The Xiongnu's ancestors were descendants of the Xia dynasty, known as Chunwei. During the time of Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun, tribes such as the Shanrong, Xianyun, and Xunyu lived in the northern borderlands. They resided in the northern frontiers and migrated according to the availability of pastures and water sources. They primarily raised horses, cattle, and sheep, along with some rare animals like camels, donkeys, mules, and various superior breeds of horses. They lived a nomadic lifestyle, moving with the water and grass, without fixed cities or agricultural practices. However, the various tribes had clearly defined territories. The Xiongnu had no written language and relied on oral communication to regulate their behavior. Children would ride sheep and use bows and arrows to shoot birds and rodents. As they grew older, they could hunt foxes and rabbits, primarily living on meat. Adult men who were strong enough to draw a bow became cavalry soldiers, equipped with armor.
Their customs dictated that in peaceful times, they survived through herding and hunting; in times of crisis, everyone was accustomed to fighting and raiding, as it was in their nature. Their primary weapons were bows and arrows, while their melee weapons included knives and short spears. Their combat strategy was to advance when advantageous and retreat when disadvantaged, never considering retreat shameful. They sought only profit and disregarded propriety or morality. From kings to commoners, they ate meat, wore leather, and used fur clothing to keep warm. The young and strong ate the best food, while the old and weak could only eat leftovers. They admired strength and health while despising the elderly and weak. After a father’s death, the son could marry his stepmother; after a brother’s death, the younger brother could marry the widow. Their customs included having names but no courtesy titles.
After the fall of the Xia dynasty, Gong Liu lost his position as an agricultural official and joined the Western Rong tribes, settling in the Bin region. Over 300 years later, the Rong and Di tribes attacked King Tai of Zhou, forcing him to flee to the foot of Mount Qi. The people of Bin followed him, settled down, and established the Zhou state. Over 100 years later, King Wen of Zhou campaigned against the Quan Yi. A decade later, King Wu of Zhou overthrew King Zhou of Shang, established Luoyi, and moved to Feng and Hao, driving the Rong and Di tribes north of the Jing and Luo Rivers and demanding their tribute. These regions were called “Huangfu” (remote dependencies). Over 200 years later, during the decline of the Zhou dynasty, King Mu of Zhou campaigned against the Quan Rong and brought back four white wolves and four white deer. From then on, the Rong and Di tribes stopped paying tribute, prompting the Zhou dynasty to establish the "Lü Xing" laws to govern the borderlands.
During the reign of King Mu’s grandson, King Yi of Zhou, the Zhou royal family weakened further, and the Rong and Di tribes frequently invaded, causing severe destruction to the Central Plains. The people of the Central Plains suffered greatly, prompting poets to compose works expressing their anger, such as *“Homeless and displaced, all because of the Xianyun”* and *“Why not stay vigilant? The Xianyun are pressing hard.”* During the reign of King Xuan of Zhou, the great-grandson of King Yi, the Zhou royal family raised an army to campaign against the Rong and Di tribes. Poets praised this victory in works like *“We campaigned against the Xianyun, reaching Taiyuan”* and *“The chariots rumbled, fortifying Shuofang.”* At that time, the various barbarian tribes submitted, marking a period known as the "Central Revival."
During the reign of King You of Zhou, he favored his concubine Bao Si, which led to a deterioration in his relationship with Queen Shen. In anger, Queen Shen’s father, the Marquis of Shen, allied with the Quan Rong tribe to attack King You. They killed him at the foot of Mount Li, seized Zhou territory, looted its treasures, and settled between the Jing and Wei Rivers, continuing to harass the Central Plains. Duke Xiang of Qin sent troops to assist the Zhou dynasty, leading King Ping of Zhou to relocate the capital to Luoyi, abandoning Feng and Hao. At that time, Duke Xiang of Qin campaigned against the Rong and Di tribes, reaching the foot of Mount Li, and was subsequently recognized as a feudal lord.
Sixty-five years later, the Shanrong tribes crossed Yan territory to attack the Qi state. Duke Xi of Qi fought the Shanrong outside Qi’s borders. Forty-four years later, the Shanrong attacked the Yan state, prompting Yan to seek help from Qi. Duke Huan of Qi led a northern campaign against the Shanrong, driving them back. Over twenty years later, the Rong and Di tribes attacked Luoyi, forcing King Xiang of Zhou to flee to Fanyi in the Zheng state. Earlier, King Xiang had married a woman from the Di tribe to ally with them against Zheng. However, he later deposed the Di queen, who became resentful. Meanwhile, King Xiang’s stepmother, Queen Hui, sought to install her son, Prince Dai, as king. She colluded with the Di queen and Prince Dai, inviting the Rong and Di tribes into the Zhou capital, driving out King Xiang, and installing Prince Dai as king.
Some Rong and Di tribes settled in Luhun, while others migrated eastward to the Wei state, where they caused severe disturbances. After four years of exile, King Xiang sent emissaries to seek help from the Jin state. Duke Wen of Jin, newly enthroned and eager to establish his hegemony, led an army to campaign against the Rong and Di tribes, executed Prince Dai, and escorted King Xiang back to Luoyi. At that time, Qin and Jin were the dominant powers. Duke Wen of Jin expelled the Rong and Di tribes, resettling them between the Western River, Yuan River, and Luo River, where they were known as the Red Di and White Di. Meanwhile, Duke Mu of Qin, with the aid of You Yu, subdued the eight Western Rong states, making them vassals of Qin.
