In the fifth year of the Emperor's reign, during the first month, a grand ancestral worship ceremony was held at the Ming Hall. Attending the ceremony were 28 feudal kings, 120 marquises, and over 900 members of the imperial clan, all gathered to assist in the rituals. After the ceremony concluded, 36 individuals, including Xin, the great-grandson of Emperor Xuan, were granted the title of marquis, while others received various levels of rewards in gold and silk.
At this time, both the common people and officials submitted petitions regarding Wang Mang's refusal to accept the lands of Xinye. The total number of petitions reached an astonishing 487,572. Witnessing this, feudal kings, princes, marquises, and members of the imperial clan all knelt down to plead, insisting that the title and rewards for An Han Gong (Wang Mang) should be increased. In response, Wang Mang submitted a memorial, stating:
"As an external relative of the imperial family, I dare not overstep my boundaries or claim undue honor. Reflecting on the Emperor's virtuous governance, which aligns with the Mandate of Heaven, establishing rituals to govern the people and music to transform customs, we see that people from all corners of the empire are rushing to comply, and even distant barbarians have submitted. At the time of parting, who does not shed tears? Without sincerity, how could anyone offer such heartfelt tributes?
From feudal kings to officials and commoners, all are aware of my deep familial ties with Your Majesty. Furthermore, as I have been entrusted with official duties, whenever merits are attributed to the court's achievements, my name is often mentioned. Witnessing the feudal lords speak on my behalf, I cannot help but break into a sweat, feeling deeply ashamed. Though I am dull by nature, I am sincerely aware of my own lack of virtue and ability. My high position and responsibilities often leave me anxious, fearing that I might tarnish the reputation of this sacred dynasty.
Today, with the empire stable, customs unified, and distant lands submitting, it is all due to Your Majesty's divine virtue and direct governance. The Grand Tutor Guang, the Grand Protector Shun, and other ministers have assisted in governance, while all officials have been loyal and competent. This is why such achievements have been made in just five years. I, Wang Mang, have contributed no extraordinary strategies or plans; I have merely followed the Empress Dowager's commands and conveyed them downward, achieving less than one-tenth of what was intended. Even when adopting the advice of wise ministers, I have achieved less than one-fifth of its potential. If I were to be blamed for my inadequacies, I would willingly accept punishment, for my sole intention in remaining here is to fulfill my duty to Your Majesty and to work in harmony with the court.
Your Majesty, unwilling to disregard public opinion, has repeatedly referred these matters to the council for discussion. I had previously considered ceasing my petitions, fearing that others would not relent. Now that the grand ceremony has concluded and the assisting participants have departed, I feel an overwhelming desire for all petitions to cease and for me, Wang Mang, to dedicate myself fully to completing the tasks of ritual and music. Once these are accomplished, they can be shared with the world, bringing peace and harmony to the empire. If any faults arise, I am willing to bear responsibility for misleading the court. If no faults are found, I hope to retire in peace and avoid obstructing the paths of the virtuous. Such is my personal wish. I humbly beg Your Majesty for compassion!"
Zhen Han and others reported this to the Empress Dowager, who issued an edict stating: "It shall be so. The merits and virtues of the Duke shine brightly across the land, which is why feudal lords, princes, marquises, members of the imperial clan, scholars, and commoners all speak in unison, even gathering at the palace gates in petition. Thus, this decree is issued. When the feudal lords and members of the imperial clan took their leave, they once again reiterated their requests. Despite being informed and dismissed, they refused to depart. Upon being told that rewards would be distributed in the first month of summer, they rejoiced and left, shouting 'Long live the Emperor!' Now, whenever the Duke is summoned, he weeps and kneels, expressing his desire to decline any rewards. Even if additional honors are bestowed, he insists on stepping down. As the matter remains unresolved, it must be decided by the Duke. Once the preparations are complete, the council shall submit a report. As for the previous deliberations, the Nine Bestowments ceremony must be urgently addressed."
Thus, the Grand Councilors, court officials, scholars, and marquises, including Zhang Chun, Marquis of Fuping, totaling 902 individuals, submitted their collective opinion: "The holy emperors and wise kings of the past sought to recruit the virtuous and reward the capable, granting high positions to those of great virtue and significant rewards to those of great merit. Accordingly, loyal ministers were bestowed with the Nine Bestowments and elevated to the rank of Duke. Today, the nine branches of kinship are harmonious, the people are thriving, the empire is united, and the populace is at peace. Signs of divine favor are abundant, and an era of great peace has arrived. The prosperity of the current reign rivals that of Tang and Yu, while the contributions of the Prime Minister match those of Yi Yin and Zhou Gong. Such achievements, though arising in different times, align perfectly with the principles of governance. Drawing upon the teachings of the Six Classics and the precedents found in the Zhou Rites and the Book of Rites, we propose the conferral of the Nine Bestowments. We humbly request an imperial decree to enact this." The proposal was approved, and the imperial edict proclaimed:
