After he became emperor, he issued an order saying, "These days, things are going downhill. Everyone is pursuing luxury and flashy techniques. The music of Zheng and Wei is particularly popular. Luxury leads to people getting unruly and the treasury emptying; the pursuit of flashy techniques causes many to neglect their work; and the popularity of Zheng and Wei's music fosters a rampant culture of debauchery. If you want folks to be honest and well-off, it's as difficult as trying to make muddy water clear. As Confucius said, 'Play the music of Zheng, and you'll have licentiousness.' Therefore, I'm getting rid of the music officials. The music for sacrifices and ancient military music, as long as it is not from Zheng and Wei, will be organized and handed over to other government offices for management."
The Prime Minister Kong Guang and Minister He Wu reported: "There are sixty-two members in the orchestra for the sacrificial rites in the suburbs, responsible for the sacrifices in the southern and northern suburbs. There are six percussionists for the grand music, ten drummers for 'Jiazhi', two drummers from Handan, three drummers for the cavalry band, two drummers from Jiangnan, four drummers from Huainan, thirty-six drummers from Bayu, twenty-four drummers for the singing team, one drummer specializing in a particular rigorous style from Chudi, four royal drummers from Liangguo, twenty-five drummers from Linhuai, and three drummers from Zifang, totaling twelve orchestras and one hundred and twenty-eight people. During court ceremonies, a banquet is held in the palace, where ancient military music is performed.
In addition, there are thirteen people for the suburban sacrifices, and members of various ethnic orchestras were drawn from various ethnic groups to serve as the 'Yunzhao' orchestra. This includes sixty-seven people responsible for the southern suburban sacrifices, four in charge of refined music, five chanting scriptures at night, two for the Gang and Biecong orchestras, two main flute players for 'Shengde' music, one musician to determine the performance of festival music based on the solar terms, one player each for the bell, chime, and flute, as well as two orchestra supervisors, all of whom cannot be removed.
There are three yue players, one of whom can be removed; five qin players, three of whom can be removed; two zhu players, one of whom can be removed; six people in charge of the strings of musical instruments, four of whom can be removed; sixty-two players from the Zhengsihui Orchestra, one in charge of refined music, the remaining sixty-one can be removed; eight players from the Zhangse Orchestra, seven of whom can be removed; twenty drummers from the 'Anshi Orchestra', nineteen of whom can be removed; twelve drummers from Peixian's wind and percussion orchestra, twenty-seven drummers from various ethnic song teams, thirteen from Chenguo's wind and percussion orchestra, fourteen drummers from the Shang Dynasty's orchestra, sixteen drummers from Donghai, thirteen drummers from Changle, and thirteen drummers from Manle, totaling eight orchestras and one hundred and twenty-eight people.
During court ceremonies, a banquet is held in front of the palace, which does not conform to the classic records. The orchestras that should be removed include: five yue players, six drummers from Chudi, thirty musicians who usually follow the orchestra, four elephant keepers who usually follow the orchestra, sixteen musicians who usually follow the orchestra, twenty-nine musicians from the state of Qin, three elephant keepers from the state of Qin, one person who usually follows the musicians from the state of Qin, and nine members of the elegant music team, the ceremonial orchestra.
There are seventeen members in the Chusi Orchestra, twelve members in the Basi Orchestra, twelve members in the Yaosi Orchestra, nineteen members in the Qisi Orchestra, three singers from the state of Cai, six singers from the state of Qi, and five players from the yue, se, zhong, and qing orchestras, all of which are related to the Zheng and Wei styles and can be removed.
There are also one hundred and forty-two students learning musical instruments, with seventy-two responsible for music during banquets for high-ranking officials, and the remaining seventy can be removed. A total of eight hundred and twenty-nine people, of which three hundred and eighty-eight cannot be removed and can be included in the grand orchestra, while the remaining four hundred and forty-one people do not conform to the classic records or are performing the Zheng and Wei styles, and can be removed." The emperor approved this memorial. However, since the people had long been accustomed to this kind of music and no refined music was established to change this trend, the wealthy, officials, and common people remained addicted to it. This ultimately led to a decline in social morality, laying the groundwork for Wang Mang's usurpation of power.
Now the whole country has calmed down, the common people have returned to their hometowns, and more and more people are around. Justice is served, run by good leaders, and everyone's living comfortably and getting richer. It's time to educate people through schools and rituals. Fortunately, there are regulations and systems left by the previous sage kings that can serve as examples for learning and improvement, and good measures can also be continued. Confucius said: "The Yin adapted Xia's rituals, and we know what they changed; the Zhou did the same with Yin's, and we know what they changed; even centuries from now, those who follow the Zhou will leave a clear record of their changes." Now the Han dynasty inherits the Zhou dynasty, but we haven't had a proper ritual system for ages, and we lack a proper system of rituals and music. This is why Jia Yi, Dong Zhongshu, Wang Ji, Liu Xiang, and others feel really bummed out. Confucius said: "The Yin learned from the Xia rituals; the changes are known; the Zhou learned from the Yin rituals; the changes are known; those who will inherit the Zhou dynasty, even after hundreds of generations, will have their changes recorded." This means that as dynasties change, the ritual system will be adjusted according to the actual situation, but we can see how things have changed. The current situation of the Han dynasty is that after a long period of turmoil, the ritual system has been neglected for a long time, which is why many bright minds are worried and regretful. They want to fix the rituals and music to make the Han stronger and the country more peaceful.
First of all, let's talk about this Sun Method, which is 81. It is calculated from the ninth day of the Yellow Bell at the Beginning of Yuan Shi, multiplied by one 龠 (yuè).
Next is the Leap Method, which is 19, derived from the sum of the heavenly and earthly numbers (one year).
Next is the Unified Method, which is 1539, calculated by multiplying the Leap Method by the Sun Method.
The Yuan Method is 4617, which is three times the Unified Method.
The Meeting Number is 47, obtained by adding the heavenly number 9 and the earthly number 10.
The Chapter Month is 235, calculated by multiplying 5 by the Meeting Number.
The Month Method is 2392, calculated based on the Great Transformation (Da Yanxiang).
The Common Method is 598, which is one quarter of the Month Method.
The Middle Method is 145030, calculated by multiplying the Chapter Month by the Common Method.
The Zhou Tian is 562120, calculated by multiplying the Chapter Month by the Month Method.
The Year Middle is 12, calculated by multiplying the Three Unifications by the Four Seasons (the four seasonal divisions of the year).
The Month Week is 254, calculated by adding the Chapter Month and the Leap Method.
The New Moon Conjunction is 135, obtained by adding the heavenly number 25 and the earthly number 30.
The Meeting Month is 6345, calculated by multiplying the Meeting Number by the New Moon Conjunction.
The Unified Month is 19035, which is three times the Meeting Month.
The Yuan Month is 57105, which is three times the Unified Month.
The Chapter Middle is 228, calculated by multiplying the Leap Method by the Year Middle.
The Unified Middle is 18468, calculated by multiplying the Sun Method by the Chapter Middle.
The Yuan Middle is 55404, which is three times the Unified Middle.
The Remaining Calculation is 8080, obtained by subtracting ten times the Yuan Middle from the Zhou Tian.
The Zhou Zhi is 57, which is three times the Leap Method.
Next is the Ji Mu (纪母)¹.
Wood and Metal multiplied is 12; this is the Year Star Small Week. The Small Week multiplied by the "Kun" strategy² gives 1728, which is the age of the Year Star.
The Middle Division is 2736.
The Accumulated Middle is 13, with a remainder of 157.
The Middle Method is 1583, which is the observed number.
The Leap Division is 1296.
The Accumulated Month is 13, with a remainder of 15779.
The Month Method is 3777.
The Middle Sun Method is 7308711.
The Month Sun Method is 2436237.
Metal and Fire multiplied is 8; then Fire multiplied by 8 is 16; this is the Small Duplication. The Small Duplication multiplied by the "Qian" strategy³ gives 3456, which is the age of the Venus star.
The Middle Division is 41472.
The Accumulated Middle is 19, with a remainder of 413.
The Middle Method is 2161, which is the Duplication.
Let's look at these numbers: the first sentence is "the Leap Division is 24,192," meaning the total number of Leap Divisions is 24,192.
¹ Ji Mu (纪母) refers to a specific term in this context, often related to a foundational concept in the calculation system.
² "Kun" (坤) refers to one of the eight trigrams in Chinese philosophy, representing earth and receptivity.
³ "Qian" (乾) refers to another trigram, symbolizing heaven and creativity.
Next, nineteen months have passed, leaving thirty-two thousand three hundred and thirty-nine. Then, the result of the moon calculation is forty-one thousand fifty-nine. The morning average is twenty-three thousand three hundred and twenty-eight. Accumulating seven middle values leaves one thousand seven hundred and eighteen. The evening average is eighteen thousand one hundred and forty-four. Accumulating eight middle values leaves eight hundred and fifty-six. The morning intercalary value is thirteen thousand six hundred and eight. Accumulating eleven months leaves five thousand one hundred and ninety-one. The evening intercalary value is fifteen hundred and eighty-four. Accumulating eight months leaves twenty-six thousand eight hundred and forty-eight. The result from the middle day method is nine hundred ninety-seven thousand seven hundred and thirty-seven. The result from the moon and day method is three hundred thirty-two thousand five hundred and seventy-nine.
Multiplying the Earth and Wood values, and combining the resulting longitude and latitude, yields thirty; this is the small cycle of Saturn. Multiplying this small cycle by the Kun coefficient yields four thousand three hundred and twenty, the age of Saturn.
"The middle value is fifty-one thousand eight hundred and forty. Twelve middles were accumulated, leaving a remainder of one thousand seven hundred and forty. The middle method yields four thousand one hundred and seventy-five; this is the final result. The intercalary value is thirty-two thousand two hundred and forty. Twelve months were accumulated, leaving a remainder of sixty-three thousand three hundred. The moon method yields seventy-nine thousand three hundred and twenty-five. The calculation of the middle and day gives one hundred and ninety-two million five thousand nine hundred and seventy-five. The calculation of the moon and day gives six hundred and forty-two million five thousand three hundred and twenty-five. Mars follows a unique orbital pattern; two years elapse before reaching the initial point, and after thirty-two cycles, totaling sixty-four years, it becomes a small cycle. This small cycle multiplied by a constant represented by 'Qián cè', the meaning of which is unknown from the source text, results in a Martian cycle of thirteen thousand eight hundred and twenty-four years."
"The midpoint is 165,888. After accumulating 25 midpoints, there are 4,163 remaining. The result of the midpoint calculation is 6,469, which is the final result. The leap value is 96,768. After accumulating 26 months, there are 52,954 remaining. The result obtained by calculating the moon is 122,911. The result obtained by calculating the middle and day is 28,673,373. The result obtained by calculating the moon and day is 9,955,791. The water cycle is unique; it reaches the initial point in one year, and after 64 years, the cycle repeats. Multiplying the repeated cycle by the 'Kun' constant (the meaning of 'Kun' is unclear in the original text) results in a Taiyin cycle of 9,216 years, which is the age of the Chen star. The midpoint is 115,902. After accumulating 3 midpoints, there are 23,469 remaining. The result obtained by calculating the middle values is 29,041, which is the final result. This ancient astronomical calculation is quite complex, so let's break it down step-by-step."
The first sentence, "见闰分六万四千五百一十二," means: the calculation yielded an intercalary month of sixty-four thousand, five hundred and twelve. The following lines represent similar calculation steps and results, all building towards the final astronomical data, such as "积月三，月余五十一万四百二十三," which means three months' accumulation left a remainder of fifty-one thousand, four hundred and twenty-three. In the same way, these are intermediate results in astronomical calculations, and their specific meanings need to be understood in conjunction with the calculation methods at that time. These numbers may seem intimidating, but they are actually results painstakingly calculated by ancient astronomers.
Next, "见月法五十五万一千七百七十九," "晨中分六万二千二百八," "积中二，中余四千一百二十六," "夕中分四万八千三百八十四," "积中一，中余一万九千三百四十三," "晨闰分三万六千二百八十八," "积月二，月余十一万四千六百八十二," "久闰分二万八千二百二十四," "积月一，月余三十九万五千七百四十一." These are similar calculation steps and results, all leading to the final calculation of some important astronomical data.
"见中日法一亿三千四百八万二千二百九十七," "见月日法四千四百六十九万四千九十九." These two figures are the final results of the calculations, likely representing key data on the sun and moon's cycles.
"合太阴太阳之岁数而中分之，各万一千五百二十." This passage explains the calculation method: adding the ages of the sun and moon and dividing by two gives fifteen thousand, five hundred and twenty for each. The sun's the yang, the moon's the yin, and subtracting the age from the rate of star movement leaves us with the observed value. It's pretty abstract stuff; you'd need some serious astronomy knowledge to get it.
"Nine times the number of years for the east, seven times for the west, and add the products of nine and seven times the number of years, equals one, which represents the number of morning and evening appearances of Venus and Mercury in a given year." This describes an algorithm for calculating the appearances of Venus and Mercury in the morning and evening by multiplying the age by nine and seven respectively, then adding the results together to determine how many times Venus and Mercury appear in the morning and evening throughout the year.
"The number of stellar appearances is calculated by multiplying the number of years by various factors: 'age in the year' for the average appearances, 'leap year' for leap year adjustments, 'chapter year' for monthly appearances, 'element law' for daily appearances, and 'universal law' for monthly and daily appearances." This paragraph outlines several astronomical calculation formulas, using different "ages," "sightings," and specific coefficients to derive various astronomical parameters. The terms "age in the year," "leap year," "chapter year," "element law," and "universal law" are specific astronomical concepts that require reference to contemporary literature for a clearer understanding.
The final paragraph describes the rules of planetary motion, detailing the speed, period, and some special phenomena of planetary motion, such as "stationary point" and "retrograde motion." This section involves more specific models of planetary motion and requires specialized knowledge to fully grasp. In summary, this text details the astronomical calculations of ancient astronomers, using complex numbers and specialized terminology.
When I first saw it in the morning, it was about half a day later. Then it moved in reverse, covering about half a degree each day. It stopped after six days and started to rotate again after eight days. It began moving forward, covering 46 1/3 degrees each day for forty-six days. Its forward speed was quite fast, covering 92.5 degrees each day, and it stopped after one hundred eighty-four days. In total, it was seen for two hundred forty-four days, and excluding the time it moved in reverse, it actually covered two hundred forty-four degrees. After stopping, it moved about 92.5 degrees each day. It stopped for 83 days, then moved 113 and 1/4,365,220 degrees. From the first time I saw it in the morning until it stopped, a total of three hundred twenty-seven days, it covered three hundred fifty-seven degrees and 1/4,365,220 degrees.
When I first saw it at night, it was also about half a day later. Then it moved forward, covering 92.5 degrees each day for 181 and 45/170 days. After that, the forward speed slowed down, covering 46 1/3 degrees each day for another forty-six days. Then it stopped, and after 7 and 62/170 days, it started moving in reverse. Moving in reverse, it covered about half a degree each day and stopped after six days. In total, it was seen for two hundred forty-one days, and excluding the time it moved in reverse, it actually covered two hundred forty-one degrees. After stopping, it moved in reverse, covering about 7/8 of a degree each day. It stopped for sixteen days and covered 14 and 1/369,868 degrees. From the first time I saw it at night until it stopped, a total of two hundred fifty-seven days and 1/129,531 days, it covered two hundred twenty-six degrees and 1/690,746 degrees.
In this back and forth, the total time was five hundred eighty-four days and 1/129,531 days. Its degree of movement was consistent, so on average, it moved about a degree a day.