As a result, west of Mount Long were tribes such as the Mianzhu, Quanrong, and Diwang; north of Mount Qi, Mount Liang, and the Jing and Qi Rivers were Rong and Di tribes like the Yiqu, Dali, Wushi, and Quyan; north of the Jin state were the Linhu and Loufan; and north of the Yan state were the Donghu and Shanrong. These tribes were scattered across mountain valleys, each with its own leader, forming over a hundred small tribes without unified leadership.
Over a century later, Duke Dao of Jin sent Wei Jiang to negotiate with the Rong and Di tribes, who submitted to Jin. Another century later, Zhao Xiangzi crossed Mount Juzhu to defeat the Rong and Di tribes, seizing Dai territory and controlling the Linhu and Mo tribes. Later, Zhao allied with Han and Wei to overthrow Zhibo and divide Jin’s territory. Zhao gained control of Dai and the regions north of Mount Juzhu, while Wei acquired the Western River and Shangjun, bordering the Rong and Di tribes. Subsequently, the Yiqu Rong built cities to defend themselves but were gradually annexed by Qin. During the reign of King Hui of Qin, Qin captured 25 cities from the Yiqu Rong.
When King Hui of Qin attacked Wei, Wei ceded the Western River and Shangjun to Qin. During the reign of King Zhaoxiang of Qin, the Yiqu Rong king had an affair with Queen Dowager Xuan of Qin, fathering two sons. Queen Dowager Xuan later plotted to kill the Yiqu Rong king at Ganquan Palace and sent troops to annihilate the Yiqu tribe. From then on, Qin occupied Longxi, Beidi, and Shangjun, building the Great Wall to defend against the Xiongnu.
The Chanyu (ruler of the Xiongnu) had a crown prince named Modu. Later, the Chanyu became particularly fond of one of his wives, a Yanzhi (a title for a wife), who bore him a younger son. As a result, Chanyu Touman wanted to depose Modu and make his younger son the heir. To achieve this, he sent Modu as a hostage to the Yuezhi. After Modu was sent as a hostage, Touman suddenly launched an attack on the Yuezhi. Enraged, the Yuezhi wanted to kill Modu. However, Modu managed to steal a fine horse and escape back to the Xiongnu. Touman, impressed by Modu's bravery, put him in charge of 10,000 cavalry.
To consolidate his position, Modu created a special type of whistling arrow (known as a "鸣镝") and trained his soldiers in archery. He issued an order: “Whenever you hear the whistling arrow, everyone must shoot in the same direction. Anyone who does not shoot will be executed.” During a hunting trip, Modu shot a whistling arrow at a target, and when some soldiers failed to follow, he immediately executed them. After some time, Modu deliberately shot his whistling arrow at one of his prized horses. When some soldiers hesitated to shoot, he executed them as well. Later, he shot a whistling arrow at his beloved wife; though his men were afraid, some still hesitated to shoot, and Modu executed them too. Finally, during another hunt, Modu shot his whistling arrow at his father Touman’s favorite horse. This time, all of his men followed and shot the horse. Modu realized that his soldiers were now completely loyal to him.
Soon after, Modu accompanied his father Touman Chanyu on a hunting trip. During the hunt, Modu fired his whistling arrow at Touman, and all his soldiers followed, killing Touman. Modu then executed his stepmother, younger brother, and any disobedient ministers, proclaiming himself Chanyu.
After Modu became Chanyu, the Donghu kingdom was very powerful at the time. Upon hearing that Modu had killed his father to seize power, the Donghu sent envoys to Modu, saying, “We want the swift horse that belonged to Touman Chanyu.” Modu consulted his ministers, who all said, “That horse is a treasure of the Xiongnu and cannot be given away.” However, Modu replied, “How can we risk offending a neighboring state over a single horse?” and sent the horse to the Donghu. Shortly afterward, the Donghu, believing Modu was afraid of them, sent another envoy, saying, “We want one of the Chanyu’s wives.” Modu again consulted his ministers, who were furious and said, “The Donghu are too insolent! How dare they demand the Chanyu’s wife! Let us go to war with them!” But Modu replied, “How can we risk offending a neighboring state over a single woman?” and sent his beloved wife to the Donghu.
The Donghu king became even more arrogant and began encroaching on Xiongnu territory. Between the Xiongnu and Donghu lay a stretch of uninhabited wasteland. The Donghu sent envoys to Modu, saying, “That wasteland between us is of no use to the Xiongnu. We want it.” Upon hearing this, Modu asked his ministers for advice. Some ministers said, “It’s just a wasteland, so it doesn’t matter if we give it to them.” Modu became furious and said, “Land is the foundation of a nation. How can we casually give it away?” He then ordered the execution of those who proposed giving the land to the Donghu.
Afterward, Modu personally mounted his horse and ordered the entire nation to follow him on a military campaign, warning that anyone who lagged behind would be executed. He led his army eastward to attack the Donghu. The Donghu, initially underestimating Modu, were unprepared, and Modu launched a sudden assault, decisively defeating the Donghu. He killed the Donghu king and captured a large number of people and livestock. After his triumphant return, Modu turned westward to attack the Yuezhi, driving them away. He then moved south to annex the territories of the Loufan and Baiyang Henan kings, reclaiming lands that had been occupied by the Qin dynasty under General Meng Tian. These territories extended to the Han dynasty’s border regions, including areas such as Zhaona and Fushi. Modu even invaded the regions of Yan and Dai.
