Way back when, Confucian scholars all studied the Six Arts. The Six Arts were the Zhou Dynasty's royal curriculum – the rules ancient wise guys used to explain the cosmos, set social rules, and build the perfect society. The Zhou Dynasty started falling apart under Kings You and Li. The nobles grabbed all the power – the music, the armies, everything – and things went downhill for over two hundred years. Then came Confucius. Confucius, a wise man in a messed-up world, saw his ideas ignored. He lamented, "No phoenix, no good omens from the Yellow River...it's all over!" But then he added, "King Wen may be gone, but his wisdom lives on!" So he hit the road, spreading his ideas. He went west to Zhou, south to Chu, got surrounded in Kuang and trapped in Chen and Cai, and advised more than seventy nobles along the way. He heard the Shao music in Qi and forgot to eat meat for three months! Back in Lu after his trip to Wei, he got to work organizing music, putting the Odes and Hymns in order. After years of studying ancient texts, he said, "Wow, Emperor Yao was amazing! Only Heaven is greater, and only Yao could match it. What a ruler!" He also said, "The Zhou built on the Xia and Shang, creating a truly great culture. That's what I want to do!" So he started organizing the Book of Documents with the Yao Canon, used the Shao music as his standard, and began explaining the Book of Songs with the Zhou Nan. He organized Zhou rituals, used Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals, recorded twelve noble rulers, followed the ways of Kings Wen and Wu, creating a whole system of royal rule...until he saw a unicorn. Later in life, he loved the Book of Changes, wearing out several ropes reading it before writing his own commentary. He used the examples of wise rulers to teach, saying, "I just tell the stories, I don't make them up. I truly love ancient culture." And, "From kid to great man, only Heaven knows my journey."
After Confucius died, his seventy-two disciples traveled to various countries. The more capable ones became ministers or teachers; the less capable taught lesser gentry or lived in seclusion. Therefore, Zizhang lived in the state of Chen, Dantai Ziyu lived in the state of Chu, Zixia lived in the area west of the Yellow River, and Zigong eventually passed away in the state of Qi. Students of Zixia, such as Tian Zifang, Duangan Mu, Wu Qi, and Qin Huili, all became teachers of princes. At that time, only Marquis Wen of Wei was really into learning. During the Warring States period when countries were fighting each other, Confucianism was once rejected. However, scholars from the states of Qi and Lu did not give up on Confucianism. During the reign of King Wei and King Xuan, scholars such as Mencius and Xunzi inherited and developed Confucius' teachings, gaining prominence at the time.
It is said that after Qin Shihuang unified the country, he burned the "Book of Songs" and "Book of Documents" and killed many scholars, bringing the Six Arts (poetry, ritual writing, rites, music, archery, charioteering) to an abrupt end. Chen Sheng led a rebellion and became an emperor. Scholars from the state of Lu brought Confucian relics to join him, with Kong Jia becoming Chen Sheng's scholar and eventually dying alongside him. Chen Sheng, originally a commoner, rose up against the troops and became emperor, but his reign lasted less than a year. Sounds pretty straightforward, doesn't it? But why did these scholars choose to serve Chen Sheng with ritual objects? It was because the Qin dynasty had forbidden them from studying Confucianism, leading to years of frustration that erupted during the rebellion led by Chen Sheng.
Later, Liu Bang defeated Xiang Yu and surrounded the state of Lu with his troops. The Confucian scholars in Lu were still there, teaching and reciting rituals, with music and singing filling the air. That's what I call a scholarly vibe, eh? From this time on, the Confucian scholars began to study the classics again, teaching rituals like those fancy village drinking parties. Shusun Tong established the ritual system of the Han Dynasty and became the Minister of Rites. His students landed sweet government jobs, so everyone started studying enthusiastically again. However, the country was still pretty chaotic, what with all the wars going on, and schools hadn’t been formally established yet.
During the reigns of Emperor Hui and Empress Dowager Lü, most of the ministers in the court were heroes who had achieved success through military force. During Emperor Wen's reign, some Confucian scholars were slightly liked, but Emperor Wen himself was more into the Legalist school of thought. By the time Emperor Jing took over, he didn’t favor Confucian scholars, and Empress Dowager Dou preferred the teachings of Huang-Lao. So those learned men could only be just collecting their paychecks and twiddling their thumbs, without much opportunity to show their talents.
After the Han Dynasty kicked off, you had guys studying the *Book of Changes* in Zichuan, the *Book of Documents* in Jinan, the *Book of Songs* in Lu, the *Book of Rites* in Lu, the *Spring and Autumn Annals* in Qi, and the *Spring and Autumn Annals* in Zhao. When Empress Dowager Dou died, Marquis Wu'an Tian Fen became the Prime Minister. He suppressed the teachings of Huang-Lao and the Legalist school, recruiting a large number of Confucian scholars. Gongsun Hong, who was proficient in the *Spring and Autumn Annals*, became the Prime Minister and was also ennobled as a marquis. So everyone copied Gongsun Hong, and suddenly, everyone was cramming Confucianism, trying to be just like him.
Hong Xiang wanted to elevate the status of scholar-administrators and felt that ritual and music education was stagnant. Urgently, he submitted a memorial stating, "The Prime Minister and the Imperial Censor have reported: The Emperor said, 'I have heard that the people should be educated through ritual and influenced by music. Marriage is a matter of great importance to the family. Now, ritual and music are both in decline, and I am deeply saddened. Therefore, I am recruiting talented men from across the land to come to the court. I command the Rites Ministry to promote learning, discussions, research, and the restoration and development of ritual and music, to set an example for the world. The Rites Ministry has discussed and decided to increase the number of students for the scholars, to improve rural education and cultivate outstanding talents.'"
After carefully studying the opinions of the Rites Ministry and the scholars, I said: I have heard that the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties all had education in the countryside. The Xia dynasty called it "Xiao," the Shang dynasty called it "Xiang," and the Zhou dynasty called it "Xu." They promoted good behavior, commending it in the court, and punished bad behavior using the law. Therefore, to implement education, we should start from the capital and gradually expand it to all parts of the country. Your Majesty, you are practicing benevolence and creating a prosperous age, in harmony with heaven and earth, conforming to human relations, promoting learning, flourishing ritual and music, advocating education, and nurturing talents to influence the world, which is the foundation of a peaceful and prosperous age.
In ancient times, political education was not yet widespread, and the ritual and music system was imperfect, so please use the existing official positions to promote education. Set up fifty disciples for the scholars and restore their treatment. The Rites Ministry should select individuals over eighteen with proper appearance to fill the vacancies of the scholars. Among the officials of the prefectures, counties, and townships, those who demonstrate literary aptitude, filial piety, respect for the law, and exemplary conduct should have their names reported by the county magistrate, county attendant, township head, and township attendant to their superiors—high-ranking officials. The high-ranking officials should carefully examine and, if deemed qualified, bring them to the Rites Ministry for learning, like the scholar disciples. They will be assessed annually, and those who master more than one skill will fill the vacancies of literary officials; those with outstanding achievements can become langzhong, as reported by the Rites Ministry. If there are exceptionally talented individuals, their names should be reported immediately. Those who do not study, lack in ability, or cannot master a skill should be relieved of their duties, and suitable replacements should be selected.
After carefully reviewing the edicts and laws, I found that the explanations about the relationship between people and heaven, as well as the ancient and modern ritual systems, are elegant and profound, with far-reaching benefits. However, the decree's elegant and profound language, while beneficial, proved difficult for less learned officials to fully grasp and effectively convey.
Officials in charge of rituals and classics, as well as those holding literary and ceremonial positions, are promoted slowly. Please select two individuals from higher-ranking officials with a rank of over two hundred stones and skilled officials with a rank of over one hundred stones to fill the positions of Left and Right Historians and Taihang Attendants; select two individuals from lower-ranking officials to fill the positions of County Magistrate Attendants, one for each border county. First, use those who are well-versed in the classics, and if there are not enough, select additional personnel from among those managing the classics to supplement the subordinates of the two thousand stone officials and the county officials, in order to address the personnel shortage. Please issue the order. Other matters shall be handled according to the laws and regulations.