The first time I saw Saturn in the morning, it took about half a day. When Saturn is in direct motion, it moves fifteen and one-fifteenth degrees each day for eighty-seven days. Then it appears to come to a standstill, and after thirty-four days, it begins retrograde motion. During this retrograde phase, it moves eighty-one and one-fifth degrees each day for one hundred and one days. After stopping again, thirty-three days and fifty-three minutes later, it starts moving direct once more. During this period, it moves fifteen and one-fifteenth degrees each day for eighty-five days before becoming unobservable. In total, I observed Saturn for three hundred and forty days and fifty-three minutes, excluding the retrograde time. Ultimately, the calculation shows that Saturn has moved five degrees and four hundred and forty-seven minutes. When it becomes unobservable, Saturn moves less than fifteen and three-fifths degrees each day. After thirty-seven days and one million seven hundred and seventeen thousand one hundred and seventy minutes, Saturn has moved seven degrees and eight hundred and seventy-three minutes. From the first time I saw it to the next time I saw it, a total of three hundred and seventy-seven days and eighteen million three hundred and twenty-six thousand two hundred and fifty minutes have passed, and Saturn has moved twelve degrees and one thousand three hundred and twenty-one minutes. Considering its movement pattern, it can be said that Saturn moves approximately four thousand three hundred and twenty minutes for each degree of its orbit each day.
The first time I saw Mars in the morning, it took about half a day. When Mars is in direct motion, it moves 92.53 degrees per day, lasting for 276 days. Then it begins to stop, and after ten days, it starts moving backward. During retrograde motion, it moves 62.17 degrees per day, lasting for 62 days. After another ten days, it resumes direct motion. During this direct motion, it again moves 92.53 degrees per day, lasting for another 276 days before it becomes invisible. In total, Mars is visible for 634 days, and after excluding the retrograde time, it is calculated that Mars has traveled 301 degrees. During retrograde, Mars moves less than 92.73 arcminutes per day, and it retrogrades for 146 days, totaling 114 degrees 49.35 arcminutes. From the first sighting to the next, a total of 780 days and 1,568,097 arcseconds, Mars has traveled a total of 415 degrees 49.35 arcminutes. Based on its movement pattern, Mars' average daily movement is approximately 13,824/7,355 of a degree.
When I first saw it in the morning, it took about half a day. During retrograde, it moves two degrees in a day, lasting for one day. Then it stops for two days before turning back. During direct motion, it moves 7/6 degrees per day, lasting for seven days. Direct motion is fast, moving one and 1/3 degrees per day, and it goes into hiding after eighteen days. It appears for a total of 28 days, and after excluding the retrograde time, it actually moves 28 degrees. During the hiding period, it moves a little over 1.9 degrees per day, and after 37 days, it has traveled 68 degrees 46.61 arcminutes. From the first appearance in the morning to hiding, a total of 65 days, Mars has traveled 96 degrees 46.61 arcminutes.
When I first saw it at night, it was probably half a day later. The forward speed is very fast, walking about one-third of a degree per day, covering roughly one and a half degrees in sixteen days. When the forward speed is slow, it walks six-sevenths of a degree per day for seven days. After a day or so, it reverses course. When moving backwards, it walks two degrees a day, and after a day, it goes into hiding. It appeared for a total of twenty-six days; excluding the time moving backwards, it actually traveled twenty-six degrees. During the hiding period, moving backwards, it walks a little more than four-fifteenths of a degree a day; after twenty-four days, it traveled approximately 164,602,050.5 degrees. From the first appearance at night to hiding, a total of fifty days, it traveled approximately 19.188,799.94 degrees. A complete cycle lasts one hundred and fifteen days, during which it traveled approximately 300,574,912.5 degrees. The number of degrees traveled is consistent every day, so it walks one degree each day.
To calculate the rules of the sun and moon movement, starting from the Taiji Shangyuan (a reference point in traditional Chinese cosmology), subtract the surplus element method from the year to be calculated; the remainder represents how many years have passed since the Tian Tong Jiazi year. If the year exceeds the surplus element, subtract it; the remainder represents how many years have passed since the Di Tong Jia Chen year. Subtract the surplus element again, and the remainder represents how many years have passed since the Ren Tong Jia Shen year. Perform calculations based on the first day of these three eras.
To calculate the Tian Zheng, multiply the total months by the total number of years. If this exceeds the chapter year, you get an accumulated month; if it does not exceed, the remainder is the leap remainder. If the leap remainder exceeds twelve, that year has a leap month. To calculate the Di Zheng, add one to the total months; to calculate the Ren Zheng, add two to the total months.
To calculate the first day of the first month, multiply the month method by the total months. If this exceeds the day method, you get an accumulated day; if it does not exceed, the remainder is the small remainder. If the small remainder exceeds thirty-eight, the month is a long month (30 days). If the accumulated day exceeds sixty, subtract sixty; the remainder is the big remainder. Starting from the first day of the era, add the big remainder, and that is the first day of the month. To calculate the first day of the next month, add twenty-nine to the big remainder and forty-three to the small remainder. If the small remainder exceeds the day method, start from the big remainder and calculate in the same way. To calculate the crescent day, add seven to the big remainder and thirty-one to the small remainder. To calculate the full moon day, it is twice the crescent day.
Let's start by discussing how to calculate the intercalary month. First, calculate the remainder, then multiply the remainder by 12, add 7, and this gives you the end date of the intercalary month. If a solar term occurs within two days of the new moon, it means that the previous month was an intercalary month.
Next, we need to calculate the date of the winter solstice. Multiply the remainder by the number of days in a year, and use a specific calculation method to find a number. This number is called the "big remainder" if it is large, and the "small remainder" if it is small. Then, using a certain algorithm, you can determine the date of the winter solstice.
To calculate the twenty-four solar terms, you need to use the big remainder and the small remainder. For the eight solar terms, add 45 to the big remainder and 1010 to the small remainder; for the twenty-four solar terms, multiply the small remainder by 3, add 15, and then add 1010 to the small remainder.
The calculation of the intermediate solar terms among the twenty-four solar terms is done using the yuan method.
The calculation method of the five elements (referring to metal, wood, water, fire, earth) is also quite special. Each of the four elements, except for the central element, has 73 days, which is divided by 77; the central element has 18 days, divided by 440. After the winter solstice, the central element has 27 days and 1/666th of a day.
To find the constellation at the conjunction, first, record the days that have passed, then multiply by the unity method, and add 19 times the small remainder. If it exceeds one year, subtract one year; if it does not exceed, keep adding until it exceeds one year, and you can calculate the degree of the constellation at the conjunction.
To find the constellation at midnight, multiply the number of days in a year by the small remainder of the month, and then subtract from the degree of the conjunction. If the small remainder of the month is not enough to subtract, then split the degree of the conjunction and subtract again.
To find the constellation at the midpoint of the month, multiply the number of days in a month by the small remainder of the month, keep adding until it exceeds the unity method, and then subtract from the degree of the conjunction.
To calculate additional time, multiply 12 by the small remainder as the numerator, use the denominators of each full part, and start calculating from Zi (the first of the twelve Earthly Branches), and you can find out how much additional time there is.
To calculate a lunar eclipse, first record the result obtained from the cumulative lunar months, then multiply it by 23. If the result exceeds 135, divide by 135; otherwise, keep adding 23 until it exceeds 135. Use the resulting number to calculate from the first day of the lunar month to determine the day on which the lunar eclipse occurs. The lunar eclipse occurs on the full moon day (the fifteenth day of the lunar calendar) during the hour of Chongchen (one of the four two-hour periods of the day).
Next, we will discuss the calculation method for the five stars (the five planets: metal, wood, water, fire, and earth).
To calculate the appearance and disappearance of the five stars, start from the Taiji Shangyuan (an ancient era) and calculate to the year in question. Multiply that year by the cycle of the five stars' appearance and disappearance. If this value exceeds the number of years, divide by the number of years to determine the exact number of appearances and disappearances. If it does not exceed, this is referred to as the remainder. If the remainder exceeds the cycle, it indicates that the five stars appeared in recent years; if it exceeds twice the cycle, it indicates earlier appearances; if it does not exceed, it means they appeared this year.
To determine the position of the five stars in the sky, multiply the midpoint of their appearance (the moment when the five stars reach the center of the sky) by the determined number of appearances and disappearances. If this product exceeds the method for determining the midpoint, divide by that method to obtain the middle value; otherwise, this is called the remainder. Divide the middle value by the middle value to get the middle element remainder; then divide by the middle element remainder to obtain the number of chapters. Finally, divide by 12 to find the position of the five stars in the sky. When calculating positions, start from the winter solstice and count using the lunar mansions (one of the twenty-eight constellations) to determine the position of the five stars in the sky.
First, let's look at how to calculate the time of the moon's appearance. Multiply the number of days in a leap month by the number of leap months that have passed, then multiply the average number of days in a year (approximately 365.25 days) by the remaining days. Add these results together to get the total number of days. If it's not enough for a month, the remaining days are called "remaining days." Divide the total number of days in the first month of the lunar cycle by the "remaining days" to get the "adjusted remainder." Then, divide the number of days in a month by the "adjusted remainder" to determine which month it is. If there is a leap month in a year, divide by 13 instead of 12. Leap months occur roughly every three years, with variations of two, three, four, five, six, or seven leap months over six, nine, eleven, fourteen, seventeen, and nineteen-year cycles respectively. If the calculated number of days is not enough for a month, start counting from the first day of the first month, and the result will be the time of the moon's appearance.
Next, calculate the winter solstice. Multiply the average number of days in a year by the "middle remainder" (the method for calculating this "middle remainder" is not provided in the source text). If it exceeds the average number of days in a year, subtract the average number of days in a year; the remaining will be the total number of days. If the remaining days exceed 2597, it's a special year in the lunar calendar, and you'll get the winter solstice.
Then, calculate the new moon day (the first day of the lunar month). Multiply the number of days in a month by the "adjusted remainder." If it exceeds the number of days in a month, subtract the number of days in a month; the remaining will be the total number of days. If the remaining days exceed 38, it's a long month, and you'll get the first day of the lunar month.
To calculate the position of a star on the ecliptic, multiply the average number of days in a year by the "middle remainder," then multiply the average number of degrees in a day (360 degrees) by the remaining days. Add these two results together; if it exceeds 360 degrees, subtract 360 degrees, and the remaining will be the position of the star. "Middle" refers to the winter solstice, while "next" refers to the spring equinox, summer solstice, and autumn equinox.
The method for calculating the date of a star on the ecliptic is similar. Multiply the number of days in a month by the "remaining days," then multiply the number of days in a day by the remaining days. Add the two results together; if it exceeds the number of days in a month, subtract the number of days in a month, and the remaining will be the date of the star's appearance.
To calculate the time when a star will appear in the future, add the total number of days previously calculated to the "middle remainder" or "adjusted remainder," then use the corresponding method to determine the future appearance time.
Calculating the winter solstice, the position of a star on the ecliptic, the first day of the lunar month, and the date of a star's appearance all follow the same method.
The method for calculating the appearance of stars in the morning and evening is also the same.
The final step is to calculate the positions of the stars. Starting from the first appearance of a star, calculate the star's daily movement in degrees until the day you want to determine. Multiply the daily movement by the number of days and sum these results. If there are fractions in the degrees, let's illustrate with an example: multiply the numerator by the whole number part and use the denominator as the divisor. If both the numerator and denominator are fractions, multiply the denominator by the whole number part of the degrees, use the numerator as the dividend, then multiply the numerator and denominator separately, and finally calculate the result. Add this result to the position of the star at its first appearance to determine the star's position on that day.
**Yearly Astrology:**
Firstly, we need to calculate which year it is. Calculate the number of days since the start of the year to today, subtract the total days in a year, and the remaining days are the days less than a year. If the remaining days are fewer than 145, multiply 145 by the remaining days, then divide by 144. The quotient is called *Ji Ci* and the remainder is *Ci Yu*. If *Ji Ci* exceeds twelve, subtract twelve, and the remainder is *Ding Ci*. Then, starting from *Xing Ji*, the corresponding celestial position of *Ding Ci* indicates the position for that year. Finally, divide *Ji Ci* by sixty, and the remainder, starting from *Bing Zi*, will reveal the day of the year's *Tai Sui*.
Next, let's talk about the issue of "Ying Suo." Ancient texts say that years will "spill over into the next year's position," meaning that at the end of the year, some days will be "carried over" to the next year, which affects bird breeding. Both the Zhou Dynasty and the Chu State believed this was undesirable. However, the "Ying Suo" of the five stars is a normal phenomenon. If it exceeds the normal range, disasters will be severe; if it slightly exceeds, the disasters will be minor; if it does not exceed, then there will be no issues. *Ci Du* refers to the six celestial cycles: year, hour, day and night, sun and moon, and stars. "Chen" refers to the position where the sun and moon intersect.
Next, let's look at the specific dates and corresponding celestial positions of each solar term. *Xing Ji*: Starting from *Xing Ji*, twelve degrees mark the Major Snow solar term. In the middle is the starting position of the Cowherd Star, corresponding to the Winter Solstice. During the Xia Dynasty, this occurred in November, in the Shang Dynasty in December, and in the Zhou Dynasty in January. Finally, it reaches the seven degrees of the Wunu Star.
The following describes the alignment of specific star positions with traditional Chinese solar terms during the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties.
Xuan Xiao: Starting from the eighth degree of the Wu Nu star, which lines up with the Minor Cold. In the middle is the first degree of the Wei Su star, associated with the Major Cold. The corresponding months in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were the twelfth, first, and second months, respectively. Finally, it reaches the fifteenth degree of the Wei Su.
Zou Zi: Starting from the sixteenth degree of the Wei Su, which corresponds to the Start of Spring. In the middle is the fourteenth degree of the Ying Shu star, associated with the Awakening of Insects. The corresponding months in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were the first, second, and third months, respectively. Finally, it reaches the fourth degree of the Kui Su.
Jiang Lou: Starting from the fifth degree of the Kui Su, which corresponds to the Rain Water. In the middle is the fourth degree of the Lou Su star, associated with the Vernal Equinox. The corresponding months in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were the second, third, and fourth months, respectively. Finally, it reaches the sixth degree of the Wei Su.
Da Liang: Starting from the seventh degree of the Wei Su, which corresponds to the Grain Rain. In the middle is the eighth degree of the Mao Su star, associated with Qingming. The corresponding months in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were the third, fourth, and fifth months, respectively. Finally, it reaches the eleventh degree of the Bi Su.
Shi Shen: Starting from the twelfth degree of the Bi Su, which corresponds to the Start of Summer. In the middle is the first degree of the Jing Su star, associated with Minor Fullness. The corresponding months in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were the fourth, fifth, and sixth months, respectively. Finally, it reaches the fifteenth degree of the Jing Su.
Chun Shou: Starting from the sixteenth degree of the Jing Su, which corresponds to the Grain Buds. In the middle is the thirty-first degree of the Jing Su, associated with the Summer Solstice. The corresponding months in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were the fifth, sixth, and seventh months, respectively. Finally, it reaches the eighth degree of the Liu Su.
Chun Huo: Starting from the ninth degree of the Liu Su, which corresponds to the Minor Heat. In the middle is the third degree of the Zhang Su, associated with Major Heat. The corresponding months in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were the sixth, seventh, and eighth months, respectively. Finally, it reaches the seventeenth degree of the Zhang Su.
Chun Wei: Starting from the eighteenth degree of the Zhang Su, which corresponds to the Start of Autumn. In the middle is the fifteenth degree of the Ji Su, associated with the Limit of Heat. The corresponding months in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were the seventh, eighth, and ninth months, respectively. Finally, it reaches the eleventh degree of the Zhen Su.