At that time, the Han dynasty had just been established and was still engaged in conflict with Xiang Yu. The Central Plains were exhausted from years of war. Taking advantage of this opportunity, Modu strengthened the Xiongnu, building an elite cavalry force of over 300,000 soldiers.
From the Xiongnu’s ancestor Chunwei to Chanyu Touman, over a thousand years had passed. The strength of the Xiongnu had fluctuated over time, with periods of unity and division, and their long history made it difficult to trace the exact lineage of their rulers. However, under Modu, the Xiongnu reached their peak, unifying the northern tribes and becoming a formidable rival to the southern Han dynasty. During Modu’s reign, the Xiongnu’s governmental structure and administrative system gradually took shape.
The Chanyu’s surname was Luandi, and within the Xiongnu, he was referred to as “Chengli Gutu Chanyu.” The Xiongnu called the sky “Chengli,” referred to sons as “Gutu,” and used the title “Chanyu” to signify boundlessness, symbolizing the vastness of the heavens. The Xiongnu established positions such as Left and Right Wise Kings, Left and Right Guli, and Left and Right Generals, with the Left and Right Wise Kings holding the highest ranks. Among the Xiongnu nobility, the Huyan, Lan, and Xubu clans were the most prominent. The Xiongnu tribes were scattered across different regions, living a nomadic lifestyle by following water and grasslands. The territories of the Left and Right Wise Kings were the largest, and they assisted the Chanyu in managing state affairs.
Every year in the first month, tribal leaders gathered at the Chanyu’s court for rituals. In May, a grand ceremony was held in Longcheng to worship ancestors, heaven, earth, and spirits. In autumn, when the horses were fat, the tribes assembled in Dailin to count the population and livestock. The Xiongnu had strict laws: those who drew their swords in fights were executed, and thieves had their property confiscated. Criminals were either flogged or executed, with trials lasting no more than ten days. Across the entire tribe, there were usually only a few prisoners.
During the reigns of Emperor Hui and Empress Dowager Lü of the Han dynasty, Modu grew increasingly arrogant. He sent a letter to Empress Dowager Lü, saying:
“I, a lonely ruler, was born in the marshlands and raised in the plains among cattle and horses. I often wander near the border, longing to visit China. Your Majesty is alone, as am I. Two rulers are unhappy and unable to protect themselves. I am willing to offer all that I have in exchange for what you lack.”
Empress Dowager Lü was furious upon reading this and convened a meeting with Chancellor Chen Ping, Fan Kuai, Ji Bu, and others to discuss killing the envoy and launching a campaign against the Xiongnu. Fan Kuai said, “Give me 100,000 troops, and I will sweep through the Xiongnu.” When Ji Bu was consulted, he replied, “Fan Kuai should be executed! During Chen Xi’s rebellion in Dai, the Han army mobilized 320,000 soldiers, and Fan Kuai was the supreme general. Yet at that time, the Xiongnu besieged Emperor Gaozu at Pingcheng, and Fan Kuai failed to break the siege. The entire empire lamented, singing: ‘The suffering beneath Pingcheng was great! Seven days without food, even the crossbows could not be drawn.’ Now, the songs of lament have not yet faded, and the wounded have only just recovered. Yet Fan Kuai dares to boast of sweeping through the Xiongnu with 100,000 troops—this is self-deception. Furthermore, the barbarians are like beasts; kind words will not please them, and harsh words will not anger them.”
Empress Dowager Lü agreed, saying, “Well said.” She then instructed the Grand Messenger Zhang Ze to reply to Modu’s letter, saying:
“The Chanyu has not forgotten our country and has honored us with a letter, for which we are deeply grateful. We are old and frail, our teeth and hair are falling out, and we can barely walk. The Chanyu must not believe false rumors that tarnish our reputation. Our country is innocent and deserves forgiveness. We have two imperial carriages and a pair of horses, which we humbly offer as tribute.”
Upon receiving the letter, Modu sent envoys to express his gratitude, saying, “I had never heard of China’s customs of propriety, but Your Majesty’s gracious forgiveness has enlightened me.” He then presented horses as tribute, establishing peace through marriage alliances.
After Emperor Wen ascended the throne, he resumed the policy of peace and marriage alliances with the Xiongnu. In the summer of the third year of his reign, the Right Wise King of the Xiongnu invaded the Henan region. In response, Emperor Wen issued an edict stating:
"The Han and the Xiongnu have an agreement to be like brothers, and the borders should not be violated. The Han has been generous in its tributes to the Xiongnu. Now, the Right Wise King has left his own territory and brought his people to reside in Henan, which is an unusual situation. He has entered and exited the frontier, hunted down officials, and harassed the barbarian tribes in Shangjun who guard the borders, making it impossible for them to live there. He has oppressed border officials, invaded, and plundered, acting lawlessly. This is not in accordance with our agreement. Therefore, I have dispatched 80,000 cavalry from the border garrisons to Gaonu and sent Chancellor Guan Ying to attack the Right Wise King."
The Right Wise King fled beyond the frontier, and Emperor Wen went to Taiyuan. At that time, the King of Jibei rebelled, so Emperor Wen returned and withdrew the forces sent by the chancellor to attack the Xiongnu.