Alright, that's the plan. Since then, from court officials to ordinary officials, everyone has become an intellectual, and a golden age of literature dawned.
During the reign of Emperor Zhao, the court selected scholarly and virtuous individuals with literary talents, and the number of scholars and students suddenly exceeded one hundred. By the end of Emperor Xuan's reign, the number had doubled. Emperor Yuan favored Confucianism, and as long as one had demonstrated proficiency in a classic text, they would be highly valued. A few years later, facing budget cuts, an additional one thousand slots were added, and each county appointed a hundred-stone official to oversee the "Five Classics." In the later years of Emperor Cheng's reign, some people noted that Confucius was able to educate three thousand disciples as a commoner, but now there were too few students in the national academy, so another three thousand student slots were added. But a year later, the increase was reversed. During the reign of Emperor Ping, when Wang Mang was in power, he decreed that the sons of high-ranking officials could study like formal students without occupying slots. Every year, forty individuals of Class A were appointed as senior officials, twenty individuals of Class B were appointed as the Prince's attendants, and forty individuals of Class C were appointed as literary officials in charge of the classics.
Starting with the Lu state merchant Qu Zimu studying the *I Ching* under Confucius, this knowledge was passed down through generations. Qu Zimu then passed the *I Ching* to Qiaopi Ziyong of Lu, who in turn passed it to Han Bizigong of Jiangdong. After that, it went to Zhou Chouzijia of Yan, who passed it to Sun Yuzicheng of Dongwu, and finally to Tian Hezizhuang of Qi. Later, the Qin dynasty suppressed the study of the *I Ching*, viewing it primarily as a divination text, yet it wasn't completely eliminated. After the establishment of the Han dynasty, Tian He moved from Qi to Duling, who became known as Du Tiansheng. He passed the *I Ching* to Wang Tongzizhong of Dongwu, Zhou Wangsun of Luoyang, Ding Kuan, and Qi Fusheng, each of whom wrote commentaries on the *I Ching*. Wang Tongzizhong then passed the *I Ching* to Yang He of Zichuan, whose style name was Shuyuan, and who was summoned as a high-ranking official during the Yuanguang period. Tian He also served as the county magistrate of Jimo in Qi, later becoming the Prefect of Chengyang. Meng Dan of Guangchuan became a senior official at court. Zhou Ba of Lu, Heng Hu of Ju, and Zhufu Yan of Linzi all rose to high positions because of their proficiency in the *I Ching*. In short, Han dynasty scholars of the *I Ching* considered Tian He their founding figure.
Ding Kuan, courtesy name Zixiang, was a native of the Liang State. At first, Xiang Sheng, another man from Liang, studied the *I Ching* with Tian He, and Ding Kuan was his student. Ding Kuan was a quick study, surpassing Xiang Sheng, and eventually switched to studying under Tian He. After he finished studying, Tian He praised Ding Kuan. When he went back east, Tian He told his students, "The *I Ching*'s going east now." Ding Kuan went to Luoyang and studied the *I Ching*'s ancient meanings with Zhou Wangsun—that's what we call the Zhou school. Under Emperor Jing, Ding Kuan was a general for Prince Xiao of Liang, fighting off Wu and Chu. They called him General Ding, and he wrote a 30,000-word *I Ching* commentary explaining its meaning and main ideas. The *Xiao Zhang Ju* we still have today is his. Ding Kuan passed down the *I Ching* to Tian Wangsun from their home county of Dang. Tian Wangsun then passed it on to Shi Chang, Meng Xi, and Liang Qiuhe. And that's how the Shi, Meng, and Liangqiu schools of *I Ching* started.
Shi Chou, with the courtesy name Changqing, was from Pei County. Pei County is very close to Dang County. When Shi Chou was still a child, he followed Tian Wangsun to study the *Yijing*. Later, Shi Chou moved to Changling. Tian Wangsun became a Doctor of the Classics, and Shi Chou went to him to complete his studies, becoming Tian Wangsun's student along with Meng Xi and Liang Qiuhe. Shi Chou was modest, always claiming his studies were inadequate, and reluctant to teach. Only after Liang Qiuhe's appointment as Minister and subsequent heavy workload did he dispatch his son and disciples, including Zhang Yu, to seek instruction from Shi Chou. Shi Chou hid and refused to see them, but after repeated requests from Liang Qiuhe, he had no choice but to teach them. Liang Qiuhe then recommended Shi Chou, saying, "He has been serving his teacher since he was young, day after day for decades; I cannot compare to him." The imperial court appointed Shi Chou as a Doctor of the Classics. During the Ganlu era, he and other scholars of the Classics discussed the similarities and differences in the *Five Classics* at the Shiqu Pavilion. Shi Chou passed on the *Yijing* to Zhang Yu and a man from Langya named Lu Bo. Lu Bo later became the Prefect of Kuaiji, while Zhang Yu rose to the position of Grand Minister. Zhang Yu then passed it on to Peng Xuan from Huaiyang and Dai Ping, the son of Dai Chong from Pei County. Dai Chong became one of the Nine Ministers of State, while Peng Xuan became the Grand Minister of Works. Zhang Yu and Peng Xuan both have their own biographies. Lu Bo passed it on to Mao Moru from Taishan and Bing Danmanrong from Langya, both of whom became famous. Mao Moru later became the Prefect of Changshan. Thus, the Shi family's legacy branched into the Zhang and Peng schools of thought.
Meng Xi, courtesy name Changqing, was from Lanling in Shandong Province. His father, Meng Qing, was a master of "The Book of Rites" and "Spring and Autumn Annals," and had also been a teacher to Hou Cang and Shu Guang. The surviving versions of the "Hou Family Rites" and "Shu Family Spring and Autumn Annals" originate from Meng Qing. Meng Qing felt that "The Book of Rites" was too long and "Spring and Autumn Annals" too complicated, so he let Meng Xi study the "Book of Changes" with Tian Wangsun. Meng Xi was known for his boasting, and after obtaining a text on yin-yang calamities from the "Book of Changes," he went around claiming that his teacher Tian Wangsun had placed this secret book on his knee before he died, passing it on to him alone, while other scholars praised him for this.
His fellow apprentice Liang Qiuhe challenged this claim, saying, "Tian Wangsun died at the hands of Shi Chan. At that time, Meng Xi had returned to his hometown of Lanling, so how could he have obtained this secret book?" There was also a man from Shu named Zhao Bin, who was particularly fond of studying occult numerology. Later, he also began to study the "Book of Changes" and even altered the text to come up with an explanation like: "'Ji Zi Mingyi: the yin and yang energies depleted Ji Zi; Ji Zi, the square and upright principle of all things.'" Zhao Bin's theory was so convincing that at that time no one could refute it; they could only say, "This departs significantly from established interpretations." Zhao Bin claimed that he learned this from Meng Xi, who also became famous because of it. However, after Zhao Bin died, no one could continue his teachings. Meng Xi's refusal to admit his fabrication cost him the trust of others.
Meng Xi was later recommended as an exemplary official and became a low-ranking official at court, serving as the chief of the Qu Tai Office (the administrative office at Qu Tai). Later, he resigned due to illness and became a counselor to the Prime Minister. When a doctoral position became available, many people recommended Meng Xi. However, the emperor, learning of Meng Xi's change of teachers and methods, rejected his application. Meng Xi later passed on the "Book of Changes" to the son of Bai Guang from the same county and the brother of Zhai Mu from Pei County, both of whom later became scholars. Thus, the Zhai, Meng, and Bai schools of Yi learning were established.