So, let's talk about this birthday star. It starts at the Zhēn xiù (轸宿) constellation at twelve degrees, which corresponds to the White Dew solar term. Halfway through, around ten degrees in the Jiǎo xiù (角宿) constellation, it's the Autumn Equinox. This corresponds to the eighth, ninth, and tenth months in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, respectively, and it ends at the Di xiù (氐宿) at four degrees.
As for the Great Fire, it begins at five degrees in the Di xiù, which is the Cold Dew solar term. At the midpoint, around five degrees in the Fáng xiù (房宿) constellation, it reaches Frost Descent. This corresponds to the ninth, tenth, and eleventh months in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, respectively, and it ends at the Wèi xiù (尾宿) at nine degrees.
Next is the Xi Mu (析木) constellation, starting at ten degrees in the Wèi xiù, which marks the Start of Winter. Halfway through, at seven degrees in the Jī xiù (箕宿) constellation, it reaches Minor Snow. This corresponds to the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth months in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, respectively, and it ends at the Dòu xiù (斗宿) at eleven degrees.
Now, here are the degrees of each constellation:
- Jiǎo xiù: 12 degrees
- Kàng xiù: 9 degrees
- Di xiù: 15 degrees
- Fáng xiù: 5 degrees
- Xīn xiù: 5 degrees
- Wèi xiù: 18 degrees
- Jī xiù: 11 degrees
The total degrees in the east are seventy-five:
- Dòu xiù: 26 degrees
- Niú xiù: 8 degrees
- Nǚ xiù: 12 degrees
- Xū xiù: 10 degrees
- Wēi xiù: 17 degrees
- Yíng Shì: 16 degrees
- Bì xiù: 9 degrees
The total degrees in the north are ninety-eight:
- Kuí xiù: 16 degrees
- Lóu xiù: 12 degrees
- Wèi xiù: 14 degrees
- Mǎo xiù: 11 degrees
- Bì xiù: 16 degrees
- Zī xiù: 2 degrees
- Shēn xiù: 9 degrees
The total degrees in the west are eighty:
- Jǐng xiù: 33 degrees
- Guǐ xiù: 4 degrees
- Liǔ xiù: 15 degrees
- Xīng xiù: 7 degrees
- Zhāng xiù: 18 degrees
- Yì xiù: 18 degrees
- Zhēn xiù: 17 degrees
The total degrees in the south are one hundred and twelve.
This nine-year cycle totals 171 years, which is considered a small cycle. Nine small cycles, amounting to 1539 years, are regarded as a large cycle. Three large cycles equal the length of one Yuan cycle. It oscillates about four and a half degrees around Altair (Niúxīng). There are a total of nine conjunction cycles, as the solar calendar is based on nine large cycles. Combining lunar and solar cycles results in a 19-year Metonic cycle. The solar calendar has been successfully calculated, marking the conclusion of the nine conjunction cycles. Four seasons correspond to a hexagram in the I Ching, so there will be one year left in four years, and one day left in four new moon phases, serving as the beginning of a section, with eighty-one chapters marking the end of a calendrical cycle.
The first cycle is the Year of Jiazi (甲子), which is the first year of the Han Dynasty. The tenth cycle is the Year of Xinyou (辛酉). The nineteenth cycle is the Year of Jiwei (己未). The twenty-eighth cycle is the Year of Dingsi (丁巳). The thirty-seventh cycle is the Year of Yimao (乙卯). The forty-sixth cycle is the Year of Renzi (壬子). The fifty-fifth cycle is the Year of Gengxu (庚戌). The sixty-fourth cycle is the Year of Wushen (戊申). The seventy-third cycle is the Year of Bingwu (丙午), which is the middle cycle.
The Year of Jiachen (甲辰) marks the beginning of the second cycle. Following that are the Year of Xinchou (辛丑), the Year of Jihai (己亥), the Year of Dingyou (丁酉), the Year of Yiwei (乙未), the Year of Renchen (壬辰), the Year of Gengyin (庚寅), the Year of Wuzi (戊子), and the Year of Bingxu (丙戌), which is the last year of the second cycle.
The Year of Jiashen (甲申) signifies the start of the third cycle. This is followed by the Year of Xinsi (辛巳), the Year of Yimao (乙卯), the Year of Dingchou (丁丑), the forty-second year of King Wen, the Year of Yihai (乙亥), [the twenty-sixth year of Wei], the Year of Renshen (壬申), the Year of Gengwu (庚午), the Year of Wuchen (戊辰), and the Year of Bingyin (丙寅), which is the last year of the third cycle and also the twenty-second year of Emperor Min.
The following is a transcription of a personal journal entry detailing the dates of civil service exams taken by an individual, along with other significant dates.
This record documents the dates of someone's civil service exams, starting from the second day of the second month, recording multiple exam days, and finally passing the exam on the day of Yǐyǒu in the seventy-fourth year. The following records from Guǐwèi to Yǐchǒu should be different days after passing the exam, possibly recording some important dates or solar terms.
Second paragraph:
The following dates were also recorded:
* Guǐhài day
* Xīnyǒu day
* Jǐwèi day
* Dīngsì day
* Fifth year of Zhōugōng (presumably referring to a historical era or reign)
* Jiǎyín day
* Rényín day
* Gēngxū day
* Wùshēn day
* Fourth year of Yuán (likely referring to a specific era or reign)
* Yǐsì day, spring of this year.
This section continues to record more days, mentioning "Fifth year of Zhōugōng" and "Fourth year of Yuán," which may refer to a particular calendar or reign. Finally, "Yǐsì day, spring of this year" indicates the season of this set of dates.
Third paragraph:
Third day of March, Guǐwèi day; Twelfth day of Xīnsì day; Twenty-first day of Jǐmǎo day; Thirtieth day of Bǐngzǐ day; Thirty-ninth day of Jiǎxū day; Forty-eighth day of Rénshēn day; Fifty-seventh day of Gēngwǔ day; Sixty-sixth day of Dīngmǎo day; Seventy-fifth day of Yǐchǒu day, passed the exam this year.
Guǐhài day; Xīnyǒu day; Jǐwèi day; Bǐngchén day; Jiǎyín day; Rényín day; Gēngxū day; Dīngwèi day; Yǐsì day, autumn of this year.
Guǐmǎo day; Xīnchǒu day; Jǐhài day; Bǐngshēn day; Jiǎwǔ day; Rénchén day; Gēngyín day; Twelfth year of Chéng; Dīnghài day; Yǐyǒu day, spring of this year.
This section is similar to the first paragraph, recording exam dates but in March. It also records the days after passing the exam and divides them into spring and autumn. "Twelfth year of Chéng" may refer to a particular calendar or reign.
Fourth paragraph:
Fourth day of the fourth month, Guǐhài day, second year of Chūyuán; Thirteenth day of Xīnyǒu day; Twenty-second day of Wùwǔ day; Thirty-first day of Bǐngchén day; Fortieth day of Jiǎyín day; Forty-ninth day of Rénzǐ day; Fifty-eighth day of Jǐyǒu day; Sixty-seventh day of Dīngwèi day; Seventy-sixth day of Yǐsì day, passed the exam this year.
Guǐmǎo day; Xīnchǒu day; Wùxū day; Bǐngshēn day; Jiǎwǔ day; Rénchén day; Jǐchǒu day; Dīnghài day; Yǐyǒu day, autumn of this year.
Guǐwèi day; Xīnsì day; Wùyín day; Bǐngzǐ day; Jiǎxū day; Rénshēn day; Huì thirty-eighth year; Jǐsì day; Dīngmǎo day; Yǐchǒu day, spring of this year.
This passage still records the dates of the examinations, mentioning "the second year of Chuyuan" and "the thirty-eighth year of Hui," which may be reign titles. It also records the days after passing the exam, divided by seasons.
**Fifth paragraph:**
- May 5th, Guimao day, Heping 1st year
- 14th day, Gengzi day
- 23rd day, Wuxu day
- 32nd day, Bingshen day
- 41st day, Jiawu day
- 50th day, Xinmao day
- 59th day, Jichou day
- 68th day, Dinghai day
- 77th day, Yiyou day (passed the exam this year)
Guwei day; Gengchen day; Wuyin day; Benzhi day; Jiaxu day; Xinwei day; Jisi day; Dingmao day; Yichou day (it was autumn this year).
This is the last paragraph, still recording the examination dates and mentioning "Heping 1st year." It also records the days after passing the exam, divided by seasons. This shows the dates of this person's participation in the imperial examinations over many years, as well as some important days.
He spent fifteen years taking the exam (1895, 1903, 1907, 1910, 1913). In 1908, 1901, 1898, 1893, early summer. The third year of Chu Yuan.
He was six years old in 1914, fifteen in 1923, twenty-four in 1932, thirty-three in 1941, forty-two in 1950, fifty-one in 1959, sixty in 1968, sixty-nine in 1977, seventy-eight in 1986, Ghost Festival.
In 1918, 1910, 1907, 1903, 1900, 1908, 1901, 1898, 1895, late autumn.
In 1920, 1918, 1916, 1914, Emperor Yang's reign lasted twenty-four years. In 1911, 1909, 1907, 1905, the fourth year of Kang. In 1915, early summer.
He was seven years old in 1918, the third year of the founding of the country. He was sixteen in 1927, twenty-five in 1936, thirty-four in 1945, forty-three in 1954, fifty-two in 1963, sixty-one in 1972, seventy in 1981, seventy-nine in 1990, Ghost Festival.
In 1920, 1918, 1916, 1914, 1911, 1909, 1907, 1905, 1915, late autumn.
He was eight years old in 1919, seventeen in 1928, twenty-six in 1937, thirty-five in 1946, forty-four in 1955, fifty-three in 1964, sixty-two in 1973, seventy-one in 1982, eighty in 1991, Ghost Festival.
1919, 1923, 1937, 1946, 1955, 1964, 1973, 1982, 1991, autumn.
Nine years old in 1920, eighteen in 1929, twenty-seven in 1938, thirty-six in 1947, forty-five in 1956, fifty-four in 1965, sixty-three in 1974, seventy-two in 1983, eighty-one in 1992, Mid-Autumn Festival.
1920, 1929, 1938, 1947, 1956, 1965, 1974, 1983, 1992, autumn.
This passage records some important years in life, noted according to the traditional Chinese sexagenary cycle, and marked with age and solar terms. From age six to eighty-one, these years chart a life course. The phrases "dedicating fifteen years," "founding the country in the third year," "reigning for twenty-four years," "reigning in the fourth year," "establishing in the seventh year," "reigning in the fifth year," etc., likely reference specific historical events or rulers and require further contextual understanding.
The years Renyin, Jihai, Dingyou, Yiwei, Guisi, Yiji, Gengyin, Wuzi, Bingxu, Jiaxin (all years in the Chinese sexagenary cycle), and the sixth year of Mengyuanshuo.
To understand the dates, one must consider the following calculation method: first, set the day of the winter solstice as the first day of the month (lunar calendar); the large remainder is 39, and the small remainder is 61. When calculating, according to the rules, start from their respective initial numbers. To calculate the following days, add 39 to the large remainder and 61 to the small remainder, adding until 81 chapters are calculated.
When calculating the chapters, the large remainder is calculated similarly, and the small remainder is increased by 1. To calculate the end of a cycle, add 59 to the large remainder and 21 to the small remainder.
Next, let's discuss the main topic. In the 17th year of Duke Zhao of the "Spring and Autumn Annals," it is recorded that Tanzi paid a visit to Duke Zhao of Qi. The book states that Duke Zhao asked Tanzi why the Xiaohao clan took birds as their totem. Tanzi replied, "That is our ancestor; of course I know. In the past, the Huangdi clan, whose emblem was the cloud, were known as the Cloud Ancestors; the Yandi clan, whose emblem was fire, were known as the Fire Ancestors; the Gonggong clan, whose emblem was water, were known as the Water Ancestors; the Taihao clan, whose emblem was the dragon, were known as the Dragon Ancestors. When my ancestor Xiaohao Zhi ascended the throne, a phoenix appeared, so we took birds as our totem, the Bird Ancestors."
Tanzi explained that the lineage went: Xiaohao descended from Huangdi, who descended from Yandi, and so on, tracing back to Taihao. According to the "Book of Changes," Fuxi, Shennong, and Huangdi were emperors one after another in the same era. The "Book of Changes" states, "Fuxi clan ruled the world," meaning that Fuxi succeeded heaven and became king, the ancestor of all emperors, with his virtue beginning with wood, so he was called Emperor Taihao. He invented nets and fishing gear for hunting and to provide sacrificial offerings, so everyone called him Fuxi clan. The "Ji Dian" states, "Gonggong clan ruled the nine domains," indicating that although Gonggong had the virtue of water, he was positioned between fire and wood, not in order. He used severe laws to consolidate his rule, allowing him to govern the world, but he could not be called a king. The Qin Dynasty also had the virtue of water, situated between the wood virtue of the Zhou Dynasty and the fire virtue of the Han Dynasty. The Zhou people altered this order, so it is not recorded in the "Book of Changes." The "Book of Changes" also states, "After Fuxi clan passed away, Shennong clan succeeded," which means that although Gonggong ruled the nine domains, he had the virtue of water, but it was not in order. Shennong succeeded the wood virtue with the fire virtue, earning him the title Yandi. He taught the people to cultivate, so everyone called him Shennong clan.
The *Book of Changes* says: "After Shen Nong passed away, Huang Di took over." Huang Di was associated with earth, as fire generates earth. He battled the descendants of Yan Di at Banquan and won, unifying the land. He started wearing the Xuanyuan crown, and so people called him Xuanyuan Shi.
Next came Shaohao Di, as recorded in the books, he was known as Shaohao Qing. This "Qing" refers to Qing Yang, the son of Huang Di, whose descendants succeeded him. Shaohao represented the element of metal, as earth generates metal. He was known as Jintian Shi by the people. Zhou dynasty changes to music and dance mean the *Book of Changes* only gives a brief account.
Following was Zhuang Xu Di. The book says that during the reign of Shaohao, there was a decline, with the Jiuli tribe causing trouble and breaking the rules. Zhuang Xu Di then took over, appointing Chong Li as an official. Chong Li was the son of Canglin Changyi. Zhuang Xu Di represented the element of water, as metal generates water. He was known as Gaoyang Shi by the people. Zhou dynasty changes to music and dance also mean the *Book of Changes* only gives a brief account.
Afterwards came Di Ku. The book says that the territories conquered by Zhuang Xu Di were later passed down to Di Ku. Di Ku was the grandson of Qing Yang Xuanxiao. Di Ku represented the element of wood, as water generates wood. He was known as Gaoxin Shi by the people. His son, Di Zhi, succeeded him, but the exact length of his reign was not clearly mentioned in the books. During the Zhou Dynasty, their music and dances were also altered, so the *Book of Changes* only gives a brief account, but the people of the Zhou Dynasty still worshipped him.
Next was Tang Yao. The book says that Di Ku had four wives, among whom Chen Feng gave birth to Di Yao, who was given the Tang lands. With the Gaoxin Shi weakening, the whole land accepted Yao as their ruler. Yao represented the element of fire, as wood generates fire. He was known as Taotang Shi by the people. He passed the throne to Yu Shun and made his son Zhu a lord, giving him Danyuan. Yao ruled as emperor for seventy years.
Next is Yu Shun. According to historical accounts, five generations after the descendants of Zhuan Xu was Gu Sou, who gave birth to Shun, who lived in the land of Yu, by the Gui River. Yao ceded the emperorship to Shun. Shun possessed the virtue of earth, representing the element of earth in the five-element cycle, as fire gives birth to earth. He was known as Yu Shun Shi, also referred to as You Yu Shi. He passed the world to Yu and made his son Shang Jun a vassal prince. Shun reigned as emperor for fifty years.