The following year, the Chanyu sent a letter to the Han court, stating:
"The Great Chanyu of the Xiongnu, established by Heaven, respectfully inquires about the health of the Emperor. Previously, the Emperor mentioned the matter of peace and marriage alliances, and our intentions align. However, Han border officials attacked the Right Wise King. Without seeking permission, the Right Wise King followed the advice of Hou Yilu and quarreled with Han officials, breaking the agreement between our two nations and severing the brotherly relationship. The Emperor sent letters and envoys to address this, but they did not arrive, and the Han envoys have not come. As a result, the Han has become estranged, and neighboring states have also distanced themselves. Now, due to the failure of a few officials, the Right Wise King has been punished and forced westward to seek the Yuezhi for assistance in an attack. Thanks to Heaven's blessings, our officials are competent, our horses are strong, and we have defeated the Yuezhi, completely annihilating their forces. The 26 states, including Loulan, Wusun, and Huqie, as well as neighboring regions, have all submitted to the Xiongnu. All bow-wielding peoples have become one family, and the northern regions are now stable. I hope to cease hostilities, rest my soldiers, raise horses, put past matters behind us, and restore the old agreement. This will bring peace to the border people, allow the young to achieve success, and the elderly to live in peace, ensuring generations of tranquility and happiness. Not knowing the Emperor's intentions, I have sent the envoy Langzhong Xihu Qian to deliver this letter and present a camel, two riding horses, and two carriages."
After receiving the letter, Emperor Wen responded with a letter to the Chanyu in the sixth year of his reign, stating:
"The Emperor respectfully inquires about the health of the Great Chanyu of the Xiongnu. The envoy Xihu Qian delivered your letter, which expressed the wish to cease hostilities, resolve past grievances, and restore the old agreement to bring peace to the border people and ensure generations of happiness. I deeply appreciate this sentiment, as it aligns with the aspirations of the ancient sage kings. The Han and the Xiongnu have an agreement to be like brothers, and we have treated the Chanyu with great generosity. Those who break the agreement and sever the brotherly relationship are often found among the Xiongnu. As for the matter of the Right Wise King, it occurred before forgiveness was granted and should not be pursued further. If the Chanyu is sincere in his intentions, he should clearly inform his officials so that they do not violate the agreement and maintain trust as expressed in the Chanyu's letter. The envoy mentioned that the Chanyu has made great achievements in unifying the states, which must have been a laborious military endeavor. I am sending gifts, including embroidered robes, silk garments, long shirts, brocade robes, one bisu (a type of decorative cloth), a golden belt, a gold xipi (a type of ornament), ten bolts of embroidered silk, twenty bolts of brocade, and forty bolts each of red and green silk. These are sent with Zhong Dafu Yi and Yezheling Jian to present to the Chanyu."
Not long after, Modu Chanyu passed away, and his son Jizhu succeeded him, taking the title "Lao Shang Chanyu."
After Lao Shang Chanyu ascended the throne, Emperor Wen once again sent a princess from the imperial family to marry the Chanyu and assigned the eunuch Zhonghang Yue to accompany her as her tutor. Zhonghang Yue was reluctant to go but was forced by the Han court. Zhonghang Yue remarked, "It will surely be me who brings trouble to the Han."
Upon arriving in the Xiongnu, Zhonghang Yue defected to the Chanyu, who greatly favored him.
Initially, the Chanyu admired Han silk and food. Zhonghang Yue advised him, saying, "The Xiongnu are numerous, but they cannot match even one commandery of the Han. The reason for their strength lies in their distinct customs, which differ from the Han. If the Chanyu changes these customs and favors Han goods, even though Han goods are but a tenth of what the Xiongnu possess, the Xiongnu will completely submit to the Han. If you obtain Han silk, it will tear and wear out as you ride through the grasslands, and it will be far less durable than fur clothing. As for Han food, it will be discarded, as it is less convenient and tasty than curdled milk." He then taught the Chanyu's officials to maintain written records to better manage the population and livestock.
The Han court's letters to the Chanyu were written on one-foot-long paper and began with "The Emperor respectfully inquires about the health of the Great Chanyu of the Xiongnu." The gifts and language used were consistent with this tone. Zhonghang Yue, however, suggested that the Xiongnu use two-foot-long paper and larger seals, arrogantly instructing: "The Great Chanyu of the Xiongnu, born of Heaven and established by the Sun and Moon, respectfully inquires about the health of the Emperor of the Han." The gifts and language were adjusted accordingly.
When Han envoys criticized Xiongnu customs for disrespecting the elderly, Zhonghang Yue countered, saying, "When Han soldiers are stationed at the frontier or on campaign, do their families not suffer from a lack of warmth and abundant food?" The Han envoy replied, "Yes." Zhonghang Yue continued, "The Xiongnu prioritize warfare. The elderly and weak cannot fight, so they are given the best food to strengthen themselves for self-defense. This way, fathers and sons can protect each other. How can this be called disrespect for the elderly?"
The Han envoy then criticized the Xiongnu for living in the same tents as their fathers and brothers, and for marrying stepmothers or sisters-in-law after the death of a father or brother. He also noted their lack of ceremonial caps and courtyards. Zhonghang Yue responded, "The Xiongnu eat meat, drink broth, wear leather, and move with their livestock. In times of need, they are skilled at riding and shooting; in times of leisure, they enjoy idleness. Their governance is simple, making administration easy. Their ruler-subject relationships are straightforward, ensuring stability. When a father or brother dies, their wives marry others, which shows disregard for bloodlines. Yet, even in times of chaos, the Xiongnu always establish a leader from within their clan. In contrast, while the Han prohibit marrying a father or brother's wife, kinship ties are weak, leading to mutual killings and even changes in surnames. This is no different. Moreover, the loss of propriety leads to discord between rulers and subjects, weakening the nation's foundations. Farmers toil for food and clothing, build fortifications for self-defense, and thus cannot adapt to war in times of need or work during times of leisure. Pity those who live in earthen houses—what use are constant complaints or ceremonial caps?"
