Zhang Qian, a native of Hanzhong, was a low-ranking official during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han. At that time, some Xiongnu who'd switched sides said that the Xiongnu had defeated the Yuezhi kingdom and even used the Yuezhi king's skull as a drinking cup! The Yuezhi people fled and held a grudge but could not find an opportunity for revenge. The Han were gunning for the Xiongnu, and upon hearing this, they wanted to send envoys to contact the Yuezhi. However, the route to the Yuezhi required passing through Xiongnu territory, so the court was looking for someone up to the job. Zhang Qian, as a low-ranking official, stepped up and headed for Yuezhi with a slave named Ganfu from Longxi. They traveled directly through Xiongnu territory and were captured by the Xiongnu, and they were marched straight to the Chanyu. The Chanyu asked Zhang Qian, "The Yuezhi are north of us. What makes the Han think they can send envoys? And if I sent envoys to the Han, do you think they'd let them in?" So Zhang Qian was stuck with the Xiongnu for over a decade. The Chanyu even gave him a wife, and they had kids. But Zhang Qian never gave up his Han envoy's seal.
To the west of the Xiongnu, Zhang Qian took the opportunity to escape from the Xiongnu with his followers and headed to the Yuezhi. After walking west for weeks, they arrived at the Da Wan country. Da Wan had heard tales of the Han Dynasty's immense wealth and had always wanted to trade with them, but had no opportunity. They were very happy to see Zhang Qian and asked him where he wanted to go. Zhang Qian said, "I was sent by the Han Dynasty to contact the Yuezhi, but the Xiongnu blocked my way. Now that I have escaped, I hope the king can send someone to take me there. If I can successfully reach the Yuezhi and return to the Han Dynasty, the Han Dynasty will definitely give the king a fortune beyond measure as a reward." Da Wan thought Zhang Qian made sense, so they provided him with an escort and translator all the way to Kangju. Kangju then transferred Zhang Qian to the Great Yuezhi. However, the king of the Great Yuezhi had already been killed by the Xiongnu, and his queen inherited the throne. The Great Yuezhi were subjects of the Great Xia, which had fertile land, few thieves, and happy people. They figured they were too far from the Han to even bother with revenge on the Xiongnu. Zhang Qian traveled from the Yuezhi to the Great Xia, but ultimately failed to complete the task of contacting the Yuezhi.
After more than a year there, Zhang Qian prepared to return home. He followed the southern mountains, hoping to sneak back to the Han through Qiang territory, but was caught by the Xiongnu again. He was detained by the Xiongnu for another year until the Chanyu kicked the bucket and the Xiongnu were in chaos. Zhang Qian then escaped back to the Han Dynasty with his Xiongnu wife and Ganfu. The Han Emperor made Zhang Qian a high-ranking official, and Ganfu was appointed as an envoy.
Zhang Qian was strong, generous, trustworthy, and beloved by various ethnic groups. Ganfu, a Xiongnu, was a crack shot, and in times of food shortage, he was always able to hunt birds and beasts to solve the food problem. Of the hundred-plus men who set out with him thirteen years earlier, only he and Ganfu returned.
Zhang Qian went to places like Dawan, Dayuezhi, Daxia, and Kangju. He'd heard tell of about five or six other big countries in the area. He gave Emperor Wu of Han the lowdown on all these countries, their geography, and their goods, and these details were recorded in the "Records of the Western Regions."
Zhang Qian said, "When I was in Daxia, I saw bamboo staffs and Shu cloth and asked, 'Where do these things come from?' The people of Daxia replied, 'Our merchants trade and buy them from the country of Shendu. Shendu is located to the southeast of Daxia, maybe a few thousand miles away. It was pretty similar to Daxia, same kind of soil and all, but low-lying and swampy, hot and sticky. They fought their battles on elephants, and their country is near a great river.'" From what he'd learned, Zhang Qian reckoned, "Daxia was twelve thousand miles southwest of the Han Dynasty. Shendu is now several thousand miles to the southeast of Daxia and has products from Shu, which means Shendu is not far from Shu. If you went from Daxia, you'd have to pass through the territory of the Qiang people, a dangerous route through Qiang territory, where the Qiang were fierce. If you went slightly north, you'd be captured by the Xiongnu. But going from Shu, the journey would be relatively flat and without bandits."