"On the fifth day of the fifth month in the fifth year of Yuanshi, under the auspices of the Empress Dowager, the following decree is issued: 'Duke, approach and listen to Our words. Previously, you served as a loyal guardian to Emperor Cheng for sixteen years, faithfully submitting strategies and exposing the crimes of the former Marquis of Dingling, Chunyu Chang, thereby quelling chaos and uncovering treachery. You were appointed Grand Marshal, tasked with internal governance. When Emperor Ai ascended the throne, concubines sought power, and treacherous ministers plotted rebellion. You personally impeached Gaochang Marquis Dong Hong, correcting the improper seating arrangements of the mother of the former King Gong of Dingtao. From that moment onward, court discussions adhered strictly to the classics. Resigning due to illness, you returned to your residence but were later framed by traitorous ministers. After being exiled to your fiefdom, Emperor Ai recognized your loyalty and recalled you to Chang'an. Even as his illness worsened, he did not forget your merits and restored your position as Special Advisor. On the very night of his passing, with no heir apparent and traitorous ministers in power, the state was on the brink of disaster. Recognizing that the stability of the nation depended on you, We summoned you to court, immediately dismissed Gao'an Marquis Dong Xian, and prevented further leaks. Your loyal strategies restored order, and the nation's framework was fully reestablished. During the reigns of Emperor Cheng and Emperor Ai, under your guidance, all affairs were managed, and no calamities arose. For the past five years, you have assisted Us in governance, rectifying human relations and stabilizing the cosmos. By reverently honoring the deities and managing the seasons, you have revived ancient practices and corrected historical errors. The empire is united, and the people are harmonious. The rituals of the Zhou dynasty, the systems of Shang, and the designs of Gaojing and Shangyi have been revived. You have illuminated the foundational virtues of past emperors, demonstrated the moral excellence of the ancestors, upheld the principle of honoring Heaven alongside the forefathers, and established grand rituals for ancestral and state worship, thereby glorifying filial piety. Consequently, the four seas are at peace, the empire is admired by all, and even distant barbarians willingly submit, adopting our customs and contributing rare treasures to assist in ceremonies. By following ancient paths and valuing tradition, all endeavors have succeeded, achieving balance and harmony. Your profound virtue and adherence to the Way resonate with the divine, bringing blessings from the ancestors. The heavens have responded with auspicious signs, heralding an era of great unity. With the appearance of the qilin, phoenix, tortoise, and dragon, over 700 auspicious omens have manifested. You have established rituals and music, securing the altars of the ancestors and the state. Across the land, all rely on you. As the Prime Minister and Duke, your contributions are unparalleled. Thus, We bestow upon you the Nine Bestowments to assist in ceremonies, uniting civil and military responsibilities and honoring your ancestors. How glorious this is!'"
Wang Mang once again bowed his head to the ground, expressed his gratitude, and accepted the ceremonial items: the green ceremonial robes and crown, jade ornaments (Yangbang and Yangbi), ceremonial shoes, a chariot adorned with bells and drawn by horses, the dragon banner with nine tassels, leather caps and white silk robes, military chariots and horses, scarlet bows and arrows, black bows and arrows, a red battle axe on the left, a golden battle axe on the right, a full set of armor, two vessels of millet wine, two jade ceremonial objects (Gui and Zan), two green jade scepters symbolizing the Nine Bestowments, and a red-doored palace with a staircase.
He was also granted officials for religious rites, blessings, divination, and historical records, along with 300 elite guards (Huben), a steward, and assistants for the religious, divination, and historical offices, all to support the An Han Duke (Wang Mang). At his central residence and outer estate, the elite guards served as gatekeepers, managing the registration of those entering and exiting. For official matters involving the Four Assistants or the Three Excellencies, communications were carried out through official couriers. The residence of the King of Chu was designated as the residence of the An Han Duke, and it underwent extensive renovations, with walls and defenses modeled after the Zhou dynasty. Ancestral temples and sleeping quarters were outfitted with red doors and staircases. Chen Chong submitted a proposal: “When the An Han Duke visits his ancestral temple outside the city gates, the city gate commander should assign cavalry to escort him. When entering, there should be gate guards; when exiting, there should be cavalry. This demonstrates the state's emphasis on protocol.” The proposal was approved.
That autumn, due to auspicious omens related to the Empress giving birth to descendants, Wang Mang ordered the construction of the Ziwu Road, a direct route from Duling to the southern mountains and leading to Hanzhong.
Eight envoys who had been dispatched to observe local customs returned, reporting that customs across the empire were unified. They fabricated folk songs in the various commanderies and kingdoms, praising Wang Mang's virtues and achievements, totaling over 30,000 characters. Wang Mang formalized these as decrees. He also proposed that markets should not have competing merchants, government offices should have no lawsuits, towns should have no thieves, villages should have no hungry people, roads should have no lost items, and men and women should walk separately. Violators would be punished with tattooing (a form of corporal punishment).
Liu Xin, Chen Chong, and ten others were granted the title of marquis for their contributions in managing the Ming Hall and promoting education and culture.
Wang Mang claimed to have achieved peace and prosperity: the northern frontier pacified the Xiongnu, the eastern regions opened trade routes across the seas, and the southern lands established relations with Huangzhi. However, the western frontier remained undeveloped. Wang Mang sent Zhonglang General Ping Xian and others with large amounts of gold and silver to entice the Qiang tribes to offer land and submit to Han rule. Ping Xian and his delegation reported: “The Qiang leaders, including Liangyuan, with a population of 12,000, are willing to become subjects of the empire and offer the Xianshui Sea, salt lakes, and lush pastures as tribute. They are also willing to serve as a defensive barrier in the rugged terrain. When asked about their willingness to surrender, Liangyuan replied: ‘The Empress Dowager is wise, and the An Han Duke is supremely benevolent. The empire is at peace, and harvests are abundant. Some crops grow over ten feet tall, some rice plants yield grains over three inches long, and some crops grow naturally without being sown. Sweet dew falls from the heavens, and sweet springs flow from the earth. Phoenixes have appeared, and divine birds have descended. For four years, the Qiang people have suffered no hardships, and thus we wish to submit.’ It is appropriate to establish protectorates to manage these territories.”