From then on, whenever Han envoys tried to argue, Zhonghang Yue would dismiss them, saying, "There’s no need for excessive words. The silk and grains the Han send to the Xiongnu must be of good quality and sufficient quantity. If they are not, the losses will be regrettable, and how will the autumn harvest fare?"
In the 14th year of Emperor Wen's reign, the Xiongnu Chanyu led 140,000 cavalry into Chaona and Xiaoguan, killing the Commandant of Beidi, Ang, and capturing a large number of people and livestock. They then advanced to Pengyang. Their cavalry entered and burned the Zhonggong Palace, with scouts reaching Yong and Ganquan. In response, Emperor Wen appointed Zhongwei Zhou She and Langzhongling Zhang Wu as generals, deploying 1,000 war chariots and 100,000 cavalry to station near Chang'an to guard against the Xiongnu invasion. At the same time, he appointed Chang Marquis Lu Qing as General of Shangjun, Ning Marquis Wei Xi as General of Beidi, Longlü Marquis Zhou Zao as General of Longxi, Dongyang Marquis Zhang Xiangru as Grand General, and Cheng Marquis Dong Chi as General, sending large forces of chariots and cavalry to attack the Xiongnu. The Chanyu lingered within the frontier for over a month. When the Han forces moved beyond the frontier, the Xiongnu retreated, and the campaign yielded no significant results. The Xiongnu grew increasingly arrogant, launching annual invasions of the border, killing and capturing many people, with Yunzhong and Liaodong suffering the most, resulting in over 10,000 casualties. The Han court was deeply troubled and sent envoys to write letters to the Xiongnu. The Chanyu responded with a letter of thanks and once again mentioned the matter of peace and marriage alliances.
In the second year of Emperor Wen's reign, an envoy was sent to the Xiongnu with a letter stating:
"The Emperor respectfully inquires about the health of the Great Chanyu of the Xiongnu. The envoys Danghu Qiequ Diaoqunan and Langzhong Han Liao brought me two horses, which have been received with gratitude. The late Emperor decreed that the bow-wielding nations north of the Great Wall follow the Chanyu's orders, while those within the Great Wall adhere to my regulations, enabling the people to farm, weave, hunt, and provide for their needs, allowing fathers and sons to remain together, rulers and subjects to live in harmony, and society to be free from tyranny. Recently, I have heard that the Xiongnu people, driven by greed and submission, have abandoned their agreements, forgotten the decrees for the welfare of the people, and disrupted the harmony between our two nations. However, such matters have already occurred. The Book of Documents states, ‘The two nations have established peace and harmony, their rulers are joyful, weapons are laid down, soldiers rest, and generations prosper and thrive, ushering in a new era.’ I deeply admire this sentiment. The wise renew themselves daily, bringing about new beginnings, allowing the elderly to rest, the young to grow, and all to safeguard their leaders and enjoy long lives. Both the Chanyu and I follow this path, aligning with Heaven's will, caring for the people, ensuring this legacy endures for generations, and spreading its benefits infinitely, earning universal praise.
The Han and Xiongnu are neighboring states. The Xiongnu reside in the northern lands, where it is cold, and the killing frost descends early. Thus, I have decreed that officials send supplies such as millet, gold, silk, and cotton to the Chanyu every year. Now, the world is at peace, and the people are flourishing. Only the Chanyu and I serve as their guardians. Reflecting on past events, I see that minor matters, trivial disputes, and the mistakes of advisors are not enough to disrupt the brotherly bond between us. I have heard that Heaven does not favor one side, nor does the Earth bear unevenly. The Chanyu and I should both set aside minor grievances, follow the great path, eliminate past enmities, and strive for lasting peace, so that the peoples of our two nations may live as one family. All living beings, from the fish and shrimp below to the birds above, and even the animals that walk and breathe, seek safety and avoid danger. This is the way of Heaven. By discarding past grievances, I will release fugitive subjects, and the Chanyu need not mention Zhangni and others.
I have heard that ancient kings made clear agreements and never broke their word. If the Chanyu takes this to heart, the world will be at peace. After the peace and marriage alliance, the Han will not act first. The Chanyu should consider this carefully."
The Chanyu agreed to the peace and marriage alliance and issued an edict to the Censorate:
"The Great Chanyu of the Xiongnu has written to me, and the peace and marriage alliance has been established. The loss of a few people is not worth expanding the land. The Xiongnu shall not enter the frontier, nor shall the Han cross the frontier. Those who violate this agreement shall be executed. This will ensure lasting peace and prevent future troubles. Let this be implemented, and the terms announced to the world for all to understand."
Four years later, Lao Shang Chanyu passed away, and his son Junchen Chanyu succeeded him. Zhonghang Yue continued to handle relations between the Han and the Xiongnu. The Han court renewed the peace and marriage alliance with the Xiongnu.
A little over a year after Junchen Chanyu ascended the throne, the Xiongnu broke off the peace agreement and launched a major invasion with 30,000 cavalry into Shangjun and Yunzhong, killing and capturing many people. The Han court dispatched three generals to garrison Beidi, Dai at Juzhu, and Zhao at Feihukou, each firmly guarding their posts to prevent Xiongnu incursions. Three additional generals were stationed near Chang'an at Xiliu, Jimen in Weibei, and Bashang to guard against the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu cavalry reached the Dai and Juzhu border, and beacon fires were lit, signaling as far as Ganquan and Chang'an. A few months later, Han forces arrived at the border, and the Xiongnu withdrew. The Han forces also ceased their operations.