The Emperor heard Dawan, Daxia, and Anxi were big players, rich in treasures, with customs much like the Central Plains. Their armies were weak, though, and they craved Han wealth. To their north were countries like Dayuezhi and Kangju, with strong military power that could be bribed with wealth to make them submit. If we could win them over fairly, we'd add thousands of miles to our empire, open nine new trade routes, connect different cultures, and spread Han power far and wide.
The emperor was very pleased and thought Zhang Qian was right on the money. He then ordered Zhang Qian to set out from Jianwei County in Shu and dispatched four separate missions simultaneously: one mission from the Maodun region, one from the Yutian region, one from the Xidu and Qiongdu regions, and one from the Bodu region, with each team traveling about one to two thousand li. The north was blocked by the Di and Yuezhi tribes, while the south was blocked by the Gui and Kunming tribes. The people in the Kunming area had no fixed leaders, often committing robbery and frequently killing envoys from the Han Dynasty, so they had never managed to open a road there. However, it was said that more than a thousand li west of Kunming, there was an elephant-riding kingdom called Dianyue, where merchants from Shu sometimes sold their goods. Therefore, in order to find a route to Dian, the Han Dynasty began to build the Great Fudao (Great Road). Previously, the Han Dynasty had wanted to open the road to the Southwest Yi, but the cost was too high, so it was abandoned. It was not until Zhang Qian suggested that they could go from Daxia to the Southwest Yi that the Han Dynasty began to pay attention to the Southwest Yi region.
Zhang Qian was originally a military officer, following the general to fight the Xiongnu. He was a master of logistics, ensuring the army always had food and water. Because of this, the emperor appointed him as Marquis of Bowang in the sixth year of Yuanshuo.
Two years later, Zhang Qian became the guard commander and, together with Li Guang, set out from Youbeiping to fight the Xiongnu. As a result, the Xiongnu surrounded General Li Guang, and his army suffered heavy losses. Zhang Qian arrived late and was supposed to be executed according to the law, but later he paid a ransom and became a commoner. It was also that year that the General of Chariots and Cavalry defeated the Xiongnu in the west, killing many and advancing to the Qilian Mountains. In the autumn, the Huns surrendered to the Han Dynasty with their followers. From then on, from Jincheng and Hexi to Nanshan and Yanzhe, the Xiongnu disappeared without a trace. Although occasional scouts from the Xiongnu still came, they were very rare.
Two years later, the Han army drove away the Chanyu and pushed all the way to the north of the desert.
The emperor asked Zhang Qian several times what was going on in Daxia and the other countries. Since he'd been stripped of his marquisate, Zhang Qian said, "While I was among the Xiongnu, I heard that the King of Wusun was called Kunmo. Kunmo's dad, Nan Doumi, was originally from a small kingdom in the Qilian Mountains and Dunhuang area, sharing the land with the Great Yuezhi. Later, the Great Yuezhi attacked, killed Kunmo's father, and everyone scarpered to the Xiongnu. Kunmo was just born at that time; his wet nurse grabbed him and hid him in the bushes. She went out for food, and when she returned, there were wolves feeding him, and crows bringing him meat. It was seen as a miracle, so they took Kunmo back to the Xiongnu. The Chanyu took a shine to him and raised him. When Kunmo grew up, the Chanyu gave him his father's army, and he quickly proved himself a brilliant commander. The Xiongnu had already beaten the Great Yuezhi, who then attacked the Sai King. The Sai King fled south, leaving his territory for the Great Yuezhi to seize. Kunmo was a force to be reckoned with and demanded the Chanyu avenge him. He attacked the Great Yuezhi and smashed them. The Great Yuezhi fled west, eventually reaching Daxia. Kunmo crushed the Great Yuezhi army and set up his own kingdom, growing ever stronger. After the Chanyu died, Kunmo stopped paying tribute. The Xiongnu attacked, but were defeated, and thereafter saw Kunmo as some kind of god, leaving him alone. The Han are kicking the Chanyu's butt, and Kunmo's kingdom is ripe for the taking. These barbarians miss their old homes and are greedy for Han riches. We should use a big bribe to lure the Wusun back, send a princess to marry him, and forge a brotherhood – they'll jump at the chance. That'll cripple the Xiongnu! With the Wusun on our side, Daxia and the rest will fall into line."