Liang Qiuhe, courtesy name Changweng, was a man from Langya. Because he was proficient in strategy, he became a low-ranking military officer in the emperor's guard. He once studied the Book of Changes with the Grand Master Jingfang, who was a student of Yang He from Zichuan. Jingfang later became the Prefect of Qi County, and Liang Qiuhe then changed to serve Prince Tian. During the reign of Emperor Xuan of Han, hearing that Jingfang was skilled in the Book of Changes, the emperor searched for his students and found Liang Qiuhe, who was then the Minister of Works. Later, due to an offense, he was demoted to a commoner. Subsequently, the Yellow Gate Attendant (a significant position in the imperial court) repeatedly recommended him to the emperor, who summoned Liang Qiuhe. Liang Qiuhe was very eloquent, and the emperor admired him, so he appointed him as a court official, specifically a langguan.
Once, in August, a libation ceremony was held at the Xiaozhao Temple, and the ceremonial standard-bearer suddenly fell, with the tip of the sword pointing down into the soil and the blade facing the emperor's carriage, causing the horses to panic. The emperor summoned Liang Qiuhe for divination, and the result showed signs of a plot to overthrow the emperor, which was very ominous. After returning to the palace, he ordered the officials responsible for the temple rites to attend to the sacrifices. At that time, Ren Xuan, the grandson of the Huo clan and the Prefect of Dai County, was executed for plotting rebellion. Ren Xuan's son, Ren Zhang, a court official, escaped to the vicinity of Weicheng. He sneaked into the temple at night wearing black clothes, hid among the court officials, and stood at the temple gate with a halberd, ready to assassinate the emperor when he arrived. The plot was exposed, and he was executed. Previously, the emperor often visited the temple at night, but after this incident, he switched to visiting during the day. Because of his accurate divination, Liang Qiuhe gained the emperor's favor and trust, and was promoted to high-ranking official, Censorate, and finally became the Superintendent of the Imperial Household. He was a cautious guy, and the emperor trusted him implicitly until he passed away in old age.
His son Liang Qiu Lin was also skilled in rhetoric and became a palace official. During the Ganlu era, he was ordered to the Shiqu Palace to question the Confucian scholars. Liang Qiu Lin was deeply knowledgeable, specializing in Jing Fang's teachings. Prince Ji was well-versed in the Five Classics, and upon hearing of Liang Qiu Lin's scholarship, he became a great admirer. At that time, Emperor Xuan selected ten promising young officials to study under Liang Qiu Lin, and Prince Ji had his son Langzhong Jun petition to study the Book of Changes with him. Liang Qiu Lin later replaced Meng Wei, the son of Wulu Chongzong, as the Minister of the Treasury, while Jun later became the Inspector General. Their successes are a matter of record. Wulu Chongzong once taught Sun Zhang Zhongfang of Pingling, Deng Xia, the son of Deng Pengzu from Pei County, and Heng Bin, the eldest son of Heng Xian from the state of Qi. Zhang Zhongfang became a doctor, later rising to Governor of Yangzhou, Grand Master of Ceremonies, and Inspector General. His family had a long tradition of scholarship. Deng Xia rose to the position of Grand Tutor of Zhending. Heng Bin became a lecturer during the reign of Wang Mang. So, the Liangqiu family launched the careers of scholars from the Sun, Deng, and Heng families.
Jing Fang, that whippersnapper, studied the I Ching with Jiao Yanshou, a man from Liang. Jiao Yanshou claimed that he had previously studied the I Ching with Meng Xi. After Meng Xi died, Jing Fang felt that Jiao Yanshou's I Ching was the same as Meng Xi's, but Zhai Mu and Bai Sheng scoffed, claiming it was all wrong. During the time of Emperor Cheng, Liu Xiang was responsible for checking books and looking into different ways of interpreting the Yi. He believed that those who studied the Yi had similar interpretations, all tracing back to Tian He, Yang Shuyuan, and General Ding, with similar main points. Only Jing Fang was different; he and Jiao Yanshou had a secret teaching from a hermit, falsely attributed to Meng Xi, but actually had absolutely no connection to it. Jing Fang was highly trusted by the emperor because of his skill in predicting calamities and ominous signs, but was later betrayed and murdered by Shi Xian, as recorded in historical texts. Jing Fang once taught students from Donghai (Yin Jia), Hedong (Yao Ping), and Henan (Cheng Hong), all of whom later became officials or scholars. That's how the Jing school of Yi interpretation came to be.
Fei Zhi, whose courtesy name was Zhangweng, was from Donglai. He was proficient in the I Ching, served as an official, and later became the magistrate of Danfu County. He was particularly skilled in divination but did not pay attention to the annotations of chapters and verses, only explaining the original texts of the *Tuan*, *Xiang*, and *Xici* sections of the I Ching. Langye King Huang was quite the scholar and was able to inherit his teachings. Wang Huang also passed on the ancient *Shangshu* text.
Gao Xiang, a native of Pei County, studied the Book of Changes (Yi Jing) around the same time as Fei Zhi, focusing on yin and yang and omens rather than the text itself, claiming to have learned from General Ding. His knowledge was passed down to his son Gao Kang and a man from Lanling named Guanjǐang Yǒng. Gao Kang became an official due to his expertise in the Book of Changes, while Guanjǐang Yǒng rose to the rank of prefect of Yuzhang. When the usurper Wang Mang took power, the Prefect of Dong Commandery, Zhai Yi, plotted to rebel and kill Wang Mang. Before the rebellion began, Gao Kang got wind of the uprising in Dong Commandery and informed his disciples, who then reported it. When Zhai Yi eventually rebelled, Wang Mang questioned Gao Kang, who attributed his knowledge to his teacher Gao Xiang. Enraged, Wang Mang had Gao Kang executed for allegedly causing confusion among the people, leading to the development of the Gao school of Yi Jing interpretation. Neither Gao Xiang nor Fei Zhi had ever held teaching positions in official schools.
Fu Sheng, a native of Jinan, was a scholar during the Qin. During the reign of Emperor Xiao Wen of Han, the Han needed someone who knew the Shang Shu, and Fu Sheng, known for his expertise in the text, was sought out. Fu Sheng, well over ninety, couldn't travel, so the emperor ordered court officials versed in ritual from the Ministry of Rites to visit him and learn from him. During the Qin Dynasty, the Shang Shu was banned, so Fu Sheng had hidden it in a wall. When the war broke out, he went on the run, but after the establishment of the Han Dynasty, he recovered the Shang Shu, though many chapters were lost. With only twenty-nine chapters remaining, he taught students in the Qi and Lu regions. Qi scholars became known for their Shang Shu expertise, and almost every teacher in Shandong taught it. Among Fu Sheng's students were Zhang Sheng and Ouyang Sheng from Jinan. Zhang Sheng later became a court scholar, while Fu Sheng's grandson, though he knew the Shang Shu, couldn't explain it very well. Later, Zhou Ba from Lu and Jia Jia from Luoyang also became experts in the Shang Shu.
Ouyang Sheng, courtesy name Hebo, was a man from Qiancheng. He studied under Fusheng as his teacher and later passed on his knowledge to Ni Kuan. Ni Kuan then studied under Kong Anguo, eventually becoming the Minister of the Imperial Secretariat, with his achievements recorded. Ni Kuan was very talented; the first time he met Emperor Wu of Han, he discussed classics with the emperor. Emperor Wu said, "I used to find the *Shangshu* very dry and uninteresting, but after listening to Ni Kuan's explanations, I found it very interesting." He then asked Ni Kuan to explain a chapter of the *Shangshu*. Both the Ouyang and Xiahou families' scholarship originated with Ni Kuan. Ni Kuan passed on his knowledge to Ouyang Sheng's son, and the knowledge was passed down through generations until Ouyang Sheng's great-grandson Gao Ziyang became a Doctor of the Imperial Academy. Gao Ziyang's grandson Ouyang Diyu served as the Crown Prince's attendant, later becoming a Doctor and participating in discussions at the Stone Canal Pavilion. After Emperor Yuan of Han ascended the throne, Diyu served as an Imperial Secretary, earning the emperor's trust and eventually becoming the Minister of the Lesser Treasury. He advised his son, "After I die, officials will offer you a lot of wealth. Do not accept it. You are descendants of the Nine Ministers and scholars; you should be known for your integrity in order to achieve great things." After Diyu's death, officials offered his son millions of *cash*, but his son did not accept. The emperor was pleased to hear this and rewarded him with one million *cash*. Diyu's youngest son Ouyang Zheng later became a Lecturer under Wang Mang. From then on, the Ouyang family's interpretation of the *Shangshu* became the dominant school of thought.