A year later, Emperor Wen passed away, and Emperor Jing ascended the throne. Meanwhile, the King of Zhao secretly sent envoys to the Xiongnu. During the rebellion of Wu and Chu, they conspired with Zhao to invade the border. After the Han defeated Zhao, the Xiongnu ceased their actions. From then on, Emperor Jing resumed peace and marriage alliances with the Xiongnu, reopened border markets, provided gifts to the Chanyu, and sent a princess as part of the agreement. Until Emperor Jing's death, there were occasional small-scale border incursions but no large-scale invasions.
After Emperor Wu ascended the throne, he reinforced the terms of the peace agreement, generously treated the border markets, and provided abundant supplies. From the Chanyu down to his subordinates, the Xiongnu maintained close relations with the Han, frequently interacting below the Great Wall.
The Han envoy, Nie Wengyi from Mayi, conducted trade with the Xiongnu in the marketplace, pretending to sell the city of Mayi to lure the Chanyu. The Chanyu believed the news and, tempted by the wealth of Mayi, led 100,000 cavalry into Wuzhou Pass. The Han ambushed over 300,000 troops near Mayi, with Imperial Counselor Han Anguo serving as General of the Guard and leading four generals in the ambush to confront the Chanyu. When the Chanyu entered the Han frontier and was less than 100 li (about 50 kilometers) from Mayi, he noticed livestock grazing on the grasslands without anyone herding them, which aroused his suspicion. He attacked a local post, where Yanmen Commandant Shixingjiao spotted the enemy and defended the post. After capturing the post, the Chanyu intended to kill the commandant. Knowing the Han's plan, the commandant revealed it to the Chanyu. Startled, the Chanyu exclaimed, "I had already suspected this!" and immediately withdrew his forces. After retreating beyond the frontier, the Chanyu said, "Capturing the commandant was Heaven's will," and declared him the "Heavenly King."
The Han forces had planned to allow the Chanyu to enter Mayi and indulge his troops, but since the Chanyu never arrived, the ambush yielded no results. General Wang Hui's forces advanced from Dai to attack the Xiongnu's supply convoy but, upon hearing of the Chanyu's return with a larger force, dared not engage. The Han court was displeased with Wang Hui's strategy and eventually executed him. From that point on, the Xiongnu severed relations with the Han, frequently attacked the borders, and launched countless invasions. However, the Xiongnu remained greedy and eager to trade with the Han, while the Han continued conducting trade with the Xiongnu through border markets.
Five years after the Battle of Mayi, in the autumn, the Han dispatched four generals, each leading 10,000 cavalry, to attack the Xiongnu. General Wei Qing set out from Shanggu, reached Longcheng, and captured 700 Xiongnu leaders. Gongsun He departed from Yunzhong but gained no spoils. Gongsun Ao set out from Dai Commandery but was defeated by the Xiongnu, losing 7,000 men. Li Guang departed from Yanmen but was also defeated, captured by the Xiongnu, and later escaped. The Han court imprisoned Gongsun Ao and Li Guang, but both were later released as commoners. That winter, several thousand Xiongnu raiders attacked the border, particularly in the Yuyang area. The Han sent General Han Anguo to defend Yuyang against the Xiongnu.
The following autumn, 20,000 Xiongnu cavalry invaded Han territory, killed the Grand Administrator of Liaoxi, and captured over 2,000 people. They also defeated the Yuyang Grand Administrator's forces and besieged Han Anguo. Han Anguo's cavalry was nearly exhausted when the Yan Kingdom arrived to reinforce him, forcing the Xiongnu to retreat. The Xiongnu then invaded Yanmen, killing and capturing over 1,000 people. In response, the Han dispatched General Wei Qing with 30,000 cavalry from Yanmen, while Li Xi advanced from Dai Commandery. They defeated the Xiongnu, capturing several thousand leaders.
The following year, Wei Qing launched another campaign from Yunzhong, advancing westward to Longxi, where he defeated the Xiongnu's Loufan and Baiyang Kings, capturing several thousand leaders and over one million sheep. As a result, the Han successfully occupied the Henan region, constructed Shuofang, and restored the frontier fortifications originally built by Qin general Meng Tian. The Han relied on the river for defense and abandoned Doubi County in Shanggu, building Yangdi to supply the Xiongnu. This occurred in the second year of the Yuanshuo era.
That winter, Junchen Chanyu passed away, and his younger brother, the Zuoxianli King Yizhixie, proclaimed himself Chanyu, defeating Junchen Chanyu's crown prince. After Junchen's death, his son surrendered to the Han, who granted him the title of Marquis Zhi'an, though he passed away a few months later.
After Yizhixie Chanyu ascended the throne, that summer, tens of thousands of Xiongnu cavalry invaded Dai Commandery, killed the Grand Administrator Gong You, and captured over 1,000 people. In the autumn, they invaded Yanmen, killing and capturing over 1,000 people. The following year, they invaded Dai Commandery, Dingxiang, and Shangjun, each with 30,000 cavalry, killing and capturing thousands. The Xiongnu's Right Wise King resented the Han for seizing the Henan region and building Shuofang, launching frequent raids on the border. They even entered the Henan region, harassing Shuofang and killing many officials and civilians.