The matter was presented to Wang Mang, who submitted another memorial: “During the years of the Empress Dowager’s governance, her benevolence has spread widely, and harmonious energy has prevailed. Even distant regions with different customs have been drawn to righteousness. The Yuechang tribe sent white pheasants through multiple translators, Huangzhi sent live rhinoceroses from 30,000 miles away, the kings of the Eastern Yi crossed the sea to present treasures, and the Xiongnu Chanyu complied with our regulations, even removing two of their own titles. Now, Liangyuan and others from the Western Regions have offered land and pledged allegiance. In ancient times, during the reign of Tang Yao, all under heaven submitted. Today’s achievements are comparable.
Currently, we have established the Eastern Sea, Southern Sea, and Northern Sea Commanderies, but there is no Western Sea Commandery. I propose accepting the land offered by Liangyuan and others to establish a Western Sea Commandery. Furthermore, I have heard that the sage kings mapped the heavens and divided the land, organizing regions based on mountains, rivers, and local customs. The Han Empire is vast, encompassing the territories of the Two Emperors and Three Kings, with a total of thirteen provinces. However, many provincial names and boundaries are inconsistent with ancient texts. In the Canon of Yao, twelve provinces were established, later reduced to nine. Given the vastness of Han territory, where provincial governors travel distances of over 30,000 miles, it is unreasonable to limit the divisions to nine provinces. I respectfully propose rectifying the names and boundaries of twelve provinces in accordance with the classics, aligning with the principle of proper governance.” The proposal was approved. Wang Mang also introduced fifty new laws, with violators exiled to the Western Sea. The number of exiles reached into the millions, leading to growing resentment among the people.
Liu Qing, Marquis of Quanling, submitted a memorial: “When King Cheng of Zhou was young, he was referred to as the 'young sovereign,' and the Duke of Zhou acted as regent. Today, the Emperor is in his prime, and the An Han Duke should act as regent and handle the affairs of the Son of Heaven, just as the Duke of Zhou did.” The court officials all agreed: “This should be done as Liu Qing suggested.”
In the winter, the planet Mars appeared in the center of the moon.
Emperor Ping fell ill. Wang Mang drafted a prayer to the Tai Shrine, offering his life in exchange for the Emperor’s. He presented jade discs and scepters, wrapped in gold, and placed them in the main hall, instructing the officials not to speak of it. In December, Emperor Ping passed away, and a general amnesty was declared. Wang Mang summoned the Minister of Rites, Zongbo Feng, and others, along with all officials of rank 600 dan or higher, to observe a three-year mourning period. He proposed elevating Emperor Cheng's temple to the status of the main ancestral temple and designating Emperor Ping's temple as the "First Ancestor Temple."
At the time, Emperor Yuan’s lineage had ended, but five descendants of Emperor Xuan’s great-grandsons remained, including Guangqi Marquis Xian and 48 others. Wang Mang, disliking the idea of them growing up, declared: “Brothers cannot succeed one another as heirs.” He selected the youngest among the great-great-grandsons, Ying, the son of Guangqi Marquis, who was only two years old, claiming that divination indicated he was the most auspicious choice.
That same month, former official Hui Guang and Xie Xiao submitted a report stating that Meng Tong, a magistrate in Wugong, had excavated a well and discovered a white stone. The stone was round on top and square on the bottom, with red inscriptions carved into it, reading: “Proclaiming that An Han Duke Wang Mang shall be Emperor.” This marked the beginning of the so-called “heavenly mandate” proclamations. Wang Mang instructed the officials to report this to the Empress Dowager. The Empress Dowager responded: “This is a deception meant to mislead the world and must not be implemented!” However, Grand Protector Shun advised the Empress Dowager: “The situation has already reached this point and cannot be stopped. Even if we try, our efforts will be in vain. Wang Mang does not seek anything else; he merely wishes to act as regent to consolidate power and stabilize the empire.” The Empress Dowager reluctantly agreed, and Shun and others jointly issued an order on her behalf:
“It is said that Heaven creates the people, but they cannot govern themselves, so a ruler is established to provide guidance. When a ruler is young and immature, there must be a regent to act on their behalf, implementing the will of Heaven and nurturing the people. The Book of Documents states: ‘Heaven’s work is carried out by people.’ Following the untimely passing of Emperor Ping, we have ordered officials to search among the great-grandsons of Emperor Xuan to select a suitable heir to succeed Emperor Ping. However, the chosen heir is still an infant and cannot yet fulfill the role of a virtuous ruler. Who can ensure stability? The An Han Duke, Wang Mang, has served as regent for three reigns, guiding the Han dynasty through turbulent times. His actions align with those of the Duke of Zhou, though from a different era. Now, with the appearance of the inscribed stone from Wugong, proclaiming ‘An Han Duke Wang Mang as Emperor,’ I have deeply reflected on its meaning. The phrase ‘to be Emperor’ refers to acting as regent in the Emperor’s stead. There are established laws and traditions; without a sage, these laws would cease to exist. Therefore, let the An Han Duke act as regent and assume the throne temporarily, following the precedent of the Duke of Zhou. The county of Wugong shall be granted to the An Han Duke as his fief, named the ‘Han Guang Territory.’ The details of the ceremonial procedures shall be submitted for review.”
The court officials submitted a memorial, saying: “The Empress Dowager’s sacred virtue is evident, deeply aligned with Heaven’s will, and thus she has decreed that the Duke of An Han shall act as regent. I have heard that during the time of King Cheng of Zhou, he was young, and the Zhou dynasty’s governance was not yet fully established. King Cheng could not perform the rituals of Heaven and Earth or carry on the legacy of Kings Wen and Wu. Therefore, the Duke of Zhou temporarily assumed the regency, enabling the Zhou dynasty to flourish and the royal court to stabilize. Without this regency, the Zhou dynasty might have lost the Mandate of Heaven. The Book of Documents states: ‘I inherited the affairs of my ancestors, but I could not harmonize the upper and lower realms, causing the light of my predecessors to be dimmed. At home, I did not understand the difficulty of maintaining the Mandate. Heaven sent omens, indicating a loss of the dynasty’s mandate.’”