The emperor thought Zhang Qian made sense, so he appointed him as a general, gave him three hundred soldiers, two horses each, tens of thousands of head of livestock, and millions of dollars worth of gold, silk, and other treasures. Many delegates were also sent along to help him connect with other countries along the way. After arriving at Wusun, Zhang Qian informed the king of Wusun of the rewards and intentions of the Han Dynasty, but did not immediately receive a response. The specific details are recorded in the historical records. Zhang Qian then sent emissaries separately to Da Yuan, Kangju, Yuezhi, and Daxia. Wusun sent guides and escorts, including dozens of people and horses, to accompany Zhang Qian. Zhang Qian expressed his gratitude to Wusun and took this opportunity to give the Wusun people a chance to see just how powerful the Han Dynasty was.
Upon his return, Zhang Qian was appointed as a Grand Commandant. More than a year later, Zhang Qian passed away. After another year, the emissaries he had sent out, those who contacted countries like Daxia, gradually returned, and trade between the countries in the northwest and the Han Dynasty began. However, Zhang Qian was the first to open this route, and later envoys claimed to be his successors, which helped them gain the trust of foreign nations. Eventually, Wusun and the Han Dynasty formed a marriage alliance.
At the beginning, the emperor looked up a passage in the *I Ching* and saw, "A heavenly steed will arrive from the northwest." He acquired some top-notch steeds from the Wusun tribe and named one of them "Celestial Steed." Later, when he received the famed sweat-blooded horses from the Wanguo kingdom, the emperor was even more delighted. He renamed the Wusun horses "West End Stallions" and the Wanguo horses "Celestial Steeds." The Han Dynasty began constructing cities and establishing the Jiuquan prefecture west of Lingju to maintain contact with countries in the northwest. Inspired by the *I Ching*'s prediction, the Han sent envoys all over the place—Anxi, Yanchai, Meijian, Tiaozhi, and Shendu. The emperor particularly favored the horses from Wanguo, leading to a constant flow of envoys. The size of the missions varied, with some consisting of hundreds of people while others had over a hundred. They brought just as many gifts as Bo had. Over time, the frequency of these missions decreased. The Han Dynasty dispatched ten or more envoy groups a year, with some trips taking eight or nine years, others just a few. By this time, the Han Dynasty had already conquered the Yue kingdom. Along the route from Shu to the southwestern barbarian tribes, all these tribes got scared and asked the Han to run things. Consequently, the Han Dynasty set up a bunch of new counties—Xiangke, Yuexi, Yizhou, Shenli, and Wenshan—in order to connect these regions and open up a route to Daxia. Each year, more than ten batches of envoys were sent out from these newly established counties. But the Kunming ambushed and killed them all, stealing everything. In response, the Han Dynasty launched an attack on Kunming, killing tens of thousands of enemy soldiers. Despite subsequent envoy missions, the route was never successfully opened. Check out the *Records of the Southern Barbarians* for more info.
So, after Zhang Qian opened up the Western Regions passage, the Han Dynasty got all high and mighty. Officials and soldiers were all scrambling to write reports, some singing its praises, others warning of trouble, all wanting to be sent to the Western Regions. The Emperor figured it was a long shot, but he said okay, giving them official papers and rounding up anyone who'd go – the more the merrier!
However, these envoys often stole stuff and even got lost, unable to find their way home. The Emperor was used to it by now. He'd whack 'em good, make 'em pay, and then they'd beg to go back again. It became a never-ending game, and these envoys often broke the law. The soldiers and officials got in on the act, too, puffing up the riches of the Western Regions. The biggest blowhards got the top jobs, and the rest were stuck as assistants.
These guys were also swiping stuff from the county offices, planning to sell it on the cheap. The Western Regions were fed up. They figured the Han envoys were all hot air, and the army was too far away to help, so they started cutting off supplies to make life miserable for them. The Han envoys were starving and freezing, griping and fighting amongst themselves. Little countries like Loulan and Kucha, controlling the main roads, were constantly robbing them. Even Wang Hui and his crew got hit. And the Xiongnu were always ambushing them.
Word reached the emperor that although the various countries in the Western Regions had cities, their military forces were weak and easy to attack. So the emperor dispatched Qianghou Pono to lead a massive army, numbering in the tens of thousands, to attack the Xiongnu, who were all driven away. The following year, the Han army again conquered Gushi and captured the king of Loulan. Starting from Jiuquan, they built checkpoints and waystations all the way to Yumen Pass.