The following spring, the Han sent Wei Qing with six generals and over 100,000 troops to Gaoque in Shuofang. The Right Wise King, thinking the Han forces would not arrive, became drunk on wine. The Han forces advanced 600-700 li (about 300 kilometers) beyond the frontier and surrounded the Right Wise King at night. Startled, the Right Wise King fled, followed by his elite cavalry. The Han generals captured 15,000 Xiongnu men and women, along with over ten minor kings. In the autumn, 10,000 Xiongnu cavalry invaded Dai Commandery, killed Commandant Zhu Yang, and captured over 1,000 people.
The following spring, the Han again dispatched Grand General Wei Qing with six generals and 100,000 cavalry to advance several hundred li into Dingxiang to attack the Xiongnu. They captured nearly 20,000 leaders but lost two generals and over 3,000 cavalry. The Right General Jian managed to hold his ground, but the Forward General, Marquis Xihe Zhao Xin, faced defeat and defected to the Xiongnu. Zhao Xin, previously a minor Xiongnu king, had surrendered to the Han and been made Marquis Xihe. He fought alongside the Forward and Right Generals but was surrounded by the Chanyu's forces. The Chanyu treated Zhao Xin as a king, gave him his sister in marriage, and conspired with him against the Han. Zhao Xin advised the Chanyu to sever all ties with the Han to lure their forces into retreat, allowing the Xiongnu to capture them without approaching the frontier. The Chanyu followed his advice.
The following year, tens of thousands of Xiongnu cavalry invaded Shanggu, killing several hundred people.
The next spring, the Han sent Grand General Wei Qing with six generals and 100,000 cavalry to once again advance several hundred li into Dingxiang to attack the Xiongnu. Meanwhile, the Han dispatched the Cavalry General Huo Qubing with 10,000 cavalry, who traveled over 1,000 li through the Yanqi Mountains, capturing over 8,000 Xiongnu leaders and seizing the golden statue used by the Xiutu King for sacrifices. In the summer, Huo Qubing and Marquis Heqi led tens of thousands of cavalry through Longxi and Beidi, traveling 2,000 li to attack Qilian Mountain, capturing over 30,000 Xiongnu leaders and more than ten minor kings.
During this time, the Xiongnu again invaded Dai Commandery and Yanmen, killing and capturing several hundred people. The Han sent Marquis Bowang and General Li Guang to attack the Xiongnu's Left Wise King in Youbeiping. The Left Wise King besieged Li Guang, whose army of 4,000 lost more than half its men. Though the casualties inflicted on the Xiongnu were also significant, Li Guang was ultimately rescued by Bowang's reinforcements but lost his entire army. Marquis Bowang faced criticism, and he was later stripped of his title and demoted to a commoner.
In the autumn, the Chanyu, angered by the Han's killing of tens of thousands of Xiongnu under the Kunxie and Xiutu Kings in the west, planned to summon and execute them. Fearing for their lives, the Kunxie and Xiutu Kings plotted to surrender to the Han. The Han sent Huo Qubing to receive them. Kunxie killed the Xiutu King and surrendered to the Han with his followers, numbering over 40,000, claiming a total of 100,000. As a result, the Han gained control over Kunxie, and the Xiongnu incursions into Longxi, Beidi, and Hexi significantly decreased. The Han relocated impoverished people from east of the passes to the Henan region seized from the Xiongnu to fill the population void, reducing the number of border troops stationed in the west by half.
The following spring, the Xiongnu again invaded Youbeiping and Dingxiang with tens of thousands of cavalry, killing and capturing over 1,000 people.
In the spring of that year, the Han court devised a strategy, believing that "Marquis Xihe Zhao Xin was part of the Chanyu's plot, stationed in the northern desert, thinking that the Han army could not reach them." Thus, they prepared supplies and mobilized 100,000 cavalry, secretly provisioning 140,000 horses, but did not distribute the heavy grain supplies. They ordered Grand General Wei Qing and Cavalry General Huo Qubing to divide their forces, with Wei Qing departing from Dingxiang and Huo Qubing from Dai, coordinating their attacks against the Xiongnu.
When the Chanyu learned of this, he prepared his supplies from afar and stationed his elite troops in the northern desert. He engaged in a fierce battle with the Han Grand General for an entire day. At dusk, a strong wind arose, and the Han troops surrounded the Chanyu from both flanks. Realizing he could not resist the Han forces, the Chanyu fled northwest with only a few hundred warriors. The Han soldiers pursued through the night but failed to capture him. They killed or captured 19,000 enemies and advanced as far as Mount Tanyan and Zhao Xin City before returning.
After the Chanyu fled, his forces became disorganized and scattered. Some followed him, but he was separated from his main army for an extended period. The Right Guli King, believing the Chanyu was dead, declared himself the new Chanyu. However, the original Chanyu eventually reunited with his forces, and the Right Guli King relinquished his claim and resumed his former position.
Huo Qubing advanced over 2,000 li (approximately 1,000 kilometers) from Dai and engaged the Xiongnu's Left King in battle. The Han forces captured over 70,000 Xiongnu leaders, and the Left King's generals fled. Huo Qubing stationed his troops at Mount Langjuxu, Changuyan, and near Lake Hanhai before returning.
From that point onward, the Xiongnu retreated far to the north, and there were no royal courts south of the desert. The Han crossed the rivers and, from Shuofang westward to Lingju, frequently built canals and established agricultural offices. Officials and soldiers numbering 50,000 to 60,000 gradually occupied the land, extending Han territory northward to the Xiongnu's former borders.