It continued: “The Duke of Zhou wore the emperor’s ceremonial crown, faced south to receive the court officials, issued orders, and always acted in the name of the King. The virtuous Duke of Shao did not understand the sage’s intentions, so he did not comment on this. The *Record of the Bright Hall* states: ‘The Duke of Zhou received the feudal lords in the Bright Hall, where the Son of Heaven stood with his back to the ceremonial axe, facing south.’ This indicates that the Duke of Zhou acted as the Son of Heaven, met with feudal lords for six years, established rites and music, and brought order to the world. The Duke of Shao did not mention that the Duke of Zhou assumed the position of regent from the beginning, rather than waiting six years to ascend to power.”
The memorial further stated: “The *Lost Book of the Grain of Harmony* records: ‘The Duke of Zhou held the ritual wine and stood on the ceremonial steps, assisting King Cheng in ascending the throne. The ceremonial official proclaimed: “Acting as regent for the King, diligently bringing harmony to the realm.”’ This describes the regency of the Duke of Zhou. Once King Cheng came of age and donned the crown of adulthood, the Duke of Zhou returned authority to him. The *Book of Documents* says: ‘I restore to you your enlightened rule,’ meaning the Duke of Zhou often issued decrees in the name of the King, exercising authority without needing to report back. Thus, it is said, ‘I restore to you your enlightened rule.’ I humbly request that the Duke of An Han act as regent and ascend the throne, donning the emperor’s robes and crown, standing with his back to the ceremonial axe between the palace doors, facing south to receive the court officials and govern the realm. His carriages and attire should follow imperial protocol, with guards clearing the way. The people and officials should address him as “Your Majesty,” adhering to the customs of the Son of Heaven.”
“In the suburbs, he should perform sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, worship at the Bright Hall, offer sacrifices to the ancestral temples, and make offerings to the gods. During these ceremonies, the ceremonial officials should refer to him as the ‘Acting Emperor,’ while the people and officials call him the ‘Regent Emperor.’ He himself should use the term ‘I’ in self-reference. When handling state affairs, decrees should be issued in the form of imperial edicts, aligning with the will of Heaven, supporting the Han dynasty, and safeguarding the young heir of Emperor Ping. This would fulfill the entrusted responsibility and promote the governance of peace. When paying respects to the Grand Empress Dowager and the Empress, he should maintain the etiquette of a subject. In his governance of the palace, household, and state, he should follow the precedents of the rites for feudal lords. I humbly submit this request.” The Empress Dowager approved, saying: “It shall be so.” The following year, the era name was changed to “Regency.”
In the first month of the first year of the Regency, Wang Mang performed sacrifices to Heaven at the southern suburb, welcomed the spring at the eastern suburb, held the grand archery ceremony at the Bright Hall, and hosted the “Three Elders and Five Seniors” (respected elders) for a banquet. After completing the rituals, he departed. He established the “Five Historians of the Pillar,” whose ranks were equivalent to censors, to oversee governmental affairs and record his words and actions.
In March, on the day of Jichou, Wang Mang appointed Liu Ying, the great-grandson of Emperor Xuan, as Crown Prince, calling him “Ruzi” (the Young Lord). Wang Shun was appointed as Grand Tutor and Left Assistant, Zhen Feng as Grand Guardian and Right Aide, and Zhen Han as Grand Protector and Rear Supporter. Additionally, four Junior Tutors were appointed, all with salaries equivalent to 2,000 bushels of grain.
In April, the Marquis of Anzhong, Liu Chong, conspired with Minister Zhang Shao, saying: “The Duke of An Han, Wang Mang, has monopolized power and will inevitably harm the Liu family. Although the people of the empire dare not act first, this is a disgrace to the imperial clan. If we take the lead, the entire realm will surely unite in harmony.” Zhang Shao and others, leading over a hundred men, attacked Wancheng but failed to breach the city and were defeated. Zhang Shao was the elder cousin of Zhang Song. Zhang Song and Liu Jia surrendered themselves at the capital, and Wang Mang pardoned them. Zhang Song then submitted a memorial on behalf of Liu Jia, stating:
“During the reigns of Jianping and Yuanshou, the great lineage of the Han dynasty nearly collapsed, and the imperial clan was almost abandoned. Thanks to Your Majesty’s sacred virtue, the nation was supported and saved, and the imperial clan was restored. You presided over the court and issued decrees, prioritizing the imperial clan and elevating the nine kinship groups. At the same time, you recorded distant relatives, established them as kings and marquises, and granted them independent positions, now numbering in the hundreds. You restored severed lineages, preserved the living, and continued the legacies of the deceased, allowing them to stand side by side once more, forming ranks and assisting the Han state, supporting the imperial lineage.”
“You established the Biyong Academy, set up the Bright Hall, disseminated the laws of Heaven, spread sacred teachings, and met with the feudal lords to demonstrate cultural virtue. The imperial clan and feudal lords all gained additional lands. The people of the realm spoke in unison, praising Your Majesty, with songs of gratitude filling the air. The nation’s reputation, blessings, and glory—are these not the result of the Empress Dowager’s constant deliberation and Your Majesty’s vigilance day and night? Why? In times of chaos, you restored order; in times of danger, you brought stability; in times of disaster, you turned misfortune into blessings; in times of extinction, you continued the lineage; when the heir was young, you took on the responsibility. Day and night, through cold and heat, you worked tirelessly without rest, all for the sake of the realm and the Liu family. Even the most ignorant of subjects, whether male or female, understand your intentions.”