At this time, countries in the Western Regions, such as Dawan, sent envoys to Chang'an alongside the Han envoys. After witnessing the might of the Han Dynasty, they showered him with gifts—giant bird eggs and yak-hair cloth, the like of which he'd never seen! The Han envoys also explored the source of the Yellow River, where they found many jade stones on the mountains and brought them back to offer to the emperor. The emperor consulted ancient books and named the mountain where the Yellow River originated as Kunlun Mountain.
During that time, the emperor often went on sea voyages and summoned all foreign envoys, sometimes exceeding thousands of people. The emperor generously rewarded them, treated them to a feast, and allowed them to see the prosperity of the Han Dynasty. The Dajiao Di people performed unique acrobatics and various strange entertainments, attracting many viewers, and the emperor also rewarded them. The foreign envoys visited the famous warehouses and treasuries of the Han Dynasty, wanting to show off the Han's awesome wealth and power, and scare the pants off them in the process. The emperor also increased investment in these acrobatic performances, and the Dajiao Di's amazing shows got better and better each year, starting then. Foreign envoys continued to come and go in large numbers. However, the countries west of Dawan, relying on their distance from the Han Dynasty, remained arrogant and unruly, refusing to play by the rules.
So, there was this time when our country sent many messengers to the country of Da Yuan, but those messengers brought few troops, which could not compare to the soldiers sent by the emperor. They said there was a place called Ershi City in Da Yuan, where there were good horses, but the people of Da Yuan hid them and refused to show them to the Han envoys. The emperor especially liked the horses of Da Yuan. When he heard about this, he itched to get his hands on them and sent a tough guy named Cheling with a lot of gold and a golden horse to ask the king of Da Yuan to send the good horses from Ershi City.
Da Yuan produced many things that the Han Dynasty needed. They secretly discussed, "The Han Dynasty is far away from us, and the salty road often costs the Han army dearly. Going north, there are Xiongnu robbers; going south, there's a lack of water and grass, and the roads are often cut, resulting in many people starving to death. Every time the Han envoys come, there are only a few hundred people, and more than half starved to death. How could they bring a large army? Moreover, the good horses from Ershi City are the best horses in Da Yuan!" So they refused to give the horses to the Han envoys. In a fit of anger, the Han envoys blew up, smashed the golden horse, and stormed off. When the nobles of Da Yuan heard this, they were livid and said, "The Han envoys insulted us!" So they drove away the Han envoys and had King Yucheng lead troops to intercept and kill them, seizing their belongings.
This made the emperor even angrier. Yao Ding and Han, who had been to Da Yuan before, told the emperor, "Da Yuan's military was a pushover. As long as we send a team of three thousand people and pepper them with crossbow bolts, we can defeat Da Yuan!" The emperor remembered when he sent Marquis Juye to attack Loulan before, only bringing seven hundred cavalry and still arriving first, capturing the King of Loulan, and figured they were right. Furthermore, the emperor had it in for the Lis, so he sent Li Guangli as the general to attack Da Yuan.
Qian Sunmeng, also known as Ziyu, was a very talented individual. But before we get to Li Guangli's disastrous campaign, here's a quick story about another court official. During the reign of Emperor Yuan of Han, he served as a high-ranking official and was sent as an envoy to the Xiongnu, serving in the court. Unfortunately, he was later framed by Shi Xian and ended up committing suicide.
Li Guangli's sister, Lady Li, was greatly favored by the emperor and gave birth to the Prince of Changyi. In 138 BC, the emperor appointed Li Guangli as the General of the Second Division, leading six thousand cavalry from vassal states and a rabble of conscripts from various counties on a campaign to reach Ershi to acquire good horses, hence the title "General of the Second Division." At that time, the veteran Wang Hui served as the vanguard. After crossing the Yanshui River to the west, the small countries along the way fortified themselves and refused to provide provisions, making it difficult for the army to conquer them. Conquered towns provided food; otherwise, the army moved on after a few days. By the time they reached Yucheng, the army was reduced to only a few thousand men, all hungry and exhausted. They attacked Yucheng, but the city put up a strong resistance, costing the Han army dearly. Li Guangli and his subordinates discussed and decided, "If we can't even capture Yucheng, then there's no way we can attack their capital!" So they retreated.