Next is Da Yu. Ancient texts state that five generations after Zhuan Xu was Gun, who gave birth to Yu. Shun ceded the emperorship to Yu. Yu possessed the virtue of metal, representing the element of metal in the five-element cycle, as earth gives birth to metal. He was known as Xia Hou Shi. The Xia Dynasty had a total of seventeen kings, lasting four hundred and thirty-two years.
Finally, there is Tang of Shang. The book "Tang's Oath" records that Tang overthrew Xia Jie. Tang possessed the virtue of water, representing the element of water in the five-element cycle, as metal gives birth to water. He was called Shang, later also known as Yin.
It is said that in the "Three Dynasties Calendar," from the ancient Upper Yuan to Xia Jie's defeat, more than one hundred and forty thousand years passed, coinciding with the year of the Great Mars. Ancient texts identified the Great Mars as the star of E Bo, associating it with the history of the Shang Dynasty. When the founding monarch of the Shang Dynasty, Cheng Tang, passed away, he had been the emperor for thirteen years. In the twelfth lunar month of the Shang Dynasty, the first day of the month of Yi Chou was also the winter solstice. Therefore, in the "Book of Documents Preface," it is said: "After Cheng Tang's death, in the first year of Tai Jia, Yi Yin wrote the 'Yi Xun'." The "Yi Xun" records: "In the first year of Tai Jia, on the first day of the month of Yi Chou, Yi Yin offered sacrifices to the ancestors, holding a solemn ceremony." This means that despite the sacrificial attire of Cheng Tang, Tai Ding, and Wai Bing, it was still on the winter solstice that they held a solemn ceremony to worship the ancestors, in accordance with Heaven's mandate, on the first day of the winter solstice that year. Ninety-five years later, in the twelfth lunar month of the Shang Dynasty, the first day of the month of Jia Shen was also the winter solstice, with no leap month; this is called "Meng Tong." From Xia Jie's defeat to King Wu's defeat of King Zhou, a total of six hundred and twenty-nine years passed, and ancient texts thus record the Yin and Shang dynasties' six-hundred-year-long tradition of ancestor worship.
The "Yin Calendar" states: During the thirteenth year of Cheng Tang's reign, on the day of Jia Zi in the eleventh month, it was the first day of the lunar month, also the winter solstice, and the first day of the six-divisional cycle. By the fifth year of Duke of Zhou, it had been four hundred and fifty-eight years since the fall of Xia Jie, which was one hundred and seventy-one years less than six hundred and twenty-nine. Some scholars claim the Xia calendar used the Yi Chou day as the starting point for calculating the years. According to this calculation, it was the fifth Jia Zi year after Meng Tong (a reference to the historical figure Meng Tong), with the day of Gui Hai as the first day of the lunar month, also the winter solstice. They believed that the Jia Zi day was the first day of the six-divisional cycle, but these statements are incorrect. In conclusion, the Shang Dynasty had a total of thirty-one kings and lasted six hundred and twenty-nine years.
The "Four-Fold Calendar" notes: From the Upper Yuan to the fall of Xia Jie, over 130,000 years had passed, experiencing a total of eighty-eight Jia Zi cycles, with the Jia Zi day as the first day of the six-divisional cycle, one hundred and twenty-seven years after the fall of Xia Jie.
The "Spring and Autumn Calendar" indicates: King Wen of Zhou reigned for forty-two years, and on the day of Ding Chou in the twelfth month, it was the first day of the lunar month, also the winter solstice, marking the second Jia Zi year of Meng Tong. Eight years later, King Wu attacked King Zhou.
The "Book of Documents: The Oath of the Royal Herder" states: King Wu attacked King Zhou of Shang. Following the principle of water generating wood, the Zhou Dynasty adopted wood as its symbolic virtue, becoming known as the Zhou dynasty.
It is recorded in the "Three Tong" that from the Upper Yuan to the fall of King Zhou of Shang, a total of one hundred and forty-two thousand one hundred and nine years had passed, and that year was the thirteenth degree of the Chun Huo Zhang constellation (a reference to a specific star configuration). King Wen received the mandate and reigned as emperor for nine years before passing away, and two years later, on the auspicious day of Da Xiang, King Wu attacked King Zhou. The "Preface" also states: "In the eleventh year, King Wu attacked King Zhou and wrote the 'Great Oath'." At that time, eight hundred vassals came to help. After King Wu destroyed the Shang Dynasty, he returned two years later, spending a total of thirteen years. The "Preface" further mentions: "King Wu defeated Yin, and Ji Zi returned, writing the 'Great Plan'." The "Great Plan" section also states: "In the thirteenth sacrifice, the king inquired of Ji Zi." From the year King Wen received the mandate to this thirteenth year, that year was still under the influence of the Chun Huo constellation, so the "Annals" state: "In the year of Chun Huo, then I will have the Zhou domain."
The army of King Wu's war against King Zhou first set out in the eleventh month, on the eleventh day of the Yin calendar, with the sun positioned at seven degrees within the Jisi constellation of Ximu. The records note the sun's position in Ximu. That night, the moon was at five degrees in the Fang constellation, known as the Celestial Steeds, prompting the records to state, "The moon is in Tian Si." Three days later, on the first day of the first month of the Zhou calendar, Mars was one degree in front of the Dou constellation, the position of the handle of the Dipper, as indicated by the records: "Mars is in the handle of the Dipper." The following day, on the Renchen day, the morning star appeared. On the Guisi day, King Wu officially set out, and on the Bingwu day, he returned, arriving at Mengjin on the Wuwu day. Mengjin lies nine hundred li from Zhou, and the army traveled thirty li each day, so they arrived in thirty-one days. The next day, Jiwei, marked the winter solstice, with the morning star and the Wunu star disappearing together, passing through Jianxing and the Qian Niu star, all the way to the apex of the Wunu star Tianwei, as the records state: "The star is in Tianwei." The chapter "Wu Cheng" in the "Book of Zhou" notes that King Wu's campaign began on the Renchen day of the first month, following a significant event; he departed Zhou on foot for the war against King Zhou the next day, Guisi. The "Preface" mentions, "On the Wuwu day of the first month, the army crossed at Mengjin."
On the day of Gengshen, it was the first day of the second month. After four days, on Guihai day, they arrived at the Battlefield of Muye, set up the formation in the evening, and started the battle at dawn on Jiazi day. The "Wai Zhuan" says, "Wang set up the formation on the night of Guihai in the second month." In the "Wu Cheng" chapter, it states, "If Yue comes in the third month, after the death of Ba, on the fifth day of Jiazi in Yue, Xian Liu Shang Wang Zhou." That year, there were eighteen extra days in the leap month, coinciding with the major cold solar term. The day of Jichou in the second month of the Zhou calendar marked the month's end, and the next day, Gengyin day of the leap month, was the first of the month. Gengshen on the second day of the third month is known as Insects Awakening. Jichou on the fourth day of the fourth month is the new moon day, which is also the death of Ba. The death of Ba is the new moon day, and the birth of Ba is the full moon day. The day of Jiachen in this month is the full moon day, and the day of Yisi is a day neither new moon nor full moon. The "Wu Cheng" chapter records, "Only in April, after the side birth of Ba, on the sixth day of Gengxu in Yue, King Wu burned offerings in the Zhou temple. The next day, Xinhai, he made sacrifices at the heavenly position. On the fifth day of Yimao in Yue, he made sacrifices to the Zhou temple for the vassal state." King Wen gave birth to King Wu at the age of fifteen, and he ruled for eleven years before passing away at eighty-six, four years after which King Wu destroyed the Shang dynasty. King Wu was eighty-six years old when he overthrew the Shang dynasty, and he passed away seven years later. In the "Li Ji · Son of King Wen," it states, "King Wen passed away at the age of ninety-seven, and King Wu passed away at the age of ninety-three." King Wu was emperor for eleven years, while Duke of Zhou served as regent for five years. The new moon day of the first month, Dingsi, was the winter solstice, calculated as the sixth year of Wuyou in the Yin calendar, seventy-six years after King Yang, which marks the beginning of Meng Tong's twenty-ninth chapter. Two years later, in the seventh year of Duke of Zhou's regency, it was the year of "Fu Ziming Bi." In that year, the new moon day was on Yihai in the second month, the full moon day was on Gengyin, and six days later was Yiwei day. The "Zhaogao" mentions, "Only in the second month, after the full moon, on the sixth day of Yiwei in Yue." Three days later, Jiachen in the third month was the new moon day, and three days after that was Bingwu day. The "Zhaogao" states, "Only in the third month, Bingwu is the third day of the moon." In the twelfth month, Wuchen marked the month's end when Duke of Zhou returned to power. In the "Luogao" chapter, it says, "On Wuchen, the king was in Xinyi, offering the yearly sacrifice. He commissioned the writing of the strategies, marking the seventh year since Zhou Gong's dedication to protecting the mandates of Wen and Wu."
In the first year of King Cheng, on the first day of the first month, it was the day of Ji-Si (己巳, [Gregorian date]). In that year, King Cheng ordered Bo Qin (伯禽) to go to the state of Lu to become the ruler. Thirty years later, on the first day of the fourth month, it was the day of Geng-Xu (庚戌, [Gregorian date]), and on the fifteenth day, it was the day of Jia-Zi (甲子, [Gregorian date]), when Duke Zhuang of Lu was born. The *Gu Ming* (顾命) records this event: "Duke Zhuang was born in the fourth month; the king fell ill and wrote the *Gu Ming* on the day of Jia-Zi." This means that King Cheng fell ill that day, washed at the Tao River (洮沬水), and then wrote the *Gu Ming*. The next day, it was the day of Yi-Chou (乙丑, [Gregorian date]), and King Cheng died.
In the twelfth year of King Kang, on the first day of the sixth month, it was the day of Wu-Chen (戊辰, [Gregorian date]), and three days later, on the day of Geng-Wu (庚午, [Gregorian date]), the *Bi Ming Feng Xing* (毕命丰刑) records: "In the tenth month of the second year of King Kang's reign, on the day of Geng-Wu, the king issued the *Feng Xing* decree." This indicates that King Kang promulgated the *Feng Xing* decree on that day.
The *Spring and Autumn Annals* (春秋) and the *Yin Li* (殷历) both use the Yin Calendar for dating. The state of Lu lost many years of accurate records after King Zhao of Zhou. Therefore, we must rely on records from the period after Duke Zhuang's reign to reconstruct the chronology. Duke Zhuang of Lu ruled for forty-six years and died in the sixteenth year of King Kang. The *Records of the Grand Historian* (史记) states, "Xie Fu (燮父) and Qin Fu (禽父) both served King Kang," meaning that the Marquis of Xie and Duke Bo Qin of Lu served King Kang simultaneously. After Duke Bo Qin died, his son Duke Kao (考公) succeeded him as ruler for four years, followed by Duke Yang of Lu (炀公). Duke Yang of Lu reigned for twenty-four years, and on the first day of the first month, it was the day of Bing-Shen (丙申, [Gregorian date]), which was also the winter solstice. The *Yin Li* gives the date as Ding-You (丁酉, [Gregorian date]), seventy-six years before Duke Wei (微公) ascended the throne.
According to the *Records of the Grand Historian*, Duke Yang of Lu ruled for sixty years, and then his son Duke You (幽公) succeeded him. Duke You ruled for fourteen years, and then Duke Wei (微公) succeeded him. Duke Wei ruled for twenty-six years, and on the first day of the first month, it was the day of Yi-Hai (乙亥, [Gregorian date]), which was also the winter solstice. The *Yin Li* gives the date as Bing-Zi (丙子, [Gregorian date]), seventy-six years before Duke Xian (献公) ascended the throne.
"The Records of the Grand Historian" records that Duke Wei ruled for fifty years, and then his son Duke Li Zhai succeeded him. Duke Li reigned for thirty-seven years, and then Duke Xian Ju took the throne. Duke Xian ruled for fifteen years, and on New Year's Day, which was also the winter solstice, according to the Yin calendar it was Yi Mao (乙卯), seventy-six years before Duke Yi became ruler.
"The Records of the Grand Historian" notes that Duke Xian ruled for fifty years, and then his son Duke Shen succeeded him. Duke Shen reigned for thirty years, and then Duke Wu Ao took the throne. Duke Wu ruled for two years, and then his son Duke Yi succeeded him. Duke Yi ruled for nine years, and on New Year's Day, which was also the winter solstice, according to the Yin calendar it was Jia Wu (甲午), seventy-six years before Duke Hui became ruler.
Duke Yi ruled for nine years, and then his brother's son, Duke Bai Yu, succeeded him. This is recorded in the Genealogy. Duke Bai ruled for eleven years, and then his uncle Duke Xiao took the throne. This is also noted in the Genealogy. Duke Xiao ruled for twenty-seven years, and then his son Duke Hui succeeded him. The Genealogy records that Duke Hui reigned for thirty-eight years, on New Year's Day it was Ren Shen (壬申), according to the Yin calendar it was Gui You (癸酉), seventy-six years before Duke Li took the throne.
Duke Hui ruled for forty-six years, and then his son Duke Yin succeeded him. This is recorded in the Genealogy. From Duke Qin to the Spring and Autumn period, a total of three hundred and eighty-six years passed.
During the Spring and Autumn period, Duke Yin ruled for eleven years, and then Duke Huan succeeded him. This is noted in the Spring and Autumn Annals. This was four hundred years after King Wu defeated King Zhou. The Spring and Autumn Annals record that Duke Huan reigned for eighteen years, and then his son Duke Zhuang took the throne. Duke Zhuang ruled for thirty-two years, and then his son Duke Min succeeded him. The Spring and Autumn Annals state that Duke Min ruled for two years, and then Duke Li took the throne. Duke Li reigned for five years, on New Year's Day it was Xin Hai (辛亥), according to the Yin calendar it was Ren Zi (壬子), seventy-six years before Duke Cheng became ruler.
It has been 142,577 years since the Shangyuan era, and the beginning of Chapter 53 of Meng Tong's chronicle marks this year. According to the "Spring and Autumn Annals," in the fifth year of spring, on the xin hai day of the king's first month, the sun reaches the south. In the eighth month, on the jia wu day, the Marquis of Jin besieged Shangyang. At that time, there was also a nursery rhyme: "On the bing zi day, the dragon's tail hides, robes are waving, taking Guo's flag. The quail shines bright, the heavenly strategy glows, forming an army in the fire, Guo Gong fled." Bu Yan remarked, "It must have been around the ninth and tenth months. On the bing zi day, the sun is in the Tail constellation, the moon in the Strategy constellation, and the quail fire is in the middle; it has to be that time." In the twelfth month of bing zi, the state of Jin destroyed the state of Guo. Those who calculated dates used the Xia calendar, so the twelfth month of the Zhou calendar corresponds to the tenth month of the Xia calendar. That year, Jupiter was in the Heart constellation (Antares). Thus, the "Spring and Autumn Annals" notes that the Marquis of Jin sent a court official to attack Pucheng, and Chong'er fled to the Di state. Dong Yin said, "Your Majesty, your escape coincided perfectly with Jupiter being in the Heart constellation."
Twelve years later, in the year when Li Gong turned sixteen, Jupiter was in the Shou Xing constellation. The "Spring and Autumn Annals" records that Chong'er lived in the Di state for twelve years before leaving, passing through the Wey country of Wulü, where he begged for food from the villagers, who gave him a piece of food. Zi Fan said, "This is a gift from heaven. Twelve years later, you'll surely reclaim this land. When Jupiter returns to the Shou Xing constellation, you'll definitely have the support of the princes." Eight years later, in the twenty-fourth year of Li Gong, Jupiter was in the Shi Chen constellation, and Duke Mu of Qin accepted him. The "Spring and Autumn Annals" records: Dong Yin said, "Your Majesty, you fled when the morning star appeared, and now with Jupiter in the Shen constellation, you'll definitely gain the support of the princes."