“Yet the Marquis of Anzhong, Liu Chong, harbored rebellious intentions, plotted treason, raised troops, and sought to endanger the ancestral temples. Such acts are intolerable and deserve death without pardon. He is truly an enemy of the subjects, a foe of the imperial clan, a traitor to the nation, and a scourge to the world. Thus, his relatives were shocked and reported his crimes, and the people scattered and abandoned their weapons. He could not advance a single step and was ultimately trapped in disaster. Even his hundred-year-old mother and infant children were executed, their heads displayed on poles, with earrings and ornaments still intact. To think such a plan existed—is this not absurd?”
“I have heard that in ancient times, when rebellious states were punished, their palaces were turned into cesspools, filled with filth, and called ‘Accursed Halls.’ Though vegetation might grow there, no one would eat it. The walls of their ancestral shrines were surrounded, and wooden planks covered the top to signify prohibition. Feudal lords passing by would see it and take it as a warning. Now that the world knows of Liu Chong’s rebellion, everyone wishes to draw their swords against him. The first to arrive would cut his throat, stab his chest, dismember his body, and carve his flesh; the later arrivals would tear down his doors, destroy his walls, level his houses, and burn his belongings, with the sounds of destruction shaking the heavens. The imperial clan is especially enraged, their words filled with hatred. Why? Because he betrayed kindness and loyalty, failing to uphold virtue. Though the imperial clan resides far away, Liu Jia, upon hearing this, could not suppress his anger. He wishes to lead the charge for the imperial clan, with his family bearing tools, rushing to Nanyang to destroy Liu Chong’s residence, making it conform to ancient practices. Liu Chong’s ancestral shrine should be treated like the shrine at Bo, given to the feudal lords as a permanent warning. I hope the Four Assistants, ministers, and officials will deliberate on this matter to clarify right and wrong and examine the four directions.”
Wang Mang greatly approved of this. The ministers said: “All should follow Liu Jia’s proposal.” Wang Mang requested the Empress Dowager to issue an edict: “Liu Jia and his family, though related to Liu Chong, did not show favoritism. When they saw rebellion brewing, they reported it together. Once the disaster occurred, they shared in the hatred. Following ancient customs, their loyalty and filial piety are evident. Grant Liu Jia a fief of 1,000 households as the Marquis of Shili, and bestow titles of Marquis Within the Pass to his seven sons.” Later, Zhang Song was also enfeoffed as the Marquis of Shude.
In Chang’an, people said: “If you seek a title, go to Zhang Bosong; fighting in battle is less effective than crafting a good memorial.” Wang Mang also rewarded over a hundred contributors from Nanyang and turned Liu Chong’s residence into a cesspool. From then on, all rebels’ residences were called cesspools.
The court officials again submitted a memorial: “Liu Chong and others rebelled because Wang Mang’s authority was insufficient. It is appropriate to elevate him to consolidate the realm.” In May, on the day of Jiachen, the Empress Dowager decreed that Wang Mang should address her as the “Acting Emperor.”
In winter, on the first day of the tenth month, on the day of Bingchen, there was a solar eclipse.
In December, the court officials submitted a request: “Expand the Duke of An Han’s palace and household staff, establish new positions such as Commanders of the Temple, Stables, and Kitchen, along with various attendants, including Middle Chamberlains and over a hundred Tiger Guards and others. Additionally, create a force of 300 guards. The Duke of An Han’s residence will be referred to as the ‘Regency Office,’ his estate as the ‘Regency Hall,’ and his mansion as the ‘Regency Palace.’” The request was approved.
Wang Mang submitted a memorial to the Empress Dowager, requesting an edict: “Although the former Grand Tutor Guang has already passed away, his contributions have been recorded. Grand Protector Shun, Grand Minister of Works Feng, General of Light Chariots Han, and General of Foot Soldiers Jian all contributed to advancing strategies against the Chanyu. They also managed the Spirit Terrace, Bright Hall, Biyong Academy, and the Four Suburban Sacrifices, established systems, opened the Ziwu Road, and worked in harmony with the imperial administration, promoting virtue and uniting efforts. Their merits are evident. I propose conferring noble titles as follows: Shun’s son Kuang as Marquis of Concord, Lin as Marquis of Promoting Virtue, Guang’s grandson Shou as Marquis of United Intent, and Feng’s grandson Kuang as Marquis of Combined Effort. Additionally, increase the landholdings of Han and Jian by 3,000 households each.”
That year, Pang Tian, Fu Fan, and others from the Western Qiang, angered by Wang Mang’s seizure of their lands to establish Xihai Commandery, attacked the Commandery Governor Cheng Yong, who fled. Wang Mang executed Cheng Yong and sent Protector-General Dou Kuang to suppress them.
In the second year of the Regency, during spring, Dou Kuang and his forces defeated the Western Qiang.
In May, a new currency system was introduced: the “Chopped Knife” coin, valued at 5,000; the “Inscribed Knife” coin, valued at 500; and large coins, valued at 50. These circulated alongside the Five-Zhu coins. Many people began counterfeiting the new currency. A prohibition was issued, forbidding anyone below the rank of marquis from privately possessing gold. Gold was to be submitted to the imperial treasury in exchange for currency, but the exchange system was ineffective.