This expedition lasted two years, and when they returned to Dunhuang, only one-tenth of the soldiers remained. Li Guangli sent a letter to the emperor, stating, "The journey was long, food supplies were severely lacking, and the soldiers are not afraid of battle but of hunger. With such a small force, we are not able to conquer the Wang state. I suggest temporarily halting the war, recruiting more soldiers, and then resuming the expedition." The emperor was furious upon hearing this and ordered the blockade of the Yumen Pass, decreeing, "Anyone trying to get through that pass is dead!" Fearing the consequences, Li Guangli had no choice but to remain stationed in Dunhuang.
That summer, the Han army lost more than 20,000 soldiers to the Xiongnu in Zhuoye. Court ministers urged abandoning the plan to attack Wanguo and focusing on striking the Xiongnu. However, the emperor had already made up his mind to attack Wanguo. Failure to take even small Wanguo would lead the vassal states of Da Xia to look down on the Han dynasty. We would lose access to Wanguo's superior horses, and the Wusun and Luntai would make it even more difficult for the Han envoys, undermining Han prestige. So, the emperor reviewed memorials opposing the Wanguo campaign, including the opinions of Deng Guang and others. The emperor pardoned a batch of convicts and bandits, and recruited young offenders and border troopers. More than a year later, a 60,000-strong army marched from Dunhuang for the expedition, excluding those soldiers who brought their families. The expedition was massively supplied: 100,000 cattle, 30,000 horses, and tens of thousands of donkeys and camels carried the provisions. Ample weaponry and supplies were also available.
The entire nation mobilized for the Wanguo campaign, with over fifty colonels involved. Wanguo's lack of city wells prompted the Han to send water experts to find a way to dig out water sources under the city to break through Wanguo. The Han reinforced their garrisons in northern Jiuquan and Zhangye with 180,000 troops and established defenses at Juyan and Xiutu to safeguard Jiuquan. At the same time, seven types of grain were gathered from all over the country, along with various dry rations supplied to the commander of the Second Army. A constant stream of supply carts and personnel arrived in Dunhuang. The emperor appointed two expert horsemasters as Chief Remount Officers to select the best horses from Wanguo after its conquest.
So, General Er Shi goes to war again. This time, he led a massive army, and the small countries along the way rolled out the red carpet, even supplying food. From there, they headed west to Wancheng, where the city wouldn't budge, and the Han army attacked for several days before finally capturing it. Westward to Wancheng they marched, with a remaining force of thirty thousand. The Wancheng defenders charged out, only to be cut down by a hail of Han arrows, and they retreated back into the city.
General Er Shi originally planned to attack Yucheng but feared that a long march would make Wancheng seem more formidable, so he attacked Wancheng first. He cut Wancheng's water supply and diverted the river, starving the city of water. The Han army surrounded Wancheng and attacked for over forty days. The outer walls of Wancheng were breached, and the nobles and brave generals of Wancheng were captured. Panic gripped Wancheng, and everyone scrambled into the inner city. They discussed together and said, "This is all Wuguai's fault!" A nobleman suggested, "Wuguai's got some sweet horses, and he even offed a Han envoy. Now, if we kill Wuguai and offer the good horses to the Han army, they might withdraw; if not, we’ll fight to the death—it's not too late."
Everyone thought this was a good idea, so they ganged up on Wuguai and killed him, sending his head to General Er Shi. They sent someone to negotiate with him, saying, "If you leave us alone, you can have all our best horses, and we'll feed your army. If you don’t agree, we’ll kill all the good horses and wait for the Kangju reinforcements. By then, we’ll defend the inner city while the Kangju army defends the outer city, fighting the Han army together. So, what's it gonna be?" At that time, the Kangju army saw the Han force and decided against attacking.
General Ershi heard that the newly arrived Han in Wancheng were skilled well-diggers, and there was also plenty of food in the city. He analyzed that there were many people coming to attack Wu Guai, and now Wu Guai's head had been delivered. If they refused, they'd fight to the death, and once the Kangju arrived, the Han army would be routed. The officers all agreed that General Ershi's analysis was correct, so they agreed to Wancheng's request. Wancheng offered horses and plenty of food for the Han army to choose from. The Han army selected dozens of good horses, as well as over three thousand medium horses and mares. They installed Mei Cai, a Wancheng nobleman with a history of friendly relations with the Han, as the new Wancheng king, formed an alliance with him, and withdrew their troops. In the end, the Han army failed to break into the inner city of Wancheng.