The *Spring and Autumn Annals*, a historical text that chronicles the events of the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history, say that Duke Li ruled for 33 years before being succeeded by Duke Wen. In the first year of Duke Wen's reign, 29 years had passed since the winter solstice of the Xinhai year (referring to a specific year in the Chinese calendar). That year, there was an intercalary month in the thirteenth lunar month, during Minor Snow. The intercalary month should have been after November, but it appeared in March, which violated ritual practice. Five years later, the intercalary month occurred in the tenth month, and although there was no intercalary month that year, one was forcibly added. Intercalary months adjust the first day of the lunar month, but adding one when it shouldn't exist and failing to officially declare it meant that, according to the *Spring and Autumn Classic*, "The intercalary month wasn't officially declared," indicating that this month should not be counted. The *Spring and Autumn Annals* also state, "Not announcing the first day of the month goes against the rites."
After 18 years of Duke Wen's rule, Duke Xuan Wo succeeded him, as recorded in the *Spring and Autumn Annals*.
Following 18 years of Duke Xuan's reign, Duke Cheng Hei (Hei being his given name) took the throne. In the twelfth year of Duke Cheng's rule, on the first day of the first month of the Gengyin year, which coincided with the winter solstice, the *Yin Calendar* indicated it was Xinmao, and seventy-six years had passed since Duke Ding's seventh year.
"The Spring and Autumn Classic" records that after 18 years of reign by Duke Cheng, Duke Xiang succeeded to the throne. Duke Xiang reigned for 27 years, and it had been 109 years since the Xin Hai year. The first day of the ninth lunar month fell on a Shen day – this is known as the Jian Shen month. According to the Lu records, "On the first day of the twelfth month, a solar eclipse occurred." The commentary explains that the eclipse happened on the first day of the eleventh month, a Shen day. The calendar keepers had made a mistake, missing two leap months. This means that the eleventh month was actually used, without carefully checking the solar terms or verifying based on celestial phenomena. In the 28th year of Duke Xiang's reign, 110 years had passed since the Xin Hai year, and that year was a Xing Ji year, so "The Spring and Autumn Classic" records, "no ice in the spring." The commentary adds, "That year was a Xing Ji year, but there were relentless rains." Duke Xiang's 30th year was the year of Ju Zi, and the 31st year was the year of Jiang Lou. By that time, 113 years had passed since the Xin Hai year, with the day of Gui Wei in the second month. Starting from the year when Duke Wen held the alliance meeting in the summer of the eleventh year of Cheng Kuang, a total of 445 Jia Zi cycles had passed, with an excess of 20 days, totaling 26,660 days. Therefore, the commentary records: "An old man from Jiang County said: 'I was born on the first day of the first month, a Jia Zi day. That was 445 Jia Zi cycles ago. I've got about a third of my life left.'" Shi Kuang said, "Xi Cheng Zi has been 73 years since the Cheng Kuang alliance meeting." Shi Zhao said, "Hai represents two heads and six bodies, with two more below – that's the number of days." Shi Wen Bo said, "So that's 26,660 days."
"The Spring and Autumn Classic" records that Duke Xiang ruled for thirty-one years, after which Duke Zhao Chou succeeded to the throne. Duke Zhao ruled for eight years, during the year known as the Wood Splitting (a year named for the splitting of wood), and the tenth year was the year of Zhuānxū (also known as Xuānxiāo). One hundred and thirty-one years after the Xīnhài year, in Duke Zhao's eighteenth year, the days bǐngzǐ, wùyín, and rénwǔ appeared in May, and in the evening, fires were seen in the states of Song, Wei, Chen, and Zheng. In the twentieth year of Duke Zhao's reign, during the spring in the first month, it had been one hundred and thirty-three years since the year Xīnhài; this marks the beginning of the eighth chapter after Xīnhài. On the first day of the first month, jǐchǒu day, which was also the winter solstice, a leap month was missed. Thus, the "Spring and Autumn Classic" states: "In the second month, jǐchǒu, the winter solstice occurs." In the thirty-second year of Duke Zhao's reign, which was the year of the Star Calendar, one hundred and forty-five years had passed since the year Xīnhài, and an extra leap month was accounted for. Therefore, the "Spring and Autumn Classic" remarks: "Yue enjoyed a bountiful harvest, but Wu's attack would prove disastrous."
The "Spring and Autumn Classic" also records that after thirty-two years of Duke Zhao's reign, Duke Ding of Song (referring to the Duke of the state of Song) succeeded him. In the seventh year of Duke Ding, on the first day of the first month, jǐsì day, which was the winter solstice, the "Yin Calendar" indicated it was gēngwǔ day, seventy-six years since Duke Yuan's succession. The "Spring and Autumn Classic" notes that after fifteen years of Duke Ding's reign, Duke Ai Jiang succeeded. In the twelfth year of Duke Ai, during the winter in the twelfth month, shooting stars were seen, but this was not the expected phenomenon for the month of Jiànxū (a month named Jiànxū). There were also many locusts that month, prompting the "Spring and Autumn Classic" to state: "The falling stars should have subsided, signaling the emergence of hibernating insects. But they are still visible, indicating a calendrical error by the court astronomers." As the "Book of Songs" observes, "In July, the stars flow like fire."
The "Spring and Autumn Classic" covers a period of 242 years, ending with Duke Ai's fourteenth year.
After thirteen years in power, Duke Ai of Lu ceded the throne to Zhu, and he was succeeded by his son, Duke Dao, who brought stability to the country. Duke Dao ruled for thirty-seven years, and his son, Duke Yuan, then took the throne. Duke Yuan ruled for four years, and in the first month of the winter solstice, it was the year of Jiyou, seventy-six years after Duke Kang's reign (Note: all dates are according to the Yin calendar). Duke Yuan ruled for twenty-one years before his son, Duke Mu, succeeded him, expanding the strength of the country. Duke Mu ruled for thirty-three years, and his son, Duke Gong, then took over. Duke Gong ruled for twenty-two years, followed by his son, Duke Kang. Duke Kang ruled for four years, and in the first month of the winter solstice, it was the year of Wuzi, seventy-six years after Duke Min's reign (Note: all dates are according to the Yin calendar). Duke Kang ruled for nine years, and his son, Duke Jing, succeeded him. Duke Jing ruled for twenty-nine years, and then his son, Duke Ping, took the throne. Duke Ping ruled for twenty years, followed by his son, Duke Mu. Duke Mu ruled for twenty-two years, and in the first month of the winter solstice, it was the year of Dingmao, seventy-six years after King Yuan of Chu's reign (Note: all dates are according to the Yin calendar). Duke Mu ruled for twenty-three years, and his son, Duke Qing, succeeded him. According to historical records, Duke Qing ruled for eighteen years, in Qin's Zhao Wang's 51st year, when Qin destroyed the Zhou dynasty. The Zhou dynasty had a total of thirty-six emperors, lasting eight hundred and sixty-seven years.
King Zhaoxiang of Qin ruled for five years without an heir, and King Xiaowen ruled for one year. In the first year of King Xiaowen's reign, King Kao of Chu destroyed the state of Lu, and Duke Qing of Lu became a regular person. After the fall of the Zhou dynasty, the other six states quickly crumbled. King Zhuangxiang ruled for three years, Qin Shi Huang ruled for thirty-seven years, and Qin Ershi ruled for three years. From King Zhaoxiang to the Second Emperor, five Qin rulers reigned for a total of forty-nine years.
Han Gaozu Liu Bang, his deeds are recorded in the *Records*. He defeated the Qin Dynasty and inherited the orthodoxy of the Zhou Dynasty. Wood generates fire, so the Han Dynasty took the fire element as a symbol, and it was called "Han" throughout the world. Counting from the first year of ancient times, it has been 143,025 years. In this year, Jupiter was at 22 degrees in the Eastern Well constellation, and the Chunsou asterism was at six degrees. Therefore, the *Records of the Han* say: In this year, Jupiter is in the Eastern Well, named Dunlang, and the Tai Sui (Jupiter) was in the sign of noon (午). In the eighth year of Gaozu's reign, on the day of the winter solstice, it was the year when King Yuan of Chu had been in charge for three years. According to the Yin calendar, it was the Bingwu year, 76 years from the beginning of Gaozu's reign. According to historical records, Emperor Gaozu ruled for twelve years.
Emperor Huidi reigned for seven years, and his reign is detailed in the *Records*.
Empress Dowager ruled for eight years, as noted in the *Records*.
Before Emperor Wen was in charge for sixteen years, and after seven years, his reign is detailed in the *Records*, for a total of twenty-three years.
Emperor Jing was in charge for sixteen years, divided into seven years at the beginning, six years in the middle, and three years at the end, each period corresponding to historical records, combined into the *Record of Emperor Jing*.
During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, the reigns of Jianyuan, Yuanguang, and Yuanshuo each lasted six years. On the day of the winter solstice in the eleventh month of the sixth year of Yuanshuo, the Yin calendar stated it was the Yiyou year, 76 years after the beginning of the Han Dynasty. This was followed by Yuanshou, Yuanding, and Yuanfeng, each lasting six years. By the first year of the Taichu era in the Han calendar, 143,127 years had passed since the ancient legendary first year. On the day of the winter solstice in the eleventh month of the first year of Taichu, Jupiter was at six degrees in the Wunu constellation, so the *Book of Han*, chapter on astronomy, records this year as "Kundun," with Jupiter appearing in the Wunu constellation in the first month. After Emperor Wu, the year titles of Taichu, Tianhan, Taishi, and Zhenghe each lasted four years, followed by an additional two years, totaling fifty-four years in charge, with the corresponding *Record of Emperor Wu*.
Emperor Zhaodi was in power for thirteen years, with the year titles of Shiyuan and Yuanfeng each lasting six years, and the Yuanping title lasting one year, also with the corresponding *Record of Emperor Zhaodi*.
Emperor Xuan reigned for twenty-five years, with the six era names of Benshi, Dijie, Yuankang, Shenjue, Wufeng, and Ganlu, each used for four years, and the Huanglong era name used for one year, with a corresponding chronicle. Emperor Yuan reigned for sixteen years, with the era names Chuyuan, Yongguang, and Jianzhao, each used for five years, and the Jingning era name used for one year. The first day of the eleventh month, the winter solstice, a day considered the beginning of the Jiazi year according to the Yin calendar, was intended as the starting point for the new era, but a solar eclipse occurred that October, making it an inauspicious day to mark the beginning. This year was seventy-six years after the first year of the Jianwu era. Emperor Cheng reigned for twenty-six years, with the six era names of Jianshi, Heping, Yangshuo, Hongjia, Yongshi, and Yuanyan, each used for four years, and the Suihe era name used for two years, with a corresponding chronicle. Emperor Ai reigned for six years, with the Jianping era name used for four years and the Yuanshou era name used for two years, also with a corresponding chronicle. During the reign of Emperor Ping, there is also a corresponding chronicle. He only reigned for five years before passing away. After that, Liu Ying, Emperor Xuan's great-grandson, succeeded to the throne, known as Ruzi Ying. During Ruzi Ying's reign, there are also corresponding historical records. Wang Mang, Marquis of Xindu, first took control of the court as a regent for three years, then seized the throne of the Han Dynasty, establishing the Xin Dynasty and calling himself the "Xin regime." The Xin Dynasty lasted for fourteen years, with the periods of Shijian Guo, Tianfeng, and Di Huang, all having corresponding historical records. Emperor Gengshi Liu Xuan overthrew Wang Mang's Xin Dynasty and restored the Han Dynasty, but he only reigned as emperor for two years before being overthrown by the Red Eyebrow Army, who then enthroned Liu Penzi of the Han imperial family as emperor. From the founding of the Han Dynasty to the end of the Gengshi reign, a total of two hundred and thirty years had passed. Emperor Guangwu wrote a book called "Ji," meaning "Records," which recorded his rise to power as the ninth generation descendant of Gaozu after the reign of Jingdi and the revival of the Han Dynasty. He changed the era name to Jianwu, with the year when the Zhang star in the constellation of Sagittarius was on duty. In the thirty-first year of Jianwu, also known as the second year of Zhongyuan, he had been emperor for thirty-three years.
So, Emperor Guangwu... this book details how he rose from the chaotic times and eventually restored the glory of the Han Dynasty. He is a direct descendant of Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang, a crucial factor in those turbulent times! He named his era Jianwu, meaning "rebuilding military might," a pretty badass name if you ask me! By the thirty-first year of Jianwu (also the second year of Zhongyuan), he'd been emperor for thirty-three years – quite a journey from being on the run to ruling the entire empire! Thinking about these thirty-three years, tsk tsk, wow, what a truly legendary experience!
The "Book of Documents" says: "Thus unified weights and measures were achieved, so that people near and far could all follow the rules and establish trust among the people." From the time when Fuxi drew the Bagua, the concept of numbers emerged, and by the time of the Yellow Emperor, Yao, and Shun, it was already quite perfected. The Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties all followed ancient systems, with very clear laws and regulations. After the decline of the Zhou dynasty and the confusion of the official system, Confucius presented methods of governing the country to later monarchs, saying: "Carefully calibrate the balance, meticulously inspect the laws and regulations, rectify the lax official positions, and appoint talented individuals who have been neglected, so that governance in all directions can proceed smoothly." After the establishment of the Han dynasty, Zhang Cang, the Marquis of Beiping, initially handled legal matters, and during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, the music officials conducted a study of laws and calendars. During the reign of Wang Mang, who held power during the Yuan Shi period, wanting to show off his reputation, he gathered more than a hundred people from all over the country who understood timekeeping, and assigned Xihe, Liu Xin, and others to organize memorials in great detail. Therefore, we have removed the false rhetoric and retained only the correct principles, writing this text. This article mainly discusses five points: first is number systems, second is musical harmony, third is accurate measurement, fourth is calibrated measures, and fifth is calibration. These five aspects interact and change with each other, using numbers in a complex manner, comparing past and present, emulating the laws of the natural world, designed to be intuitive and harmonious, and using classics for verification, all of which have been rigorously tested and proven consistent.
Numbers, from one to ten thousand, are used to calculate things and conform to the natural order. The "Book of Documents" states, "You must calculate first." It originated from the musical scale of the Yellow Bell, starting from one, multiplied by three, and then accumulating the results of three multiplications, all the way to the twelve earthly branches, totaling 177,147, thus completing the five-element system. The calculation tool at that time was a bundle of 271 bamboo sticks, with a diameter of one fen and a length of six inches, arranged in a hexagonal shape, called a "grip." The diameter symbolizes the Qian hexagram, representing the Yellow Bell's pitch, while the length symbolizes the Kun hexagram and the length of the Lin Bell. The calculation method uses the number fifty, central to the cosmology of the *Yijing*, taking forty-nine of it to form six yang lines, thus illustrating the cyclical nature of the hexagrams. Calculating calendars, generating musical scales, making instruments, drawing circles and squares, weighing light and heavy, calibrating measuring tools and instruments, exploring profound principles, tracing distant origins—nothing is done without numbers. Measuring lengths will not be off even a tiny bit, measuring quantities will not be off by a small margin, weighing light and heavy will not be inaccurate. Starting from one, coordinating with ten, extending to a hundred, greater than a thousand, deriving to ten thousand—all methods are found within arithmetic. This should be taught in schools nationwide, with the responsibility resting on the Grand Historian, while Xihe oversees it.
Sounds are composed of the five tones: Gong, Shang, Jiao, Zhi, and Yu. The purpose of making music is to coordinate the sounds of these eight musical instruments, purify the spirit, maintain righteousness, and thus change customs and habits. The eight musical instruments are: the xun made of clay; the sheng made of gourd; the drum made of leather; the wind instrument made of bamboo; the string instrument made of silk; the chime made of stone; the bell made of gold; and the zhu made of wood. When the five tones are harmonious and the sounds of the eight musical instruments are coordinated, music is complete.