Lin Zun, courtesy name Changbin, was from Jinan. He studied under Ouyang Gao, earning his doctorate and participating in the Shiqu Debate. He later became the Minister of the Imperial Household, Grand Master of the Crown Prince, and taught Ping Dang from Pingling and Chen Wengsheng from Liangguo. Ping Dang later became the Prime Minister, whose biography survives. Chen Wengsheng became the Grand Tutor of Xindu, with his family inheriting this knowledge for generations. Therefore, the Ouyang Gao school of thought included the teachings of Ping Dang and Chen Wengsheng. Chen Wengsheng also taught Yin Chong from Langye and Gong Sheng from Chuguo. Yin Chong became a doctor, Gong Sheng became the Right Commandant of Fufeng, and they each had their own biographies. Ping Dang also taught Zhu Pu from Jiujang and Bao Xuan from Shangdang. Zhu Pu became a doctor, Bao Xuan became the Commander of the Imperial Censorate, and they also had their own biographies. Lin Zun had many students, many of whom had reputations outside.
Xiahou Sheng, whose ancestors were the Xiahou family of military commanders, studied the "Book of Documents" from Zhang Sheng in Jinan, then transmitted it to his clan member Xiahou Shichang. Shichang passed it on to Xiahou Sheng, who then studied under Jian Qing, also from their home county. Jian Qing was a student of Ni Kuan. Xiahou Sheng transmitted the "Book of Documents" to his nephew Xiahou Jian, who then studied under Ouyang Gao. Xiahou Sheng later became the Minister of Changxin, and Xiahou Jian became the Grand Tutor to the Crown Prince, and they each had their own biographies. Therefore, the Xiahou school of thought emerged from the teachings of the Xiahou family.
Zhou Kan, whose courtesy name was Shaoying, was a native of the state of Qi. He studied together with Kong Ba under the tutorship of Hou Sheng. Kong Ba later became a Doctor. Zhou Kan became an imperial translator and also participated in the Shiqu Lunyi (a scholarly discussion held at the Shiqu Pavilion). He was highly knowledgeable in Confucianism and later became the crown prince's tutor, while Kong Ba served as the Grand Master of the Imperial Palace. After Emperor Yuan ascended the throne, Zhou Kan became the Grand Master of Splendor and, along with Xiao Wangzhi, managed the affairs of state. However, they were framed by Shi Xian and others and were both dismissed from their positions. Xiao Wangzhi committed suicide, and the Emperor sympathized with him, promoting Zhou Kan to the rank of Grand Master of Splendor, as recorded in the *Biography of Liu Xiang*. Zhou Kan taught Mou Qing and Xushang Changbo in Chang'an. Mou Qing later became a Doctor. Kong Ba, as the Emperor's teacher, was granted the noble title of Baocheng Jun. His son Kong Guang also studied under Mou Qing and later became the Prime Minister, with his biography recorded. Therefore, the school of Hou Sheng included the teachings of Kong Ba and Xushang. Xushang was skilled in arithmetic and wrote *Theories of the Five Elements Calendar*. He reached the high position of Nine Ministers four times. He lauded his disciple Tang Linzi of Peiguo for his moral character, Wu Zhangwei of Pingling for his eloquence, Wang Ji of Chongquan for his expertise in political affairs, and Que Qinyou of Qiguo for his profound literary attainments. During the reign of Wang Mang, Tang Lin and Wang Ji both became Nine Ministers, a high-ranking position in the government. They voluntarily went to worship the tomb of their teacher Xushang. Xushang's students, including officials, doctors, court officials, and clerks, all attended, with hundreds of carriages. The scholars highly respected them. Que Qin and Wu Zhang both became Doctors and had many students. Wu Zhang was later executed by Wang Mang.
Zhang Shan, courtesy name Changbin, was from Pingling. He once served under Xiahou Jian, became an imperial scholar, participated in discussions at the Imperial Stone Chamber, and eventually held the position of Minister of the Lesser Palace Attendants. He taught Li Xun and Zheng Kuanzhong from the same county, as well as Zhang Wugu from Shanyang, Qin Gong from Xindu, and Jia Cang from Chenliu, each of whom later distinguished himself. Zhang Wugu was skilled in explaining the chapters and sentences of the classics and later became the Governor-Tutor of Guangling, entrusted with the protection of Xiahou's "Shuowen Jiezi." Qin Gong, under the guidance of his teacher, accumulated a million words of knowledge and eventually became the Prefect of Chengyang. Jia Cang, based on his performance in the discussions at the Imperial Stone Chamber, rose to the position of Prefect of Jiaodong. Li Xun was good at explaining disasters and anomalies, became the Commandant of Qidu, and his biography survives to this day.
Zheng Kuanzhong was a very talented individual, first appointed as a scholar and later teaching the crown prince. After Emperor Cheng ascended the throne, the emperor granted him the title of Marquis of Guan Nei, with a fief of eight hundred households. He was later promoted to Palace Attendant (in charge of the highest government department) and was highly respected by the emperor. Unfortunately, he died young. Gu Yong wrote to the emperor about this matter, saying, "Wise kings always highly respect teachers and talented individuals, commend their achievements, grant them titles and rewards while alive, and special rites and posthumous titles after death. When the Duke of Zhou passed away, King Cheng changed the funeral rites for him, which was in accordance with the will of heaven. When Gongshu Wenzi died, the Marquis of Wei bestowed him with a beautiful posthumous title, setting an example for future generations to follow. Recently, both Grand Minister Zhu Yi and Weng Guide Mao died young, and Emperor Xiaoxuan was very saddened, giving them grand funerals and generous rewards, moving all the court officials. Marquis of Guan Nei Zheng Kuanzhong possessed the moral character of Yan Hui, the wisdom of Baoxi and Yanshi, and mastered the Five Classics. In his position as a teacher, he followed the teachings of Yao and Shun, and his advice was accepted by the emperor. During his tenure in the court, he was diligent, upright, and incorruptible, never accepting bribes, not even favoring his own relatives. His virtues were comparable to those of the Duke of Zhou and the Duke of Shao. His loyalty was praised as in the "Ode to the Lamb," and although he did not reach the high position of Minister of Works, he left no wealth behind in his home after his death. His untimely passing is truly regrettable! I believe a grand funeral should be held for him, and a beautiful posthumous title granted to him, to demonstrate the virtues of respecting teachers and commending achievements." Moved by Gu Yong's words, the emperor bestowed generous rewards upon Zheng Kuanzhong.
From then on, under the Xiaohou family, there emerged five disciples' schools: Zheng, Zhang, Qin, Jia, and Li. Zheng Kuanzhong once taught Zhao Xuan of Dongjun; Zhang Wugu taught Tang Zun of Peiguo; Qin Gong taught Feng Bin of Luguo. Feng Bin later became a scholar, Tang Zun became the Grand Tutor of Wang Mang, and Zhao Xuan became a high-ranking official under Emperor Ai. They all reached high official positions and were well-known figures.
The Kong family ancestors left behind an archaic text of the "Book of Documents." Kong Anguo read it in modern script and also organized the scattered chapters of the "Book of Documents" at home, finding more than ten chapters, which is much more than the current version in circulation. Unfortunately, he later got caught up in a witchcraft scandal and failed to become a teacher at the university.