General Ershi's westward campaign from Yumen Pass began with a large army, but the long distances and supply shortages forced a split into northern and southern columns. Captain Wang Sheng and former Honglu Temple official Hu Chongguo, leading over a thousand men, took a different route to Yucheng. However, the defenders of Yucheng refused to provide food. Two hundred miles from the main force, Wang Sheng rashly attacked Yucheng, underestimating the enemy. Seeing Wang Sheng's small force, Yucheng launched a dawn attack of three thousand men, wiping out all but a handful who escaped to warn General Ershi.
General Er ordered Shangguan Jie, the commander of the grain transport unit, to lead troops to attack Yucheng. They took Yucheng, and the King of Yucheng scarpered to Kangju. Shangguan Jie hot-footed it after him, catching up with him in Kangju. When Kangju heard the Han had taken Wancheng, they handed over the Yucheng king to Shangguan Jie. Shangguan Jie ordered four cavalry soldiers to bind the King of Yucheng and escort him back to the Grand General. The four cavalry soldiers secretly discussed, "That Yucheng king was a real pain in the neck for the Han. If anything happens on the way back, it will be a disaster." They all wanted him dead, but nobody wanted to be the one to do it. In the end, Zhao Dibai, a cavalryman from Shanggui, drew his sword and cut off the King of Yucheng's head. Shangguan Jie and his men continued on their way and caught up with the Grand General.
On the way back, General Er got word from the Emperor to tell the Wusun to attack Dawan. Wusun only sent two thousand cavalry troops, being really wishy-washy and wouldn't commit. When the smaller kingdoms heard Dawan had fallen, they sent princes and ministers to kowtow to the Emperor and offer themselves as hostages. Tens of thousands of soldiers and thousands of horses marched through Yumen Pass on the return journey. They didn't go hungry on the way back, and battle casualties were light. But the officers were a bunch of crooks, didn't care about the troops, and pocketed their pay and supplies. That's what killed most of 'em.
The emperor, for this long campaign, did not investigate their responsibilities. The edict declared: "The Xiongnu have been causing trouble for us for a long time. Although they have now moved to the north of the desert, they conspire with surrounding countries to cut off our connection with the Dayuezhi. They have also killed Jiang, the General, Rang, the governor of Yanmen Governorate, and all the envoys from areas west of Wusun in the Western Regions. They even killed Qimen, the envoy, Chao, the Colonel, and the envoys from Shendu, blocking the two roads to the east and west. General Guangli of the Second Army punished their crimes and defeated the Dayuezhi. Fortunately, we traveled up the river, crossed mountains, passed through deserts, and reached the Western Sea. There was not much snow on the mountains along the way, and the soldiers passed smoothly. We captured the king of the Dayuezhi, and all kinds of precious treasures were displayed in the palace. Therefore, Guangli was appointed as the Marquis of Haixi with a fief of eight thousand households." Those who killed the younger brother of King Yucheng were appointed as the Marquis of Xinzhi; Zhao Shi, the military officer, was appointed as the Grand Master for his outstanding military achievements; Shangguan Jie, for daring to penetrate deep into enemy territory, was appointed as the Master of the Palace; Li Duo, for his strategies, was appointed as the Prefect of Shangdang. In this expedition, three military leaders and officials were appointed as the Nine Ministers, more than one hundred people were appointed as princes, governors, and officials of high rank, and more than one thousand people below that rank. Those who fought bravely were promoted beyond their expectations, while those who made mistakes were relieved of their merits. Each soldier was rewarded with forty thousand coins. It took a total of four years to end the attack on the Dayuezhi. Eleven years later, during the third year of Emperor Xuan of Han's reign, General Guangli led seventy thousand cavalry from Wuyuan to attack the Xiongnu, crossing the Zhiju River. The army was defeated, and he surrendered to the Xiongnu, who killed him. This is recorded in the *Xiongnu Chronicles.*
It's said that: "The *Yu Ben Ji* states that the Yellow River originates from the Kunlun Mountains, which tower over 2,500 miles high, where the sun and moon are said to hide, hence their radiant appearance. After his mission to the West, Zhang Qian explored the source of the Yellow River. He found no Kunlun Mountains. As for the geography of the Nine Provinces, the *Shangshu* is more accurate. The accounts in the *Yu Ben Ji* and *Shan Hai Jing*, however, are rather fanciful!"