The meaning of "商" is "standard," indicating that once things are successful and mature, rules and regulations can be established. The meaning of "角" is "budding," suggesting that all things sprout from touching the ground, much like the antlers of a deer. The meaning of "宫" is "central tone," as it resides at the center and spreads sound in all directions; it is the beginning of music and the foundation of the other four tones. The meaning of "徵" is "auspicious," signifying that all things flourish and prosper. The meaning of "羽" is "enveloping," representing the gathering of all things and the covering of the heavens and the earth.
Sound is generated with 宫 as its central tone, 角 as its budding force, 徵 as its flourishing aspect, 商 as its established order, and 羽 as its all-encompassing presence. Let's match up these five tones with the five elements, five virtues, and five matters: 角 corresponds to wood, benevolence, and appearance; 商 corresponds to metal, righteousness, and speech; 徵 corresponds to fire, propriety, and sight; 羽 corresponds to water, wisdom, and hearing; and 宫 corresponds to earth, trust, and thought.
From the perspectives of ruler, minister, people, matters, and things, 宫 corresponds to the ruler, 商 corresponds to the minister, 角 corresponds to the people, 徵 corresponds to matters, and 羽 corresponds to things. The interplay of these tones symbolically represents the order of ruler, minister, people, affairs, and the cosmos.
Five tones are the foundation of music, all stemming from the Yellow Bell. A nine-inch length determines the Gong tone; the Shang, Jiao, Zhi, and Yu tones are derived by adjusting this length. Nine and six are intertwined, reflecting the yin and yang balance. These tones govern the energies of heaven, earth, and everything. There are twelve tones, with six representing the yang and six representing the yin. The tones used to govern the energies are known as the Yellow Bell, Da Lu, Gu Xi, Rui Bin, Yi Ze, and Wu She. The Lu tones complement the yang energy and promote the energy of all things, known as Lin Zhong, Nan Lu, Ying Zhong, Da Lu, Jia Zhong, and Zhong Lu. This reflects the principle of the "Three Harmonies," which is said to have been invented by the Yellow Emperor.
The Yellow Emperor sent Ling Lun to the western side of the Kunlun Mountains in Daxia, where he found bamboo in Jiegu with uniform joints and hole sizes. He cut and played the section between two joints, establishing the Yellow Bell Gong tone. He crafted twelve bamboo pipes to discern the phoenix's calls. The male phoenix produced six tones, and the female phoenix also had six tones, all of which could be derived from the Yellow Bell Gong tone, forming the basis of the pitch system. Only in times of peace and harmony, when heaven and earth's energies aligned to create a harmonious wind, could the twelve pitches be accurately determined.
Yellow, the color of the emperor's robes, represents the center; Bell refers to seeds. The center of the celestial number is five, symbolizing sound, with the fundamental tone being Gong. There is nothing greater than Gong in the five tones. The center of the terrestrial number is six, representing tones that have shapes and colors, with yellow being the most prominent of the five colors. Therefore, the yang energy sows in the yellow spring, nurturing all things, and is the foundation of the six energies. Yellow is used to name the original energy and tones because it represents the Gong tone. The Gong tone uses nine as its base, but six governs its variations, constantly shifting and cycling through six positions. It starts in November (the Zi month).
These terms refer to the twelve lü, or pitch pipes, used in ancient Chinese music theory to represent the cyclical interplay of Yin and Yang throughout the year.
Da Lu represents the culmination of receptive energy, its gathering strength supporting the active energy of Huang Zhong and fostering the first stirrings of spring. It corresponds to December.
Tai Zu signifies the flourishing of active energy, resonating with the earth to promote growth and vitality. It corresponds to January.
Jia Zhong embodies the mingling of receptive energy with the support of Tai Zu, spreading energy in all directions and nurturing development. It corresponds to February.
Gu Xi symbolizes the cleansing power of active energy, revitalizing all things and encouraging robust growth. It corresponds to March.
Zhong Lu reflects the emergence of subtle receptive energy, still nascent, positioned centrally to assist Gu Xi in promoting active energy and ensuring harmonious growth. It corresponds to April.
Rui Bin conveys the notion of continuity and guidance, where active energy begins to lead receptive energy, providing ongoing nourishment to all forms of life. It corresponds to May.
Lin Zhong denotes the role of the monarch, where receptive energy takes on significant responsibilities, aiding Rui Bin (active energy) in guiding the flourishing of all things. It corresponds to June.
Yi Ze represents the adherence to natural laws, where active energy calms receptive energy to protect vulnerable life forms. It corresponds to July.
Nan Lu indicates the gathering of receptive energy to support Yi Ze, taking on the vital task of ripening all life. It corresponds to August.
Wang She expresses a sense of completion, where active energy fulfills its mission, allowing receptive energy to gently recede, completing the cycle and preparing for renewal. It corresponds to September.
Ying Zhong signifies the response of receptive energy to Wang She, preserving all forms and blending with active energy, setting the stage for the coming year's planting. It corresponds to October.
Speaking of the "Three Harmonies," it refers to the three operating principles of Tian Dao, Di Dao, and Ren Dao. In November, it corresponds to the initial nine of the "Qian" hexagram in the *I Ching*, with the yang energy dormant beneath the earth, all of nature stirring to life, nourished by the moon's energy. Thus, the Huang Zhong musical pipe represents Tian Dao, measuring nine inches in length. The number nine signifies perfect balance, the foundation of all creation. The *I Ching* states, "The way of Heaven is Yin and Yang."
In June, it aligns with the initial six of the "Kun" hexagram in the *I Ching*, where yin energy is nourished by the sun, allowing nature to flourish and grow strong. Hence, the Lin Zhong musical pipe represents Di Dao, measuring six inches. The number six reflects the distribution of yang energy, spreading throughout heaven and earth, balancing strength and flexibility. The *I Ching* further states, "The way of Earth is gentle and firm." "'Qian' knows the beginning, while 'Kun' brings things into being."
In the first month, corresponding to the initial three of the "Qian" hexagram in the *I Ching*, all of creation begins to grow. Starting from the Yin month (the first month), people participate by nurturing nature with a heart of benevolence and guiding it through righteous actions, ensuring that everything finds its rightful place. Yin is associated with wood, representing benevolence; the musical tone of the Yin month is Shang, symbolizing righteousness.
Therefore, the Tai Zu pipe, eight inches long, represents Ren Dao. It symbolizes the eight trigrams and Fuxi's method of understanding the world through communion with Heaven and its energies. The *I Ching* states, "The way of man is founded on benevolence and righteousness." "Form the image in heaven, shape it on earth." "Then, to carve and shape the way of Heaven and Earth, to assist in harmony with nature, and to guide the people." These three pipes represent the Three Harmonies.
These three types of musical notes correspond to three seasonal markers: Huangzhong corresponds to the eleventh month (Zi month), which is Tianzheng; Linzhong corresponds to the fifth month (midsummer), the counterpart to the eleventh month, which is Dizheng; Taizu corresponds to the first month (Yin month), which is Renzheng. Among these three seasonal markers, Dizheng (May) is taken as the starting point because it is located exactly in the northeast direction of the Earthly Branches. The Book of Changes states, "The northeast loses friends, but ultimately finds joy." This indicates that the starting point of Dizheng aligns with the laws of the heavens. When Huangzhong is the main tone, Taizu, Guxi, Linzhong, Nanlu, and other tones will all harmonize perfectly without any deviation, unaffected by other tones, reflecting the essence of unity and concord. However, if other tones are used as the main tone instead of Huangzhong, even in their respective months, deviations in harmony with other tones will occur, making it impossible to achieve a state of unity and balance. Therefore, Huangzhong reigns supreme, unmatched by others.
The Book of Changes says, "Heaven and earth are governed by numbers." This means that there are certain rules for the numbers of heaven and earth. The number of heaven starts from one and ends at twenty-five. The rule is to use three to count, so one multiplied by three, plus twenty-five divided by six, calculated twenty-five times, ultimately gives us the total number of days: eighty-one. Multiplying this by the sum of the five positions of heaven and earth (which is ten), we arrive at eight hundred and ten, corresponding to a cycle of one thousand five hundred and thirty-nine years in the calendar, representing the actual length of the Huangzhong musical note. From this rule, we can derive the frequencies of the twelve musical notes.
The earth number ranges from two to thirty. It's based on doubling, so one multiplied by two is repeatedly doubled thirty times, eventually yielding the total number of Earth: sixty. Then, multiplied by the midpoint of Earth (which is six), it results in 360 units, corresponding to the number of days in a year, representing the actual length of the Lin Zhong rhythm. Humans, inheriting heaven and earth, follow the laws of nature, nurturing all things according to the changes of solar terms, embodying the principles of Heaven and Earth to govern and harmonize all aspects of creation. Therefore, it is eight multiplied by eight, equaling sixty-four. This number represents the ultimate expression of cosmic change, then multiplied by the sum of the five elements of heaven and earth (ten), resulting in 640 units, corresponding to the sixty-four hexagrams, representing the actual length of the Tai Zu rhythm. The *Shangshu* states, "Heaven works, and man inherits it." This means that humans must inherit and complete the work of heaven and earth. Since Heaven encompasses Earth, and humanity mirrors Heaven, both are multiplied by ten (the sum of the five elements). The earth number is multiplied by six (its midpoint), reflecting the inward nature of Yin Qi's circulation. The lengths of these three rhythms (Huang Zhong, Lin Zhong, Tai Zu) are all whole units, interconnected without any remainder. Consider this: heaven comprises five elements, Earth six; their interaction is fundamental to this system. Six represents the void, the potential; five, the active elements cycling through this void. This void embodies the interplay of Yin and Yang, their rise and fall generating the twelve harmonious pitches.
Tai Chi is the original energy of the universe, embodying the harmony of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity. ‘Ji’ represents the central point, while ‘Yuan’ signifies the beginning. It operates on the twelve earthly branches, starting at midnight (Zi). The energy increases as follows: 1 at Zi, 3 at Chou (1-3 am), 9 at Yin (3-5 am), 27 at Mao (5-7 am), 81 at Chen (7-9 am), 243 at Si (9-11 am), 729 at Wu (11 am-1 pm), 2187 at Wei (1-3 pm), 6561 at Shen (3-5 pm), 19683 at You (5-7 pm), 59049 at Xu (7-9 pm), and finally 177147 at Hai (9-11 pm). This shows how the combination of Yin and Yang gathers energy at Zi, giving birth to all things.
Life begins to stir at midnight (Zi), with tender shoots emerging by 1 am (Chou), branches and leaves extending by 3 am (Yin), new branches sprouting by 5 am (Mao), flourishing with dense foliage by 7 am (Chen), reaching their peak by 9 am (Si), bearing fruit by 11 am (Wu), gradually fading by 1 pm (Wei), becoming hard by 3 pm (Shen), maturing and harvesting by 5 pm (You), returning to their origins by 7 pm (Xu), and resting and recuperating by 9 pm (Hai).
Then, starting with Jia wood, the cycle continues with Yi wood's upward growth, the bright radiance of Bing fire, the intensity of Ding fire, the abundance of Wu earth, the order of Ji earth, the contraction of Geng metal, the renewal of Xin metal, the inclusiveness of Ren water, and the quiet stillness of Gui water.
So, the ebb and flow of Yin and Yang, the cycle of life and death, all align perfectly with the rhythms of the twelve musical notes and the twelve earthly branches – isn't it remarkably clear?
It is said that the celestial phenomena in the sky, with the handle of the Jade Heng pointing, is the framework of the heavens, the trajectory of the sun and moon's movement, and the record of the stars. Where this framework and record meet, you find the universe's original blueprint, expressed through music. These musical tones harmonize with each other, nurturing the growth and changes of all things, celebrated through music. By observing celestial phenomena and deducing all things, the harmony and order of yin and yang are achieved. Therefore, based on this harmonious mathematical relationship, the accumulation of this harmony is calculated as an inch according to a certain proportion, which is the length of the Yellow Bell. To get the length of the Lin Bell, take one-third less than the Huang Zhong; for the Tai Zhu, add one-third of the Lin Bell's length. Following this pattern, continuously adding and subtracting by thirds, the eight musical notes of Nan Lu, Gu Xi, Ying Zhong, Rui Bin, Da Lu, Yi Ze, Jia Zhong, Wang She, and Zhong Lu can be obtained. Yin and yang generate and control each other, starting from the Yellow Bell and going left, the eight musical notes cycle back and forth, totaling sixty-four. The standard instruments for these musical notes are all made of copper, managed by the Imperial Music Bureau under the supervision of the Ministry of Rituals.
Now, let's talk about "measure." "Measure" refers to fen, cun, chi, zhang, and yin, used to measure lengths. Its basis is the length of the Yellow Bell. Selecting an average-sized grain of millet, the width of one grain of millet multiplied by ninety fen equals the length of the Yellow Bell. One is fen, ten fen is cun, ten cun is chi, ten chi is zhang, and ten zhang is yin, thus determining the five length units. Their standard instruments are made of copper, a copper bar, one cun high and two cun wide, stretching a full zhang in length, marked with fen, cun, chi, and zhang. The standard instrument for "yin" is made of bamboo, one fen high, six fen wide, and ten zhang long. The proportions of these standard instruments all reflect the corresponding relationship of yin and yang. Fen is the accumulation of tiny things to a certain extent that can be distinguished; cun is estimation and measurement; chi is measurement; zhang is extension; yin is the ultimate measure. Therefore, the concept of "measure" is embodied in the five units of fen, cun, chi, zhang, and yin. "Yin" represents the standard length of the world. The standard instruments of this system of weights and measures are kept by the internal officials and managed by the Imperial Court of Justice.
Whoa, this is talking about ancient weights and measures! First of all, there are measuring gizmos like the "yuè" (a type of vessel), "hé" (1/10 of a "yuè"), "shēng" (10 "hé"), "dǒu" (10 "shēng"), and "hú" (10 "dǒu"), used to measure the quantity of things. These instruments were originally based on the volume of the "huángzhōnglǜ" (Yellow Bell Law), carefully measuring its volume, filling a "yuè" with 1,200 medium-sized grains of millet, and calibrating its water level with well water. One "yuè" equals one "hé," ten "hé" equals one "shēng," ten "shēng" equals one "dǒu," ten "dǒu" equals one "hú," and there you have it.
These measuring instruments are made of copper, square but with rounded edges, and a small handle on the side. On top is the "hú," below is the "dǒu," on the left is the "shēng," and on the right are the "hé" and "yuè." This instrument looks like a wine goblet, representing rank and privilege. It has three squares on top and two below, symbolizing heaven (3) and earth (2). Inside, there’s a circle within a square, representing yin and yang (one on the left, two on the right). The circle represents a compass, weighing two "jūn," encompassing all quantities of heaven, earth, and all things, totaling 11,520. Its pitch is based on the Yellow Bell Law, starting from the Yellow Bell Law and repeating, symbolizing the rule of monarchs in making objects. The "yuè" embodies the Yellow Bell Law; its subtle vibrations were believed to create all things. The "hé" was a tenth of a "yuè," the "shēng" ten "hé," the "dǒu" ten "shēng," and the "hú" ten "dǒu." Therefore, with measuring instruments, starting from the "yuè," to "hé," to "shēng," to "dǒu," and finally to "hú," progressing step by step. The Tai Cang warehouse, run by the Grand Minister of Agriculture, kept tabs on all this.