Kong Anguo served as a high-ranking advisor and also held the position of military commander. Sima Qian once sought his advice on the allusions in the "Book of Documents." Sima Qian recorded chapters such as "Yao Dian," "Yu Gong," "Hong Fan," "Wei Zi," and "Jin Teng" in his book, many of which were based on ancient text versions. Later, the position of military commander was inherited by Yongsheng from Jiaodong.
Yongsheng then handed down the "Book of Documents" to the son of Hu Chang from Qinghe. Hu Chang's son became a scholar and a provincial administrator due to his expertise in the "Gongyang Chunqiu." He was also a teacher of the "Zuo Zhuan." Hu Chang's son then transmitted the "Book of Documents" to Xu Ao from Guozhou. Xu Ao served as an official in the Right Fufeng Commandery and also taught the "Mao Shi," passing both the "Mao Shi" and the "Book of Documents" to Wang Huang and the son of Tu Yun from Pingling, Tu Zizhen. Finally, Tu Zizhen passed it on to the eldest son of Sang Qinjun from Henan.
During the reign of Wang Mang, scholarship really took off. Liu Xin became the chief scholar, and Wang Huang, Tu Yun, and others also held high official positions. "Bai Liang Pian"—the version we have today—was compiled by Zhang Ba, a man from Donglai. He divided the 29 chapters of the "Book of Documents" into loads of chapters and selected some content from the prefaces of the "Zuo Zhuan" and the "Book of Documents" as the beginning and end, making a total of 102 pieces. However, some chapters were very short, and the writing was pretty basic. During the reign of Emperor Cheng, someone wanted to retrieve the true ancient text of the "Book of Documents." Zhang Ba had the court check it, but it didn't match.
Zhang Ba resigned and returned home. His father had a student named Wei Shifan. At that time, Ping Dang, a high-ranking official, and the Imperial Historian Zhou Chang advised the emperor to preserve Zhang Ba's "Bai Liang Pian." Later, Fan Bing, who was involved in a rebellion, meant that was the end of Zhang Ba's "Bai Liang Pian."
Shen Gong was a man from the state of Lu. When he was young, he studied the "Book of Songs" with a Qi scholar named Fuqiu Bo. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, Shen Gong accompanied his teacher to meet the Emperor Gaozu when he passed through the state of Lu. During the reign of Empress Lü, the King of Chu sent his son Ying and Shen Gong to study in Chang'an. After the death of the King of Chu, Ying succeeded to the throne and became the King of Chu, and he made Shen Gong tutor Crown Prince Wu. Crown Prince Wu hated studying and Shen Gong even more. After Crown Prince Wu became the King of Chu, he dismissed Shen Gong. Embarrassed, Shen Gong returned to the state of Lu, taught at home, and never left home again. He declined all guests, only when the emperor called. Thousands of students came from afar to study with him. Shen Gong only used the "Book of Songs" to educate his students, skipping anything he didn't understand.
Zang of Lanling once studied the Book of Songs with Shen Gong. After finishing his studies, he served as the crown prince's tutor during the reign of Emperor Jing but was later dismissed. When Emperor Wu ascended the throne, Zang requested to serve as a guard in the palace. He was continuously promoted and within a year became the head of the imperial household. Zang, who later succeeded Zhao Wan as the Grand Master of Remonstrance, also studied the Book of Songs with Shen Gong. Zhao Wan and Zang suggested building a Mingtang to meet the vassals, but the plan was unsuccessful, so they decided to seek advice from Shen Gong. The emperor then sent silk and jade as gifts, along with a comfortable carriage pulled by four horses, to welcome Shen Gong. Two students followed in a lighter carriage. Upon Shen Gong's arrival, he met the emperor, who asked for his methods for governing the country and achieving peace in the world. Shen Gong, who was over eighty years old at the time, replied, "Governing a country does not depend on words, but on practical actions." The Emperor, who favored ornate language, fell silent after hearing Shen Gong's response. However, since Shen Gong had been invited, he was appointed as Grand Master of the Palace, provided with accommodation in the state residence of Lu, and they discussed building the Mingtang.
Dowager Empress Dou was a Laozi fan, not a Confucian one. When she caught wind of Zhao Wan and Prince Zang of Lanling's screw-up, she advised the emperor, saying, "They're trying to pull a Xinyuan Ping!" So the Emperor nixed the Mingtang project, canned Zhao Wan and Prince Zang, and – boom – they both topped themselves. Shen Gong retired sick, kicking the bucket a few years later. Among his students, more than ten became doctors; Kong Anguo ran Linhuai, Zhou Ba was Jiaoxi's top dog, Xia Kuan was the Interior Minister of Chengyang, Danglu Ci was the Prefect of Donghai, Lanling Miusheng was the Interior Minister of Changsha, Xu Yan was the Middle Captain of Jiaoxi, and Zou Renquemen Qingji was the Interior Minister of Jiaodong. They were all known for being upstanding guys. Not all his students made it to the top, but hundreds became officials of some sort. After Shen Gong died, Jiang Gong of Xiqiu took over his teachings on the *Shijing* and *Chunqiu*, and had a ton of students. Lu Xusheng and Xianzhong Xu kept the flame going. Wei Xian learned the *Shijing* from Jiang Gong and Xusheng, then the *Liji*, and ended up Prime Minister. His son, Wei Xuancheng, participated in the discussion at the Shiquge while serving as the Middle Captain of Huaiyang, and later became Prime Minister. Wei Xuancheng and his nephew Wei Shang taught Emperor Ai the *Shijing*, both becoming top brass – Grand Marshals and Cavalry Generals – and leaving their own marks. And that's how the Wei family started the Lu Poetry School.
Wang Shi, courtesy name Wengsi, was a native of Xintao County in Dongping Commandery. He had served as a teacher to Xu Gong and Xu Sheng, both of whom were his students. Later, Wang Shi became the teacher of the Prince of Changyi. After the death of Emperor Zhao of Han, the Prince of Changyi inherited the throne, but his behavior was dissolute. He was eventually deposed, and many of his ministers were imprisoned and sentenced to death. Only Commander Wang Ji and Grand Prefect Gong Sui were spared from death due to their repeated remonstrations, although their sentences were reduced. Wang Shi was also imprisoned and faced the death penalty. The official in charge of the case questioned him: "As the teacher of the Prince of Changyi, why did you not submit memorials advising him?" Wang Shi replied: "I taught the Prince the Book of Odes every day. Whenever we came across passages about loyal ministers and filial sons, I'd read them over and over. When we encountered passages about rulers whose misconduct ruined their kingdoms, I'd explain them in detail, with tears in my eyes. That was my way of advising him; I didn't need to write formal memorials." The official reported Wang Shi's answer, and his sentence was reduced, allowing him to return home. After returning home, Wang Shi no longer took on students.
Three promising young scholars, Zhang Changan from Shanyang, Tang Changbin from Dongping, and Chu Shaosun from Peixian, had studied under Wang Shi. After studying several classics, Wang Shi humbly said, "The knowledge I have learned from my teacher is just like this. I have only polished it a bit." He refused to teach them further. Later, Tang Changbin and Chu Shaosun participated in the selection examination for scholars. They arrived at the examination hall in proper attire and showed great respect. During the exam, they recited and explained the classics with clear organization. Even when faced with questions, they responded calmly without panic. The examiners were astonished and asked who their teacher was. They replied, "It was Wang Shi." The examiners had all heard of Wang Shi's reputation, so they collectively recommended him. The Emperor appointed Wang Shi as a Doctor of the Imperial Academy.