In September, Zhai Yi, Governor of Dong Commandery, attempted a coup. He mobilized troops and proclaimed Liu Xin, Marquis of Yanxiang, as emperor. He sent announcements to the commanderies and kingdoms, accusing Wang Mang of “poisoning Emperor Ping, usurping the throne, and seeking to extinguish the Han dynasty. Now, let us carry out Heaven’s punishment and bring justice to Wang Mang.” This caused confusion among the commanderies and kingdoms, and over 100,000 people gathered. Wang Mang was so terrified that he lost his appetite and spent day and night holding the Young Lord (Liu Ying) while praying at the suburban temples. He issued a grand edict and dispatched Censor-in-Chief Huan Tan and others across the empire to explain that his regency was for the sake of protecting the Young Lord. Wang Mang also sent generals Wang Yi, Sun Jian, and six others to attack Zhai Yi, stationing troops at various passes to block and defend.
Meanwhile, Zhao Ming, Huo Hong, and other men from Huaili raised an army, intending to join forces with Zhai Yi. They discussed, saying, “The elite troops of the generals are all in the east, leaving the capital defenseless. We can attack Chang’an.” Their numbers grew to over 100,000. Wang Mang, deeply alarmed, dispatched Generals Wang Qi and Wang Ji to resist them. He appointed Grand Protector Zhen Han as Grand General, granting him the ceremonial staff from the High Temple to command all military forces. Zhen Han held the imperial seal in his left hand and a hammer in his right, stationing himself outside the city. Wang Shun and Zhen Feng patrolled the palace day and night.
In December, Wang Yi and others defeated Zhai Yi at Yu. Surveillance Officer Chen Chong reported: “Your Majesty adheres to the great principles of Heaven, your heart aligned with the sacred tortoise, receiving the divine mandate, foreseeing success and failure, and responding to omens. This is what it means to be in harmony with Heaven. The ruler in harmony with Heaven can influence the weather with thought, affect animals with speech, and achieve growth with action. When I read the imperial edict, I privately calculated the timing: just as Your Majesty’s sacred thoughts began to manifest, the rebels were defeated; as the edict was issued, the rebels suffered great losses; as the decree was announced, the rebels were utterly destroyed, even before our forces had fully united. Before I could offer my humble insights, the matter was already resolved.” Wang Mang greatly praised this.
In the third year of the Regency, an earthquake occurred in spring. Wang Mang declared a general amnesty across the empire.
Wang Yi and others returned to the capital. In the west, they joined forces with Wang Ji and others to attack Zhao Ming and Huo Hong, ultimately defeating them. (Details can be found in the *Biography of Zhai Yi*.) Wang Mang held a banquet in the White Tiger Hall of Weiyang Palace to reward and commend the generals and commanders. He issued an edict assigning Chen Chong to oversee the evaluation of military achievements and rank them accordingly. Wang Mang then submitted a memorial: “In the enlightened ages of the past, the state was filled with virtuous individuals. Thus, during the times of Tang and Yu, houses could be granted as fiefs, and rewards were given when achievements were completed. At the assembly of Tushan during the Xia dynasty, envoys from ten thousand states presented jade and silk; feudal lords offered jade, and vassals offered silk. On the banks of Mengjin during the Zhou dynasty, there were 800 feudal lords. The Duke of Zhou, acting as regent, performed sacrifices to Hou Ji in the suburbs to align with Heaven and worshipped King Wen in the Bright Hall to align with the Supreme Deity. Thus, all within the four seas fulfilled their roles in the sacrifices, numbering 1,800 feudal lords. The *Rites of Zhou* records a system of 1,700 states, and Confucius wrote in the *Classic of Filial Piety*: ‘One must not overlook the ministers of small states, let alone the dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons.’ Thus, the Son of Heaven won the hearts of ten thousand states and served his ancestors. This is the filial piety of the Son of Heaven. The Qin dynasty, following a path of destruction, eradicated the feudal lords and converted their territories into commanderies and counties, seeking to monopolize the benefits of the empire. As a result, it fell within two generations. Emperor Gao received the mandate, restored what had been destroyed, and rewarded merit, establishing hundreds of states. However, over time, these dwindled, leaving only a few. The Grand Empress Dowager personally oversaw the governance of the state, widely granting titles to encourage virtue and restoring extinct lineages to ensure their continuation. Thus, great reforms were achieved in a short period. When the Qiang rebels invaded Xihai Commandery, and the traitors spread rumors in Dong Commandery, loyal ministers and filial sons were all outraged. The campaigns against these rebels have now been successfully concluded, and the Son of Heaven is at peace. At present, as we establish rites and music, we should examine the ranks of the Zhou dynasty: five levels of nobility and four grades of land, clearly documented. The Yin dynasty had three ranks, which are discussed but not fully recorded. Confucius said, ‘The Zhou dynasty drew lessons from the two previous dynasties, and its culture flourished. I follow the Zhou.’ I propose that the generals and commanders who are to receive titles and fiefs be granted the five ranks of nobility and four grades of land.” The proposal was approved. Thus, the highest-ranking individuals were titled as marquises or earls, followed by viscounts and barons. Those prepared to be granted the title of Marquis Within the Pass were renamed as Attached City Lords, numbering several hundred. Those who fought in Xihai were given the designation “Qiang,” those in Huaili were named “Wu,” and those against Zhai Yi were called “Lu.”