Next, let's talk about the scales. "Héng" is balance; "quán" is weight; the "héng" is used to weigh things, balancing light and heavy. This "héng" had to have a perfectly level base, the plumb line straight, and when you swung it, you'd see a compass on one side and a square on the other. The "héng" is in the sky, assisting in the movement of celestial bodies, considering the solar terms, ensuring the harmonious operation of the seven celestial bodies (sun, moon, five stars), hence it is called the "yùhéng" (Jade Balance). The Analects say you could see it from anywhere—standing up, sitting in a cart—always in front, leaning against the scales. And it needed to be kept in order with proper ritual. So, the "héng" was always in front, representing the south.
Ancient Chinese weights and measures included the zhu, liang, jin, jun, and shi, used to weigh things. This system's origins are rooted in the weight of the Huangzhong (a musical pitch pipe). A yue (a unit of volume) held 1200 grains of millet, weighing 12 zhu; 24 zhu made up one liang. The character 'cun' (忖) means eighteen, reflecting the 18 changes symbolized in the *I Ching*.
This five-weight system, grounded in philosophical principles, used physical objects as its basis, with size differences defined by weight. It's a cyclical system, endlessly repeating. The zhu represents the smallest increment, symbolizing growth from humble beginnings. A liang, equivalent to 24 zhu, was roughly the weight of two Huangzhong pipes and symbolized the 24 solar terms.
The jin, equal to 384 zhu, represented brightness and symbolized the yin and yang transformations described in the *I Ching*. A jin (16 liang) symbolized the four seasons multiplied by the four cardinal directions. The jun represented balance, the point where the energy of yang and the generative force of yin achieve equilibrium. A jun (11,520 zhu) symbolized the totality of things. 480 liang represented the 60-day cycle encompassing eight solar terms. A jun (30 jin) symbolized a month.
The shi was the largest unit of weight. From the smallest zhu to the largest shi, the system encompassed all scales of measurement. A shi (4 jun) symbolized the four seasons; 120 jin represented 12 months; 1920 liang symbolized the interplay of yin and yang; 384 hexagrams represented the five elements; and 46,080 zhu represented 11,520 objects undergoing seasonal change. The entire system thus reflected the yearly cycle.
Power and material things are produced simultaneously, balancing each other. This interplay of power and materials led to the invention of the compass, which in turn led to the carpenter's square, the square led to the development of ropes, the ropes gave rise to the plumb bob, and the plumb bob ensures balance and harmony. This is what is known as the "five tools." The compass is used to draw circles and create circular tools that meet specifications. The carpenter's square is used to draw squares and create square tools that maintain their shape. The compass and carpenter's square work together in harmony to create circular and square objects. The plumb bob is used to measure flatness and correct direction. The rope, with its straight ends and crosswise threads, is used to determine direction and position. With the help of the plumb bob and careful balancing, craftsmen rely on these tools to establish standards and advise the emperor in governance, aiming for peace in the world. The Classic of Poetry says: "The great master of the Yin clan, holding the state's balance, maintaining the four corners of the realm, supporting the Son of Heaven, keeping the people from going astray." These five tools all embody the same principle.
From the perspective of yin and yang, the greatest yin energy is in the north. The north, with its hidden yang energy, represents the stillness of winter. Winter signifies endings, as all things come to an end and are stored away. Water flows downwards. Wise individuals plan ahead, and planners value balance, hence balance represents wisdom and strategy. The greatest yang energy is in the south. The south, brimming with yang energy, embodies the vibrant growth of summer. Summer signifies growth and prosperity, as all things grow abundantly, appearing flat and expansive. Fire rises upwards. Etiquette emphasizes orderliness, and orderliness is synonymous with harmony, thus harmony represents etiquette and proportion.
Lesser Yin energy is in the west. West represents movement and change, with yin energy causing all things to wither and decay, corresponding to autumn. Autumn brings the harvest and the maturation of all things. Metal can be cast and transformed, representing change. Justice leads to order and structure, symbolized by the square. Lesser Yang energy is in the east. East signifies movement, with yang energy causing all things to move and grow, corresponding to spring. In spring, all things sprout, grow, and begin to develop. Even crooked trees grow straight. Benevolence fosters growth, which is round, so the compass represents benevolence and roundness. The center represents the balance of yin and yang, and the harmony of the four directions. The land nurtures all things. Sincerity ensures uprightness, so the plumb line represents sincerity and uprightness. These five tools represent the principles of measurement, encompassing weight, shape, and the balance of yin and yang. These tools embody the principles of the four directions, four seasons, and the five elements. Each tool has its own function and operates according to its nature. This system was of critical importance, overseen by the Ministry of Rites.
In the Book of Documents, it says: "I want to listen to the chanting of the Six Laws, Five Sounds, Eight Tones, and Seven Beginnings (referring to Heaven, Earth, the four seasons, and humanity), to express the inner five-character poem, and see what you think." This "I" refers to Emperor Shun. This refers to using the principles of the Six Laws and Five Sounds within the framework of the Eight Tones to create music. By applying these principles to the Five Constants in song, one can align with heaven and earth, harmonize with the four seasons, resonate with human relationships, conform to yin and yang, and reflect human nature. One should guide with virtue and inspire through music, all leading to the same goal by different paths. Only a sage can unify the thoughts of the world; that's why Emperor Shun wanted to listen to these.
Now, they were actively recruiting scholars and encouraging open dialogue, refining old classics, unifying laws and measures, balancing and standardizing them, using a straight ruler for correction, establishing five principles, and perfecting mathematics and music to benefit the people, unify the world, and bring the hearts of the people together. Each standard weight and measure was made of copper and given its own name to ensure consistency and uniformity throughout the land. Copper was seen as the purest substance; it does not change its nature due to dryness, humidity, cold, or heat, nor does it change its shape due to wind, rain, or exposure. It remains constant, just like the character of a noble person, which is why copper is used for making them. Bamboo was used for the scales, a practical necessity.
The origin of the calendar goes way back. Legend has it that Emperor Zhuanxu appointed Nan Zhengzhong for astronomy and Huo Zhongli for geography. Later, the Sanmiao rebellion disrupted the established order, and both of these official positions were abolished. Intercalary month calculations went haywire, the Mengzhi month disappeared, and the She-ti star's position was off. Yao reinstated the descendants of Zheng and Li, letting them take over. Therefore, the "Book of Documents" says: "So he appointed Xihe, revered the heavens, observed the sun, moon, and stars, and told the people about the seasons." A year had 366 days. Intercalary months kept the seasons on track. Everything ran smoothly, and things got done. Later, it was passed on to Shun, saying: "Shun, it's your job to keep the calendar right now." Shun passed it on to Yu. When King Wu of Zhou came along, he visited Ji Zi, who explained the nine chapters of the Great Law, including a section on the calendar. Therefore, from the Shang Dynasty to the Zhou Dynasty, whenever there was a regime change, they'd adjust the calendar and clothing to match the seasons and please Heaven.
After the Three Dynasties, during the era of the Five Hegemons in the Spring and Autumn period, historians got slack, and astronomy and calendar experts were scattered far and wide, some even among the barbarians. This resulted in the preservation of records such as the "Yellow Emperor's Calendar," "Zhuanxu's Calendar," "Xia Calendar," "Yin Calendar," "Zhou Calendar," and "Lu Calendar." During the Warring States period of constant warfare, after the unification of the Qin Dynasty, there was no time to organize these records, so they mostly followed the Five Virtues theory, believing they had acquired the virtue of water, and thus made October the first month, and black the main color for clothes.
In the early days of the Han Dynasty, the country was still finding its feet, and lots of things were still being worked out. They followed the calendar and system of the Qin Dynasty. Beiping Marquis Zhang Cang suggested using the Zhuanxu Calendar. It was the most accurate of the seven calendars. However, we don't have clear records of details like clothing colors, and lots of the records about moon phases are wrong.
So, at the beginning of the Han Dynasty, many systems were still figuring things out, especially regarding the calendar. They used the 'Zhuanxu Calendar', which was pretty solid, even if there were still lots of kinks to work out and many records weren't accurate enough. This is like a newly established company, needing continuous improvement.
In the seventh year of Emperor Wu of Han, the Han Dynasty had been around for 120 years. At that time, top officials like Gongsun Qing, Hu Sui, and the Chief Historian Sima Qian all said the calendar was all messed up and needed fixing.
Er Kuan, the Imperial Historian, was a classics scholar, so the emperor issued a decree: "I need you and the scholars to figure out what standard to use for the calendar, and what colors our clothes should be." Er Kuan discussed this with the scholars, and everyone said, "Changing the calendar and clothes shows he's got a mandate from Heaven. It should change at the founding of the country, but then it shouldn’t need to change again. According to historical order, it should be the calendar of the Xia Dynasty now. We’re not knowledgeable enough to explain this clearly. Your Majesty's wisdom and power will proclaim this to Heaven and Earth. The system of the three generations, with later saintly kings inheriting from the previous ones, is two generations ahead. Now the systems of two generations have been broken, and there is no order. Only Your Majesty can demonstrate saintly virtues, promote the laws of Heaven and Earth, to conform to Yin and Yang, and create a great system for ages to come."
So the emperor ordered the Imperial Historian to say, "Officials have been complaining the calendar's still a mess, and all this research into the stars hasn't helped much. I hear the Yellow Emperor sorted out the calendar ages ago – what a guy! But the old texts are patchy, so I've been struggling to get this right. Let's just call this year one, then!"
Then the emperor ordered Gong Sunqing, Hu Sui, Sima Qian, Zun, Xingshe Xing, and others to discuss and establish the calendar of the Han Dynasty. They figured out the rules governing new moons, full moons, solar terms, and the movements of the constellations. Using the previous calendar as a base, they traced back four thousand six hundred and seventeen years before the Tai Chu era, arriving at the seventh year of Yuan Feng, which corresponds to the year of the Yafeng calendar. In that year, on the day of Jiazi in the eleventh month of winter solstice, the sun and moon were aligned with the constellation Jianxing, and the year star was in the position of Zi, allowing them to obtain the celestial coordinates of the Tai Chu calendar and the new first month.
Xingshe Xing and others said they encountered difficulties in making accurate calculations and proposed to recruit amateur astronomers to revise the calendar together. They eventually established the "Han Taichu Calendar." They selected Deng Ping, Changle Sima Ke, Jiuquan Hou Yijun, Zun, and some other calendar researchers, totaling more than twenty people, including the astrologer Tang Du and Luoxiahong from Ba County. Tang Du was responsible for the celestial observations, while Luoxiahong was tasked with calculating the calendar. Luoxiahong used the method of Lu and Lyu to establish the calendar, explaining, "The volume of Lu and Lyu is one unit, totaling eighty-one inches, which serves as the scale for one day. The length of Lu and Lyu is nine inches, and after one hundred and seventy-one cycles, it returns to the starting point. After three cycles, it reaches Jiazi. Lu and Lyu represent the changes of Yin and Yang, which are the basis for hexagram transformations. Therefore, Huang Zhong represents the original energy, referred to as Lu. Lu is the rule, and everything must adhere to this rule." His method was similar to Deng Ping's.
Therefore, they collectively observed the new celestial phenomena and the movements of the sun and moon, using calculation methods that aligned with those of Luoxiahong and Deng Ping. Their method calculated a month as twenty-nine days and forty-three parts out of eighty-one days. Being half a day ahead was called the solar calendar; not being ahead was referred to as the lunar calendar. The solar calendar indicates that the new moon is calculated based on its visibility before the moon; the lunar calendar means the moon is visible after the new moon. Deng Ping said, "The new moon of the solar calendar always appears before the moon, making it easier to schedule audiences with princes and ministers."
The emperor ordered the adoption of the calendar system based on eighty-one divisions devised by Deng Ping, abolishing the other seventeen relatively crude calendars and ensuring the accuracy of the calendar and the musical laws. Eunuch Chunyu Lingqu rechecked the accuracy of the New Year, the last day of the month, the half-moon day, and the full moon in the "Tai Chu Calendar," all of which were perfectly aligned, like matched jade pieces and strung pearls. Chunyu Lingqu reported the situation, so Deng Ping's calendar was adopted, and Deng Ping was appointed as the Imperial Astronomer.
Twenty-seven years later, in the third year of Yuanfeng, a Grand Historiographer named Zhang Shouwang submitted a memorial saying, "The calendar is a major matter between heaven and earth, established by the heavens. We have always used the Yellow Emperor's 'Tiao Lu Calendar' since the founding of the Han Dynasty. Now that there is an imbalance in the cosmic forces, the problem should lie in the calendar." The emperor ordered the Imperial Astronomer Xianyu Wangren to question Zhang Shouwang, but Zhang Shouwang refused to comply. Xianyu Wangren then requested to join more than twenty people, including the Minister of Agriculture Ma Guang, to carefully examine the accuracy of various calendars by comparing astronomical phenomena such as days, months, phases of the moon, and the solar terms. The emperor approved. He then ordered the Prime Minister, the Imperial Censor, the Grand General, and the Right General to each send a representative to inspect these eleven calendars together in the royal garden of Qingtai in the Shanglin Garden, to determine which calendar was more accurate. Starting from the Winter Solstice on the New Moon of the eleventh month of the third year of Yuanfeng, the calendars were assessed until the twelfth month of the fifth year. Zhang Shouwang's calendar ranked low.
Investigations revealed that the Yellow Emperor's "Tiao Lu Calendar" was never used since the founding of the Han Dynasty. Zhang Shouwang denied the calendar used by the Han Dynasty, claiming it went against the will of heaven, which was a great disrespect! The emperor ordered that his responsibility not be pursued temporarily. The assessment continued until the sixth year of Yuanfeng. The "Tai Chu Calendar" took first place, and the "Tai Chu Calendar" made by Xu Wanqie in Jimo and Xu Yu in Chang'an also took first place. The assessment results of the Yellow Emperor's "Tiao Lu Calendar" made by Zhang Shouwang and Li Xin were poor, and Zhang Shouwang even claimed that more than six thousand years had passed since the time of the Yellow Emperor.
Shu Bao, the Chancellor from Dan'an in Chang'an, and Bei Yu of Anling's *Zhongshi* Calendar stated that from the Yellow Emperor to that time, there were only three thousand six hundred and twenty-nine years, which contradicted Zhang's claims. Zhang also modified the "Emperor's Records," where the ages of Shun and Yu he gave differed from accepted accounts. He also claimed that Hua Yi replaced Yu as emperor, and the Lady of Mount Li also served as emperor, all of which occurred between the Yin and Zhou dynasties, contradicting official history. In fact, the calendar made by Zhang was actually the "Yin Calendar" previously used by the imperial historians.
Zhang also made unfounded claims, asserting that there were five different calendars in use simultaneously and falsely stated that the *Tai Chu* Calendar was short by three-quarters of a day, plus one 750th of a day, resulting in an imbalance of yin and yang, which he claimed was the reason for the great chaos in the world. Critics accused Zhang, a lowly eight-hundred-shi official in Confucian robes, of spouting nonsense and deliberately spreading misinformation to undermine the government. His actions were deemed reckless, and the emperor approved the charges.
Zhang consistently ranked poorly in the annual reviews for three years and remained unconvinced. Later, he was accused again, almost sentenced to death, but was later pardoned. However, he remained unchanged, continued to slander, and was finally demoted to a minor official. Ultimately, the calendar's accuracy had to be verified by astronomical observation. Thirty-six years of use, from the Han Dynasty to the sixth year of Yuanfeng, ultimately proved the calendar's worth.
It is said that Liu Xiang, the esteemed scholar known for his filial piety, revised the calendar six times in his lifetime and wrote "Five Discourses" to clarify the truth of history. His son, Liu Xin, inherited his father's mantle, delved deeper into the research, wrote "Three Systems Calendar" and "Genealogy" to explain the principles in the "Spring and Autumn Annals," summarizing the subtle rules in the calendar. Now, let's turn to this topic.