After Wang Shi was summoned, he put on the official robes of a scholar, but did not wear a hat. He said, "I am a person who has been punished; how can I still serve as a ritual officer?" After arriving at the scholar's residence, Wang Shi stayed in his own quarters. The other scholars and officials plied him with food and drink, showing great respect for him. The Jiang family, renowned scholars of the Book of Songs, envied Wang Shi's talent. So, they told the students who were singing, "Sing the song 'Li Ju' (骊驹)." Wang Shi replied, "I heard from my teacher that when guests sing 'Li Ju,' the host should sing 'Ke Wu Yong Gui' (客毋庸归). Today, you are the hosts, and it is still too early to sing 'Ke Wu Yong Gui'." Jiang asked, "What does the scripture say?" Wang Shi replied, "In the 'Rites of Zhou' (曲礼)." Jiang retorted, "What rubbish is this 'Rites of Zhou'!" Wang Shi felt humiliated, feigned drunkenness, and collapsed to the ground. After bidding farewell to the guests, Wang Shi told the students, "I didn't want to come, but you guys talked me into it, and then some kid embarrassed me!" Therefore, he took a sick leave and returned home, eventually passing away there. Zhang Chang'an, Tang Changbin, and Chu Shaosun later became scholars. Zhang Chang'an served at the Shiqu Pavilion, later rising to the position of Commandant of Huaiyang; Tang Changbin became the Grand Preceptor of Chu. From then on, the Book of Songs had the three schools of Zhang, Tang, and Chu. Zhang Chang'an's nephew, Zhang Youqing, became a censor, teaching the Book of Songs to Emperor Yuan of Han. Wang Shi's student, Wang Fu from Langya, became the Commandant of Sishui, while Xu Yan from Chenliu became a scholar. Thus, the Zhang school now included Xu's teachings. Initially, Xue Guangde also studied with Wang Shi, and later served at the Shiqu Pavilion, being appointed as Gong She (龚舍). Xue Guangde rose to the position of Grand Master of Remonstrance, while his brother Xue She became the Prefect of Mount Tai, both of them having biographies recorded.
Yuan Gu was from the state of Qi. He was well-versed in the Book of Songs and was appointed a scholar during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han. One day, he debated with Huang Sheng in front of the emperor. Huang Sheng said, "Shang Tang and King Wu of Zhou were not appointed by divine mandate, but rather killed Xia Jie and Shang Zhou!" Yuan Gu retorted, "That's not correct! Jie and Zhou were tyrannical, and the people all supported Shang Tang and King Wu. Tang and Wu followed the will of the people to overthrow Jie and Zhou. The people of Jie and Zhou readily submitted to Tang and Wu, and Tang and Wu assumed the Mandate of Heaven out of necessity. How can you say they were not appointed by divine mandate?"
Huang Sheng continued, "Old hats still need to be worn; new shoes still need to be worn. That's just the way the hierarchy works! Although Jie and Zhou were immoral, they were still monarchs; although Tang and Wu were virtuous, they were still subjects. When a monarch errs, the subjects should advise and help correct the mistakes, not kill the monarch and take over the throne themselves. What is this if not regicide and usurpation?" Yuan Gu asked, "By your logic, wasn't Emperor Gaozu's takeover of the Qin Dynasty also regicide and usurpation?"
At this point, Emperor Jing of Han said, "Just because someone doesn't eat horse liver doesn't mean they don't know good food; similarly, scholars who don't believe in the Mandate of Heaven aren't necessarily stupid." And so, the debate ended.
Empress Dowager Dou enjoyed reading the Tao Te Ching and summoned Yuan Gu to ask for his opinion. Yuan Gu said, "It's just common knowledge." Empress Dowager Dou got angry and ordered the palace attendants to beat Yuan Gu with sticks. Emperor Jing of Han knew that Empress Dowager Dou was angry, but he felt that Yuan Gu's frankness was not a crime, so he secretly gave Yuan Gu a sharp dagger. Yuan Gu ordered the dagger to be used to stab a pig, hitting its heart, and the pig fell dead. Seeing this, Empress Dowager Dou said nothing more and dropped the matter.
Later, Emperor Jing of Han appointed Yuan Gu as the tutor of Qinghe because he was honest and upright, but Yuan Gu was soon dismissed because he got sick. After Emperor Wu of Han came to power, he called Yuan Gu back to work because of his virtue. Lots of Confucian scholars were jealous, saying he was too old, so they got rid of him. He went home at that time, over ninety years old. Also summoned was Gongsun Hong, who was super respectful towards Yuan Gu. Yuan Gu warned him, "Mr. Gongsun, you should focus on learning the right stuff, speak the truth, and don't bend the truth to please people!" Many people from Qi became prominent for their proficiency in the Odes, all of whom were students of Yuan Gu. Among them, Xiahou Shichang, the Grand Tutor of Changyi, was the most outstanding, and he started his own school of thought.
Cang, with the courtesy name Jinjun, was from Tan County, Shandong. He was an assistant to Xiahou Shichang. Xiahou Shichang was an expert in the Five Classics, while Cang was proficient in the Odes and the Book of Rites. Later, he became a scholar, got a government job, and taught Yi Feng, Xiao Wangzhi, and Kuang Heng. Yi Feng became an advisor, Xiao Wangzhi became a general, and Kuang Heng became a prime minister; he made a name for himself. Kuang Heng also taught Shi Dan from Langye, Fu Liyoujun, and Man Changjun from Yingchuan. Man Changjun became a minister, Fu Li became the Grand Tutor of Gaomi, and this was a family business for generations. Shi Dan became the minister of works, and his achievements were also noted. Therefore, the scholars in Qi who studied the Odes formed schools such as those of Yi Feng, Kuang Heng, Shi Dan, and Fu Li. Man Changjun also taught Zhang Han from Jiujang and Pi Rong from Langye, both of whom became important officials, with lots of people following them.
Han Ying was a native of Yan State. During the reign of Emperor Xiao Wen of the Han Dynasty, he was appointed as an Imperial Scholar; during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han, he was appointed as the Grand Tutor of Changshan Commandery. Han Ying had his own insights into the *Shijing* and wrote two commentaries totaling many tens of thousands of words. His interpretations differed from those prevalent in Qi and Lu, yet arrived at similar conclusions. He was the teacher of King Huainan's son. Han Ying's students included most of those in Yan and Zhao who studied the *Shijing*. He also taught the *Yijing* to others and wrote a commentary based on his own understanding. Although the Yan and Zhao regions favored the *Shijing*, research on the *Yijing* was relatively scarce, only being passed down by Han Ying himself. During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, Han Ying once debated with Dong Zhongshu in front of the emperor. He was sharp, efficient, and exceptionally clear-headed, and Dong Zhongshu could not out-argue him. Later, his grandson Han Shang also became an Imperial Scholar. During the reign of Emperor Xuan of Han, there was a man from Zhuo County who was also a descendant of Han Ying. He was proficient in the *Yijing* and served the emperor in the palace. He said, "The *Yijing* I've learned comes directly from my ancestor, the Grand Tutor. I studied Han Ying's *Shijing* as well, but found his *Yijing* far more insightful." The Imperial Inspector, Gai Kuangrao, was originally studying the *Yijing* with Meng Xi, but when he saw the man from Zhuo County explaining the *Yijing* so well, he then became Han Ying's student.
Zhaozi, from Hebei, was a student of Han Ying of Yan. He taught Cai Yi from the same county. Cai Yi later became the prime minister, and his story is known. Cai Yi then taught Shizi Gong and Wang Ji from the same county. Wang Ji became the Commander of Changyi King, and his achievements were also recorded. Shizi Gong became an official scholar and taught Li Feng from Taishan. Wang Ji taught Changsun Shun from Zichuan. Changsun Shun became an official scholar, and Li Feng became the Prefect. Thus, the study of Han Ying's *Book of Songs* branched into the lineages of Wang Ji, Shizi Gong, and Changsun Shun. Li Feng then taught Zhang Jiu from Shanyang, and Changsun Shun taught Fafu from Donghai. They both became high-ranking officials, and many people followed them in their studies.
Maogong, from Zhao, was proficient in the *Book of Songs* and served as an official scholar for King Xian of Hejian. He also taught his fellow townsman Guan Changqing. Guan Changqing passed on this knowledge to Xie Yannian, who became the magistrate of Awu County and taught Xu Ao. Xu Ao then taught Chen Xia from Jiujang, who later became an Imperial Lecturer under Wang Mang. Therefore, those who study the "Mao Poetry" have inherited it from Xu Ao.