The court officials submitted another memorial: “The Empress Dowager has recorded merits and virtues, recognizing achievements from both ancient times and the present. Some are honored with civil titles, others with military ranks, with varying levels of distinction. Now that the Regent Emperor has assumed the throne, his status should differ from when he governed as a minister. Although the ceremonial system is not yet complete, we propose elevating his two sons to the rank of duke. The *Spring and Autumn Annals* states: ‘Goodness should extend to one’s descendants,’ and ‘The descendants of the virtuous should possess land.’ King Cheng of Zhou generously enfeoffed the six sons of the Duke of Zhou, granting them territories. Similarly, the renowned chancellors and generals of the Han dynasty, such as Xiao and Huo, saw their collateral branches honored. Therefore, we propose first enfeoffing the Regent Emperor’s nephew Guang as a marquis. Once the system is complete, the Grand Minister over the Masses and the Grand Minister of Works should submit their names as per the previous edict.” The Empress Dowager issued an edict: “Elevate the Regent Emperor’s son, Marquis of Baoxin, An, to Duke of Xinjv; reward the Marquis of Shangdu, Lin, by elevating him to Duke of Baoxin; and enfeoff Guang as Marquis of Yanggong.” At this time, Wang Mang returned to the state of Xindu. The court officials submitted another memorial to enfeoff Wang Mang’s grandson Zong as Marquis of Xindu. Having defeated Zhai Yi, Wang Mang believed his power and virtue were at their peak, supported by both Heaven and man, and thus began planning his ascension to the throne.
In September, Wang Mang’s mother, Lady Gongxian, passed away. Wang Mang showed no signs of grief and instructed the Empress Dowager to issue an edict to discuss the mourning rites. Shao’a, Xihe Liu Xin, and 78 scholars, including the Erudites, collectively stated:
“The principle of regency lies in upholding the divine mandate, elevating the imperial way, establishing laws and systems, and pacifying the realm. In the past, when King Tang of Shang passed away, his crown prince died young, and his grandson Tai Jia was too young and inexperienced. Yi Yin placed Tai Jia in the Tong Palace and assumed the regency to revive the Shang dynasty. Similarly, after King Wu of Zhou passed away, the Zhou dynasty was not yet firmly established, and King Cheng was still a child. The Duke of Zhou secluded King Cheng and assumed the regency to complete the Zhou dynasty’s governance. Thus, the Shang dynasty achieved transformative order, and the Zhou dynasty accomplished great merit.
Now, the Grand Empress Dowager has faced misfortune within her family and entrusted the Duke of An Han with the administration of the court, balancing the empire. With the Young Lord being too young to govern, Heaven bestowed auspicious omens, revealing the red jade stone as a divine sign. Therefore, the Grand Empress Dowager, following the will of Heaven, decreed that the Duke of An Han act as regent and ascend the throne to establish the sacred legacy of the Han dynasty, comparable to the glory of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. The Regent Emperor then opened the secret archives, gathered scholars, formulated rites and music, finalized the bureaucratic system, and completed the heavenly mandate. His sacred wisdom is comprehensive and unparalleled, reviving the *Rites of Zhou* to illuminate the past, examining antiquity to make adjustments, akin to Confucius hearing the *Shao* music, which is as unattainable as the sun and moon. Without a sage, who could achieve this? The governance structure has been fully established, resulting in the preservation of the sacred Han dynasty and the pacification of the people.
Now that Lady Gongxian has passed away, the rites state: ‘When a prince is succeeded by a collateral son, the mother mourns for him.’ The *Commentary* says: ‘One who shares the body with the sovereign must not mourn for private relatives.’ The Regent Emperor, with his sacred virtue, has received the mandate of Heaven and the decree of the Empress Dowager to act as regent and ascend the throne. He bears the heavy responsibility of the state, with the heavens and ancestral altars above and the concerns of the people below, leaving him unable to attend to private family matters. Therefore, the Grand Empress Dowager has established her great-grandson, the Marquis of Xindu, as the heir to Lady Gongxian, naming him Marquis Ai. This demonstrates that the Regent Emperor shares the body with the sovereign, performing sacrifices for the ancestral temples and caring for the Grand Empress Dowager, making it inappropriate for him to mourn private relatives.
The *Rites of Zhou* states: ‘The king wears mourning for the feudal lords in coarse hemp cloth with a hemp cap.’ For relatives of the same surname, hemp is worn; for different surnames, kudzu is used. The Regent Emperor should wear coarse hemp mourning for Lady Gongxian, with a hemp cap and white sash, akin to the mourning attire of a Son of Heaven for feudal lords, in accordance with the sacred system.” Wang Mang followed this advice, performing one condolence visit and two mourning ceremonies. He appointed Marquis Zong of Xindu as the chief mourner, who observed mourning rites for three years.
Surveillance Officer Chen Chong submitted a report stating that Marquis Guang of Yangong privately instructed Dou Kuang, Commander of the Imperial Guards, to commit murder. Dou Kuang was detained and subjected to legal punishment. Wang Mang was enraged and severely reprimanded Guang. Guang’s mother said to him, “Do you think you are more important than the eldest and second grandsons?” Consequently, both mother and son chose to commit suicide, and Dou Kuang also died shortly after. Initially, Wang Mang had acted under the guise of caring for his mother, supporting his sister-in-law, and looking after his brothers, but later he became ruthless, using such acts to demonstrate his sense of justice. Guang’s son Jia inherited the marquisate.
Wang Mang issued a decree stating: “The principle of the *Rites of Zhou* dictates that in the final month of winter, sacrifices are performed in the suburbs, and the eight tones of music should be played. Among kings, dukes, ministers, and officials, how should musical instruments be allocated according to their rank? What are the classifications of the five sounds and eight tones? I request that you, along with the scholars under your jurisdiction, exhaustively explain these principles in detail.”
That year, Liu Jing, Marquis of Guangrao; Huyan, a general of the chariots and cavalry; and Zang Hong, an official of the Grand Protectorate, submitted reports regarding divine omens. Liu Jing reported the discovery of a new well in Qi Commandery; Huyan reported a stone ox in Ba Commandery; and Zang Hong reported a stone in Fufeng Commandery. Wang Mang accepted all these reports. On the 1st day of the 11th month, Wang Mang submitted a memorial to the Empress Dowager: “Your Majesty, in your supreme wisdom, has endured family misfortune and witnessed the end of the Han dynasty’s twelve generations and thirty-seven reigns. Receiving the mandate of Heaven, you entrusted me, Wang Mang, to act as regent and manage the affairs of the empire on behalf of the Young Lord. I have been diligent and fearful of failing in my duties.