Studying the "Spring and Autumn Annals" is essentially studying the timing of Heaven, combining human affairs with the rhythms of nature. The book states, "People are born under Heaven; that's fate. Therefore, ritual, propriety, and conduct determine one's destiny. Those who follow will receive blessings, while those who do not will bring calamity upon themselves." The "Spring and Autumn Annals" records events from 242 years of twelve vassal states according to the laws of yin and yang. Spring is when yang is at its height, and all things begin to grow; autumn is when yin is at its height, and all things begin to mature. The events recorded in the "Spring and Autumn Annals" are precise. The rituals emphasize harmony, and the calendar uses intercalary months to adjust yin and yang, ensuring that the common people have enough clothing and food, all to determine a person's destiny! The "Book of Changes" mentions the hexagram of metal and fire overcoming each other, stating, "Tang and Wu revolution, following the will of Heaven and responding to the will of man," and also advises to "maintain an accurate calendar," all to harmonize the relationship between humans and nature.
As the Zhou Dynasty declined and King You died, the Son of Heaven could not even perform normal sacrifices, and the calendar of the state of Lu was incorrect, mistakenly treating the year with the intercalary month as the beginning of the era. Therefore, the "Spring and Autumn Annals" records: "On the day of Yi Hai in the eleventh month, there was an eclipse." At that time, the planet Venus was in the Shen position, but the official responsible for the calendar believed it was in the Jian Xu position, as noted in historical records. In the twelfth year of Duke Ai, the month of Shen, where Antares was located, was mistakenly taken as the month of Jian Hai, leading to questions about why insects did not hibernate. It had been over a hundred years since Duke Wen's time without timely sacrifices, and no one had been able to correct the calendar. Therefore, Zigong wanted to do away with the sacrificial sheep, but Confucius valued this ritual and recorded it in the "Spring and Autumn Annals." The "Classic" states: "On the day of the eclipse on the first day of the tenth month of winter." The "Commentary" explains: "The specific date was not recorded, which was a dereliction of duty by the officials. The Son of Heaven has officials specifically responsible for the calendar, as do the vassal states. These officials hold high positions and are responsible for determining dates, which is a matter of ritual. They must not miss the date and must promptly inform all officials." This underscores the importance of performing sacrifices on time.
The Yuan calendar, from the very start, was simply called "Yuan." According to the ancient texts, "'Yuan' represents the culmination of goodness," meaning that the combination of three virtues is goodness. It also states, "'Yuan' represents the fundamental principle," indicating that the combination of three basic elements constitutes the foundation, hence it is called "Yuan." In the spring season, the activities of the royal family were recorded each month, and these three monthly royal records represent the core principles of the Yuan calendar. These three governing aspects merge into one, using "Yuan Yi" to represent the mathematical relationship between 9³ and 11³ (whose product, while not actually equaling one, is significant in the system). The Yellow Bell is the first note of the primary tone, representing the movement of yang. By multiplying this by six and then dividing by nine, we get the Lin Bell, which is the first note of the fifth tone, representing the movement of yin. These calculations are all based on the laws of the movement of heaven and earth. The upper calculations involve multiplying by six and then doubling, while the lower involve multiplying by six and then halving, both divided by nine. Nine multiplied by six represents the relationship between yin and yang, husband and wife, and mother and child. The primary tone, like a father, generates the fifth tone, like a son, reflecting the cyclical nature of the cosmos. With six primary tones and six fifth tones, the twelve Earthly Branches are determined. With the tonal qualities of the five-note scale, the movement of the ten heavenly stems is also established. The principle of "six in heaven, five on earth" reflects the fundamental nature of numbers. The six qi of heaven descend, producing five flavors. Six and five are the result of the interaction between heaven and earth, and the fundamental basis on which the people rely for survival. Therefore, with the six Jia and five Zi branches, the eleven-year cycle represents the completion of a cycle of the law of the movement of heaven and earth, repeating endlessly. The center of Tai Chi is primordial energy, hence it is the Yellow Bell, with a unit of length called a "yue." By multiplying its length by itself, we get eighty-one, which is the base number of the calendar. This base number (81) formed the foundation for deriving various units of measurement and the entire system of rituals and music.
In the "Book of Changes," the character "yuan" represents the primordial unity from which all things emerge, while in the "Book of Changes," the Taiji symbolizes the beginning of all things. The "Spring and Autumn Annals" detail monthly royal activities during the spring, while the trigrams of the "Book of Changes" encompass the three realms (heaven, earth, and humanity). Even if nothing major happens, the "Spring and Autumn Annals" record the year, month, and day, while the "Book of Changes" represents the four seasons. The "Spring and Autumn Annals" uses terms like "establishment," "division," "arrival," "initiation," and "conclusion" to mark time, while the "Book of Changes" is based on the positions of the eight trigrams. The "Spring and Autumn Annals" record the success and failure of events, while the "Book of Changes" reflects good and bad fortune. The "Spring and Autumn Annals" document court meetings and alliances, while the "Book of Changes" serves as the foundation of great endeavors. Therefore, both the "Book of Changes" and the "Spring and Autumn Annals" elaborate on the unity of heaven and man. The Commentary explains: "The tortoise shell symbolizes the situation, divination the process of calculation. Things first manifest, then take shape, and finally, numbers reveal their meaning."
So, everything starts with "one," right? This "one" is the original source. Then, the "Spring and Autumn Annals" is all about "two," the three realms are "three," the four seasons are "four," and that adds up to ten, making up the Five Elements. Multiply five by ten, and you get the Da Yan number—the Dao's essence is in that "one." The other forty-nine are for doing the calculations. That's why the ancients used yarrow stalks for divination.
We pair numbers, grouping them in twos, threes, and fours, then combine the odd numbers with the nineteenth day of the leap month, add the initial "one," and then repeatedly multiply pairs of these numbers. This is the actual situation of the moon's movement pattern. The sun's cycle is represented by a single "one," which determines the number of days in a month and also dictates the cycles of the sun, moon, and stars, allowing for the calculation of good and bad fortune. The I Ching states: "Heaven is one, Earth is two, Heaven is three, Earth is four, Heaven is five, Earth is six, Heaven is seven, Earth is eight, Heaven is nine, Earth is ten. Five is the number of Heaven, five is the number of Earth; these five positions interact harmoniously. Heaven's number is twenty-five, Earth's is thirty; the total for Heaven and Earth is fifty-five, the source of all change and spiritual power." The total is nineteen, as the I Ching says, "When things reach their limit, they change," hence the leap month calculation. Multiply three by the number of Heaven, nine, then multiply two by the number of Earth, ten; this is the number of cycles. Multiply three by the number of Heaven, twenty-five, and two by the number of Earth, thirty; this is the number of meetings of the new moon and full moon. Multiply the number of cycles, and you can calculate the lunar cycles, new moons, and winter solstice; this is the month of conjunctions. After nine cycles, it returns to the starting point, which is also the first nine cycles of the Yellow Bell.
When recording events, be sure to specify the time of year, even if there is nothing major, and also specify the year and month. Time is used to record solar terms and lunar nodes, while months are used to record seasonal divisions. Solar terms do not necessarily fall within the corresponding month, so solar terms and lunar nodes must fall within the correct months. Therefore, the "Book of Changes" states: "Ancient rulers carefully observed the proper seasons, stepping forth at the beginning, acting correctly in the middle, and returning to completion at the end. By stepping forth at the beginning, the sequence is not violated; by acting correctly in the middle, the people are not confused; by returning to completion at the end, matters are not confused." This is why the virtuous kings valued intercalary months. By using five variables multiplied by the number of conjunctions, one can calculate the first day of the lunation and the winter solstice; this is known as the lunar month. Divide the lunar month into four parts, and use one part multiplied by the lunar month; this is known as the middle method. The middle method involves taking one-fourth of the lunar month and applying it to the calculations. Use the intercalary method to calculate the cycles and winter solstice, then multiply by the lunar method, subtract the middle method, and simplify to obtain a calculated number; this is the method of calculating a lunar month, with a remainder of one seventh. This is the method of calculating the first day of the month. If the first day of the month is not accurate, then it is an intercalary month, meaning that although yin and yang are combined, if the calculation is not accurate, a new month will not be produced. Therefore, the solar method multiplied by the intercalary method is referred to as the annual cycle; three annual cycles comprise a Great Year. The intercalary method of the Great Year is determined based on the anomalies of yin and yang and the three-string intercalary method, a technical term referring to a specific calculation process. The "Book of Changes" records the nine calamities as follows: upon first entering the Great Year, there are one hundred six, with nine being yang; the next is three hundred seventy-four, also with nine being yang; then four hundred eighty, with nine being yang; followed by seven hundred twenty, with seven being yin; then another seven hundred twenty, with seven being yang; next is six hundred, with five being yin; then six hundred again, with five being yang; followed by four hundred eighty, with three being yin; and finally four hundred eighty, with three being yang. In total, four thousand six hundred seventeen years make up one Great Cycle. Among them, four thousand five hundred sixty are normal years, and fifty-seven are calamitous years. Therefore, the "Spring and Autumn Annals" states: "Act correctly in the middle." It also states: "Failing to announce an intercalary month is considered improper. Intercalate according to the proper seasons, seasons to accomplish tasks, tasks to enrich life; the way of governing the people lies therein. Ignoring the intercalary month disregards proper timing, making effective governance impossible."
Therefore, in the spring of the fifth year of Duke Xi of Lu, on the first day of the first lunar month, the winter solstice occurred. Duke Xi personally observed the first day of the lunar month, then ascended the observation platform to look out and record it, which was in accordance with the ritual. All solstices, equinoxes, and other significant celestial events must be recorded for future use. In the second month of Duke Zhao's twentieth year, the winter solstice occurred without a leap month, and the winter solstice did not fall in the expected month. Zishen observed celestial phenomena but didn't get the timing right from the start. Therefore, historical records do not mention the winter solstice, but rather the sun reaching its southernmost point. When the sun is near the constellation Aquila, the shadow is longest at noon, from which the winter solstice can be known. The Dou constellation is adjacent to the Camp constellation, and the star mansion of the Weaver points towards Altair, used for year and month reckoning, hence called star reckoning. The five planets begin their cycles from their starting points, while the sun and moon begin theirs from the middle, resulting in a total of twelve cycles. When the sun reaches its starting point, it is a solar term, and when it reaches the middle of Dou, it corresponds to the twelve earthly branches. Observing its position can determine other positions. Therefore, it is said: "There are only twelve divisions in the ritual calendar, reflecting the fundamental order of heaven." The Classic of Documents says, "In spring, the king's first month," and the commentary adds: "In the first month of Zhou, fire emerges; in summer, it is the third month; in Shang, it is the fourth month; in Zhou, it is the fifth month. The summer numbers receive the mandate of heaven," which established the correct timing of the four seasons.
Each of the three dynasties had its own system of dating, indicating that the three dynasties are cyclical, each taking its turn as dominant, repeating endlessly. This is the way of the five elements. Therefore, three and five are intertwined and give birth to each other. The heavenly dynasty's auspicious energy begins at half past midnight (2 AM), when the sun has just risen, appearing red. The earthly dynasty receives this energy starting at the hour of the Ox (around 1 AM), when the sun begins to change, turning yellow, and by the middle of the hour of the Ox, the sun's color becomes white. The human dynasty receives it starting at the hour of the Tiger (around 3 AM), when the sun's light becomes dark, and by the middle of the hour of the Tiger, the sun's light turns green. Celestial changes begin at the hour of the Rat (11 PM), the changes in the earth's energy start from the hour of the Ox and end at the hour of the Dragon (around 7 AM), and the changes in human energy start from the hour of the Tiger and end at the hour of the Monkey (around 9 AM). Therefore, in the calendar, the heavenly dynasty uses Jia Zi (甲子), the earthly dynasty uses Jia Chen (甲辰), and the human dynasty uses Jia Shen (甲申). The leaders of the Meng (孟), Zhong (仲), and Ji (季) periods take turns as the heads of the dynasties. The cyclical order of the three dynasties was established, starting with the color green for the five elements, and the order remains the same. The five elements and three dynasties were inextricably linked. As the "Zhou Yi" says, "The heavens have three stars, and the earth has five elements," so with the three dynasties and five stars, everything can be understood. The "Book of Changes" states, "The interplay of the five elements creates change, intertwine their numbers. Understand their changes and ultimately form the culture of the world; reach their limits and ultimately establish the image of the world." Above, the Taiji governs the three celestial bodies and five planets; below, the Yuan Qi governs the three dynasties and five elements. For humans, the Huang Ji (皇极) leads the three virtues and five matters, which include benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and the corresponding human affairs. Therefore, the three dynasties are in harmony with the three stars: the sun is in harmony with the heavenly dynasty, the moon is in harmony with the earthly dynasty, and the Big Dipper is in harmony with the human dynasty. The five stars are in harmony with the five elements: water is in harmony with the star associated with the Dragon (辰星), fire is in harmony with Mars (荧惑), metal is in harmony with Venus (太白), wood is in harmony with Jupiter (岁星), and earth is in harmony with Saturn (镇星). The three dynasties and five stars intersect and move. The heavens generate water with one, the earth generates fire with two, the heavens generate wood with three, the earth generates metal with four, and the heavens generate earth with five. The five elements interact cyclically, giving rise to the microcosm, which, when multiplied by the hexagrams of "Qian Kun" (乾坤), forms the macrocosm. Yin and yang are compared and contrasted, interweaving and complementing each other, so the changes of nine and six are reflected in the six realms of existence. Three small changes form a significant change, three significant changes form a scene, two scenes with eighteen changes form hexagrams, and four trigrams form the "Book of Changes," totaling seventy-two changes, which is the product of the three dynasties and the four seasons. Three multiplied by it gives the hexagram of "Qian" (乾), and two multiplied by it gives the hexagram of "Kun" (坤). Multiplying Yang by nine gives 648; multiplying Yin by six gives 432, totaling 1080, a small calculation method for each hexagram of Yin and Yang.
Eight times this amount.
From the beginning of written records, we can understand the ancient world mainly from ancient texts and historical accounts. These books mention that emperors before Tang Yao and Yu Shun had their titles and posthumous names. As for their ministers, not much is written about them. However, the works of various schools of thought do mention quite a lot. Many of these accounts weren't verified by Confucius, but they're still valuable. They were written to celebrate good deeds, condemn bad ones, and teach future generations. Therefore, I have extensively collected this information.
Confucius said, "Who am I to compare myself to sages and virtuous people?" He also asked, "What must one do to achieve virtue? One must first achieve sagehood!" He pointed out, "If one doesn't know what virtue is, how can one achieve it?" He explained that those who know it from birth are superior people; those who learn it afterwards are average; those who learn it through the teaching of others are even lower; and those who encounter difficulties and do not learn are the lowest of all. He also noted, "People of average and above can discuss noble matters with them." He remarked, "Only the most intelligent and the most foolish will not change."
The texts also say that, for example, Yao, Shun, Yu, Ji, Hou Ji, and Qi wanted to do good deeds with them, so they did; while Huan Dou and Gong Gong wanted to do bad things with them, they punished them. Smart people know when to cooperate and when to stand firm. Jie and Zhou, along with Long Feng and Bi Gan, wanted to do good things with them, but they were killed; while Chong Hou Hu and Fei Zhong wanted to do bad things with them, and they went along with it. The most foolish people are those who can only do bad things with them but not good things. Duke Huan of Qi, with the assistance of Guan Zhong, became hegemonic; with the assistance of Shu Diao, he caused great chaos in the world. The average person can do both good and bad things with them.
Based on these insights, I have listed the hierarchical order of nine types of people, carefully studied the classics and historical records, and summarized the situations of all generations, covering the highlights of history.
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