After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, Lu Gaotangsheng taught the "Rites of the Scholar" in seventeen chapters, while Lu Xusheng was particularly skilled in writing praise poems. During the reign of Emperor Wen of Han, Xu Sheng was appointed as the Master of Rituals due to his expertise in writing praise poems, and this skill was passed down to his grandchildren Yan and Xiang. Xiang, being talented in writing praise poems but not understanding the classics, was appointed as a grand officer and later became the Administrator of Guangling. Xu Yan and Xu's disciples Gong Huyi, Huansheng, and Danzi all became officials of the rites. Xiao Fan from Xiaqiu, by virtue of his understanding of the *Book of Rites*, rose to the position of the Prefect of Huaiyang. Thus, those who excel in writing praise poems and study the *Book of Rites* have learned from the Xu family.
Meng Qing is from Donghai. He once studied under Xiao Fen and then passed on his knowledge to Hou Cang and Lu Qiu Qing of Lu. Hou Cang's explanation of the *Book of Rites* is a sprawling treatise, known as Hou Cang's *Qu Tai Record*. He passed on this knowledge to Wen Ren Tong and Hanzi Fang, both from Peixian, as well as Liang Dai De Yan Jun, Dai Sheng Ci Jun, and Qing Pu Xiao Gong of Peixian. Qing Pu Xiao Gong later became the chief tutor of Dongping. Dai De was known as the Great Dai and became the chief tutor of Xindu; Dai Sheng, known as the Little Dai, participated in discussions at the Shiqu Pavilion and later became the Prefect of Jiujiang. This led to the three major schools of the Great Dai, Little Dai, and Qing. Wen Ren Tong became an attendant to the crown prince, participated in discussions at the Shiqu Pavilion, and later became the Commander of Zhongshan. Qing Pu passed on his knowledge to Xiahou Jing of Lu, who in turn passed it on to his cousin Xian, who later became the Prefect of Yuzhang. The Great Dai passed on his knowledge to Xu Liang Yi Qing of Langye, who served as a scholar, provincial governor, and county magistrate, and the tradition continued in his family for generations. The Little Dai passed on his knowledge to Qiao Ren Ji Qing of Liang and the descendants of Yang Rong. Qiao Ren became the Grand Herald, and his family continued this tradition for generations, while Yang Rong became the Prefect of Langye. Thus, the Great Dai school had the Xu family as its main lineage, while the Little Dai school was carried on by the Qiao and Yang families.
Hu Muzidou, from the state of Qi, was proficient in the "Gongyang Chunqiu" and served as an imperial scholar for Emperor Jing. He was colleagues with Dong Zhongshu, who praised his character in his works. In his later years, Hu returned to Qi to teach, where he was respected as a teacher by everyone in Qi studying the "Gongyang Chunqiu." Even Gongsun Hong learned a lot from him. Dong Zhongshu later became the Prefect of Jiangdu, with his own achievements recorded separately. His most notable students included Chu Da of Lanling, Ying Gong of Dongping, Duan Zhong of Guangchuan, and Bu Shu of Wenlv. Chu Da became the Prime Minister of Liang, Bu Shu became the Chief Secretary, while only Ying Gong continued to uphold his teacher's teachings. He later became the Imperial Advisor to Emperor Zhao and also taught Donghai Meng Qing and Lu Sui Meng. Meng Qing served as a Commandant of the Palace Attendants and was killed for discussing unusual events. The careers of all these men are documented elsewhere.
Yan Pengzu, courtesy name Gongzi, was a native of Xiapi in the East Sea. He studied under Suì Mèng along with Yan Anle. Suì Mèng had more than a hundred students, but only Pengzu and Yan Anle stood out as the best. They often questioned each other and shared their opinions. Suì Mèng said, "These two guys, that's where the real heart of the *Spring and Autumn Annals* is!" After Suì Mèng passed away, Pengzu and Yan Anle each established their own schools and taught students. And that's how the *Gongyang Annals* got its Yan and Yan schools. Pengzu later became a scholar in the imperial academy under Emperor Xuan, rising to the position of Prefect of Henan Commandery. Due to his outstanding achievements, he was promoted to a high-ranking official and later appointed as the top advisor to the Crown Prince. He was upright and never flattered those in power. Someone told him, "It's not just about timing, you know? If you don't play the game a bit, don't schmooze the bigwigs, you won't get anywhere, even if you're brilliant. You gotta try a little harder!" Pengzu replied, "Look, studying the classics is about following the old ways. You can't just sell out for a fancy job and go along with whatever everyone else is doing!" Pengzu eventually retired from his position as the top advisor to the Crown Prince. One of his descendants became a high-ranking official in the imperial court under Emperor Yuan, continuing a long family tradition of learning. His descendant Wang Zhong later became a court official, and his teachings produced Gong Sunwen and Dong Menyun from the same county. Dong Menyun became the Inspector of Jingzhou, while Gong Sunwen became the Grand Tutor of Dongping, with many students of their own. But Dong Menyun was falsely accused of being a river bandit and executed.
Yan Anle, courtesy name Gongsun, was a native of Xue County in the state of Lu and was the son of Suì Mèng's sister. Despite his poor family background, he studied diligently and eventually became the deputy Prefect of Qi Commandery. However, he was eventually murdered by enemies.
Yan Anle once taught Huaiyang Lingfeng and Zichuan Rengong. Lingfeng later became a governor, and Rengong became the Minister of the Lesser Treasury. Therefore, the Yan family inherited the knowledge of the Ling and Ren families. Initially, Gong Yu started working for Gong Gong, and thanks to Sui Meng, he became the Grand Commandant; Shu Guang worked for Meng Qing and eventually became the Grand Tutor. These people's deeds are all recorded. Shu Guang also taught Langye Guanlu, who later became the Chief Censor. Gong Yu also taught Tangxi Hui from Yingchuan, who then taught Taishan Mingdu, who later became the Minister of State. Mingdu and Guanlu both studied under Yan Anle, so the Yan family also inherited the knowledge of the Guan and Ming families. Guanlu also taught Sun Bao, who later became the Grand Minister of Works, and his deeds are also recorded. Lingfeng also taught Magong and Langye Zuo Xian. Zuo Xian served as a Prefect and commanded a large number of people. Magong eventually rose to the position of Grand Minister of Works, and his deeds are also recorded.
In the Jiang family, Jiang Gong learned "Guliang Chunqiu" and "Shijing" from Lu Shengong, and this knowledge was passed down from generation to generation, with his grandchildren becoming scholars. During the time of Emperor Wu, Jiang Gong was renowned alongside Dong Zhongshu. Dong Zhongshu was well-versed in the "Five Classics," had strong debating skills, and wrote well. Jiang Gong was not eloquent, and Emperor Wu had him discuss knowledge with Dong Zhongshu, but he couldn't match him. At the time, Prime Minister Gongsun Hong was originally studying the "Gongyang Chunqiu." He organized their discussions and ultimately adopted Dong Zhongshu's views. As a result, the Emperor began to value the "Gongyang Chunqiu" and ordered the Crown Prince to study it, leading to the prosperity of the "Gongyang Chunqiu." Once he'd mastered "Gongyang Chunqiu," the Crown Prince secretly took up "Guliang Chunqiu" and loved it.