Liu Jing, Marquis of Guangrao, submitted a report stating: ‘In mid-July, Xin, the head of Changxing Pavilion in Linzi County of Qi Commandery, dreamt at night of a messenger from Heaven who said: “I am a divine envoy. Heaven has decreed that the Regent Emperor is the rightful ruler.” The pavilion head did not believe him, but a new well indeed appeared in the pavilion.’ The pavilion head verified this the next morning and found a well 100 feet deep.
On the winter solstice in the 11th month, reports of the stone ox from Ba Commandery and the stone from Fufeng Commandery were delivered to the front hall of Weiyang Palace. I, along with the Grand Protector, Marquis Shun of Anyang, and others, examined the objects. A celestial wind arose, stirring up dust, and after the wind subsided, a bronze talisman and silk scroll were found before the stone. The inscription read: ‘Heaven bestows the imperial talisman; those who present it shall be ennobled. Accept the mandate of Heaven and act according to divine command.’ Cavalry Commandant Cui Fa and others witnessed this. Reflecting on Emperor Ai’s decree in the 2nd year of Jianping, which changed the reign title to the 1st year of Taichu Yuanjiang, I reviewed the records in the Orchid Pavilion archives. The satirical writings of Gan Zhongke and Xia Heliang were also preserved there. I believe the reign title *Yuanjiang* referred to the regency of a grand general, which aligns with the current situation.
The *Kang Gao* chapter of the *Book of Documents* states: ‘The king said: “My uncle, Marquis Meng, my younger brother, Xiaozi Feng.”’ This is precisely the language used by the Duke of Zhou during his regency. The *Spring and Autumn Annals* does not explicitly mention Duke Yin’s ascension, yet it was a regency. These two classics, established by the Duke of Zhou and Confucius, serve as models for later generations. Confucius said: ‘Revere the mandate of Heaven, respect great men, and heed the words of sages.’ How could I, Wang Mang, dare to disobey? I request that we jointly serve the gods and ancestral temples, and that the Grand Empress Dowager and Empress Xiaoping be referred to as the Provisional Empresses. In decrees to the empire, it shall no longer be stated that I am acting as regent. Let the 3rd year of the Regency be renamed as the 1st year of the New Beginning. The water clock shall be adjusted to 120 beats per day to align with the mandate of Heaven. I shall continue to nurture and educate the Young Lord, guiding him to emulate King Cheng of Zhou, and proclaim the virtues of the Grand Empress Dowager to all corners of the realm. When the Young Lord reaches maturity and assumes the throne, it will follow the precedent of the Duke of Zhou.” This proposal was approved.
The people came to understand that Wang Mang had received the divine mandate. The officials widely discussed and submitted further proposals to observe the gradual realization of his legitimacy.
Meanwhile, Zhang Chong and five other guards conspired to abduct Wang Mang and install the King of Chu as emperor. The plot was discovered, and they were all executed.
Ai Zhang, a man from Zitong, was a scholar in Chang’an who had no moral integrity and was known for boasting. Upon seeing Wang Mang’s regency, he crafted a bronze box with two compartments. One was labeled “Seal of the Celestial Emperor and the Gold Box Diagram,” and the other was labeled “Seal of the Red Emperor and the Gold Records Passed to the Yellow Emperor.” The “Red Emperor” referred to Emperor Gaozu of Han. The inscriptions declared that Wang Mang was the true Son of Heaven, and the Empress Dowager acted according to the will of Heaven. The diagrams listed Wang Mang’s eight ministers and included the names of Wang Xing and Wang Sheng. Ai Zhang even changed his own name and appointed himself and ten others as officials to support Wang Mang.
After hearing about the new well in Qi and the stone ox, Ai Zhang donned yellow robes, holding the bronze box, and presented it at the High Temple, delivering it to the Supervisor. The Supervisor reported the matter. On the day Wuchen, Wang Mang went to the High Temple to receive the divine decree from the gold box. Wearing the imperial crown, he paid homage to the Empress Dowager and returned to the front hall of Weiyang Palace to issue a decree:
“I, lacking virtue, am entrusted as a descendant of Emperor Huang, progeny of Emperor Shun, and a distant relative of the Grand Empress Dowager. The Supreme Heaven has bestowed its great favor, issuing a mandate to unify the realm. The talismans, diagrams, and inscriptions in the gold box are divine decrees, entrusting me with the empire and its people. The spirit of Emperor Gaozu of Han, the Red Emperor, has received Heaven’s mandate and passed down the golden records to the nation. I am deeply reverent and dare not refuse. On the day Wuchen, I shall don the imperial crown and formally ascend as the true Son of Heaven, establishing the name of the empire as ‘Xin.’
The calendar shall be reformed, the colors of attire shall be changed, sacrificial animals shall be altered, banners and insignias shall be redesigned, and ceremonial objects shall be modified. The 1st day of the 12th month, marked by the day Guiyou, shall be the beginning of the founding year of the Xin dynasty, with the first month starting anew. The time of day shall be marked by the crowing of roosters. Attire shall be yellow to correspond with virtue, sacrificial animals shall be white to signify correctness, and the flags and banners of envoys shall be pure yellow. Their titles shall be inscribed as ‘Envoys of the Five Powers of Xin,’ bearing the mandate of the Supreme Heaven.”