Later, the Gu Liang Annals gradually declined, and only two people, Rong Guang Wang Sun and Hao Xing Gong, were still studying it. Rong Guang Wang Sun was a real whiz, a master of both the Book of Songs and the Spring and Autumn Annals. He had high talent and quick reactions. He wiped the floor with Sui Meng, the top Gongyang scholar, time and again in their debates, so many scholars began to study the Gu Liang Annals again. Cai Qianqiu (young lord of Pei), Zhou Qing (young lord of Liang), and several members of the Ding clan all became Rong Guang Wang Sun's students. Qianqiu also studied diligently under Hao Xing Gong. After Emperor Xuan ascended the throne, he heard that Crown Prince Wei liked the Gu Liang Annals, so he asked Prime Minister Wei Xian, Advisor Xiahou Sheng, and Official Shigao— all of whom were from Lu—which was better, the Gu Liang Annals or the Gongyang Annals. They said that the Gu Liang Annals was the learning of Lu, and the Gongyang Annals was the learning of Qi, so the Gu Liang Annals should be promoted. At that time, Qianqiu was a court official in the palace. The emperor summoned him to explain alongside scholars of the Gongyang Annals. The emperor was more impressed with Qianqiu's take on the GLA, so he promoted him to be an advisor and concurrently an official. Later, Qianqiu messed up and got demoted to county magistrate in Pingling. The emperor wanted to find someone else who understood the Gu Liang Annals but could not find anyone better than Qianqiu. The emperor was gutted that this knowledge was about to die out, so he made Qianqiu a court official and selected ten officials to study under him. Qianqiu's former student, Ruyang Yinneng Shiweng, was also a GLA expert, but unfortunately, Qianqiu later died of illness. Therefore, the emperor summoned the grandson of Jiang Gong to be a doctor. Liu Xiang, who had previously been an advisor and was highly esteemed by the emperor, was also studying the Gu Liang Annals. The emperor wanted him to keep the tradition alive.
Jiang Gong's grandson also died, and the emperor summoned Zhou Qing and members of the Ding family to the palace to serve as court officials, allowing them to continue teaching the ten junior officials. Starting from the Yuan Kang period until the first year of Ganlu, a total of more than ten years, these ten junior officials mastered the material. Then, the emperor gathered renowned scholars in the field of the "Five Classics," such as Imperial Tutor Xiao Wangzhi, to conduct a major discussion in the palace, comparing the similarities and differences between the "Gongyang Chunqiu" and the "Guliang Chunqiu," using classical texts to arbitrate the debate. At that time, Gongyang proponents such as Yan Pengzu, Shen Yan, Yi Tui, and Song Xian; and Guliang proponents including Yin Gengshi, Liu Xiang, Zhou Qing, and members of the Ding family all participated in the discussion. The Gongyang proponents largely failed to persuade, and they requested that court official Xu Guang join the discussion; the emperor also allowed the young official Wang Hai from the Guliang side to participate, with five representatives from each side discussing over thirty points of contention in total. Xiao Wangzhi and the other ten scholars presented their arguments based on the interpretations of the classics, with the majority supporting the views of the "Guliang Chunqiu."
From then on, the Guliang school of thought gained prominence. A member of the Ding family eventually became Grand Tutor of Zhongshan, and he also taught Shen Zhangchang of Chu, who also became a scholar and later rose to the position of Grand Tutor of Changsha, leading to more people studying the "Guliang Chunqiu." Yin Gengshi became a censor and the commander of Changle Household; he also studied the "Zuo Zhuan," organizing the parts that were similar in meaning to the "Guliang Chunqiu" and passing them on to his son Yin Xian and Zhai Fangjin, as well as Fang Feng from Langye. Yin Xian later became the Minister of Works, while Zhai Fangjin became the Prime Minister, and they also passed on this knowledge.
Fang Feng, styled Ziyuan, was no ordinary guy. He passed the civil service exam and became the Taishi's historian. Later, he was recommended by the Taishi's top guy to be the magistrate, and he also served as a county magistrate and sheriff, but later lost his position. The Grand Marshal recommended him to fill the vacancy of the chief record-keeper, praising him for knowing his stuff when it came to Confucian classics and being a real scholar. As a result, Fang Feng was promoted to a high-ranking official and later rose to the position of a general in the emperor's guard. At that time, the Emperor's tutor Wang Gong, being a relative of the emperor, and the attendant Liu Xin, were reviewing books together, both being palace attendants. Liu Xin believed that "The Spring and Autumn Annals" could be used as the national standard classic, and Emperor Ai adopted his suggestion, asking other scholars, but none could answer. Liu Xin went to see the Prime Minister Kong Guang several times to seek his support for "The Spring and Autumn Annals," but Kong Guang refused. Only Fang Feng and Wang Gong supported Liu Xin, and they together criticized the Grand Minister of the Taishi in a letter, which was recorded in the "Biography of Xin." The Minister of Public Works Shi Dan reported that Liu Xin had badmouthed the classics established by the previous emperor, so the emperor ordered Wang Gong and Liu Xin to get new jobs: Wang Gong went to Hongnong, Liu Xin went to Henan, and Fang Feng was appointed as the governor of Jiujiang, eventually rising to governor of Qingzhou. Going back to the earliest times, Jiang Boshi passed down "The Annals of Gu Liang" to Hu Chang, who then passed it down to Liang Xiao Bingjun Fang. By the time Wang Mang was in power, the Fang family was already big scholars. So, there you have it – the four main schools of thought behind the Gu Liang Annals: Yin, Hu, Shen Zhang, and Fang.
After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, Zhang Cang, Marquis of Beiping, Jia Yi, Grand Tutor of Liang, Zhang Chang, Intendant of Jingzhao, and Liu Gongzi, a Grand Master of the Palace, all studied the "Zuo Zhuan" (Commentary of Zuo). Jia Yi even made annotations to the "Zuo Zhuan" and transmitted it to Guan Gong from Zhao, who became a scholar at the court of King Xian of Hejian. His son, Guan Changqing, became the Magistrate of Dangyin and handed down the "Zuo Zhuan" to the eldest son of Zhang Yu from Qinghe. Zhang Yu and Xiao Wangzhi served as Imperial Censors at the same time and often discussed the "Zuo Zhuan." Xiao Wangzhi liked it very much and recommended it several times. Later, Xiao Wangzhi became the Grand Tutor of the Crown Prince and recommended Zhang Yu to Emperor Xuan. Zhang Yu was summoned to the palace to be a Taizhao (a kind of court attendant), but before he could be asked anything, he died of illness. The "Zuo Zhuan" was then transmitted to Yin Gengshi. He passed it on to his son Yin Xian, as well as to Zhai Fangjin and Hu Chang. Hu Chang handed it over to Jia Hu from Liyang, who was a courtier in the palace during the reign of Emperor Ai. Jia Hu passed it on to Chen Yi, the son of Chen Qin from Cangwu, and Chen Yi transmitted the "Zuo Zhuan" to Wang Mang, who later became a general! Liu Xin learned the "Zuo Zhuan" from Yin Xian and Zhai Fangjin. So basically, everyone who studied the "Zuo Zhuan" learned it from Jia Hu or Liu Xin.
It is said that starting from Emperor Wu of Han, they started appointing scholars specializing in the Five Classics, recruiting students, holding examinations to select talents, and using official positions and salaries to encourage learning. This continued until the beginning of the Yuan Shi era of Wang Mang's Xin Dynasty, over a hundred years later. The number of people studying and teaching the classics increased, and schools of thought developed and grew. Just the annotations of a single classic text amounted to millions of characters, and there were over a thousand eminent scholars. In short, the promise of power and wealth fueled the study of classics!
At the beginning, *Shangshu* only had Ouyang Xiu's commentary, *Liji* only had later commentaries, *Zhouyi* only had Yang Xiong's commentary, and *Spring and Autumn Annals* only had the Gongyang commentary. Under Emperor Xuan of Han, commentaries were added for the Xiahou Shangshu, the Xiahou Liji, the Shi, Meng, and Liangqiu Yi, and the Guliang Chunqiu. Under Emperor Yuan of Han, commentaries were added for Jing Fang's *Jingshi Yi*; under Emperor Ping of Han, commentaries were added for *Zuoshi Chunqiu*, *Mao Shi*, *Yili*, and the ancient texts of *Shangshu*. The aim was to collect and preserve as many lost texts as possible.