Initially, when the two Han generals surrounded the Chanyu, they killed or captured 80,000 to 90,000 Xiongnu, but the Han army also suffered over 10,000 casualties, and more than 100,000 horses died. Although the Xiongnu were severely weakened and retreated far away, the Han's loss of horses left them unable to launch further attacks. The Chanyu, following Zhao Xin's advice, sent envoys with kind words to request peace and marriage ties. The emperor deliberated on the matter, with some proposing peace while others suggested continuing to subjugate the Xiongnu. Chancellor's Secretary Ren Chang argued, "The Xiongnu have just been defeated; we should compel them to become vassals and pay tribute at the border." Thus, the Han sent Ren Chang to meet the Chanyu. Upon hearing Ren Chang's proposal, the Chanyu became furious and detained him. Previously, other Han envoys had also defected to the Xiongnu, and the Chanyu similarly detained them. Meanwhile, the Han were regrouping their soldiers and horses. During this time, Huo Qubing passed away, and the Han did not launch any northern campaigns for a long period.
Several years later, Yizhixie Chanyu, who had ruled for 13 years, passed away, and his son Wuwei succeeded him. This was the third year of the Yuanding era. After Wuwei Chanyu ascended the throne, Emperor Wu of Han began inspecting the counties and commanderies. Subsequently, the Han launched a southern campaign against the two Yue states, ceasing attacks on the Xiongnu, and the Xiongnu also refrained from invading the border.
In the third year of Wuwei's reign, after the Han had conquered the two Yue states, they dispatched the former Grand Minister of the Imperial Household, Gongsun He, with 15,000 cavalry. They marched over 2,000 li (approximately 1,000 kilometers) to Fujujing and joined forces with Marquis Piao, Zhao Ponu. Together, they defeated over 10,000 Xiongnu cavalry, advancing several thousand li to the Xiongnu River. However, they did not encounter a single Xiongnu and returned.
At that time, the emperor inspected the borders and personally visited Shuofang, assembling 180,000 cavalry to display Han military strength. He sent Guo Ji to deliver a message to the Chanyu. When Guo Ji arrived in Xiongnu territory, the Xiongnu's master of guests inquired about his purpose. Guo Ji respectfully replied, "I have come to meet the Chanyu with a verbal message." When the Chanyu met Guo Ji, he said, "The head of the King of Nanyue now hangs beneath the northern gate of Han. If the Chanyu is willing to fight the Han, the emperor himself will lead troops to the border and await him. If not, the Chanyu should quickly submit to the Han and face south in allegiance. Why continue to flee and hide in the cold, barren northern desert?" Upon hearing this, the Chanyu became enraged, immediately executed the Xiongnu officials who had met Guo Ji, detained Guo Ji, and humiliated him by sending him to the North Sea. However, the Chanyu ultimately refrained from raiding the Han border, instead focusing on resting his troops and horses, practicing archery and hunting, and frequently sending envoys with kind words to request peace.
Han envoys such as Wang Wu spied on Xiongnu activities. The Xiongnu had regulations prohibiting Han envoys from abandoning their seals, tattooing their faces with ink, or entering the Chanyu's tent. Wang Wu, a native of Beidi accustomed to Xiongnu customs, removed his seal, tattooed his face, and entered the tent. The Chanyu took a great liking to him and outwardly agreed, saying, "I will send my crown prince to the Han as a hostage to seek peace."
The Han sent Yang Xin to the Xiongnu. At the time, the Han were campaigning in the east against the Wiman Joseon and establishing commanderies, while in the west, they established Jiuquan Commandery to block the Xiongnu's communication with the Qiang. The Han also established trade with the Yuezhi and Daxia, married a Han princess to the King of Wusun, and sought to weaken Xiongnu alliances in the west. They expanded northward to Guangtian, reaching Xuanlei as a defensive line, leaving the Xiongnu unable to make further demands. That year, Marquis Xihe Zhao Xin passed away, and Han strategists believed the Xiongnu were now weak enough to be subdued.
Yang Xin, known for his upright and unyielding character, was not of noble birth, so the Chanyu did not favor him. The Chanyu summoned Yang Xin to his palace, but Yang Xin refused to remove his seal and could only meet the Chanyu outside the tent. Yang Xin said to the Chanyu, "If you wish for peace, send your crown prince to the Han as a hostage." The Chanyu replied, "This is not part of the old agreement. The old agreement was that the Han would regularly send princesses and provide silk and food in exchange for peace, and the Xiongnu would cease border raids. Now you demand my crown prince as a hostage—this is excessive."
Among the Xiongnu, it was customary to view Han envoys who were not high-ranking nobles or Confucian scholars as attempting to persuade them, thereby weakening their arguments. Younger Xiongnu believed these envoys sought to assassinate them, diminishing their morale. Whenever Han forces invaded Xiongnu territory, the Xiongnu would retaliate. When the Han detained Xiongnu envoys, the Xiongnu would detain Han envoys in turn, and only under appropriate conditions would they release them.
After Yang Xin returned, Han envoy Wang Wu and others were sent to the Xiongnu again. The Xiongnu, using sweet words to deceive and gain more wealth from the Han, tricked Wang Wu by saying, "I wish to enter Han territory to meet the emperor and become his brother." Upon Wang Wu's return and report, the Han court built a residence in Chang'an for the Chanyu. However, the Xiongnu declared, "If there are no high-ranking Han envoys, I will not sincerely negotiate with the Han." The Xiongnu then sent one of their nobles to the Han court, but unfortunately, the envoy fell ill, took medicine to recover, and died. The Han envoy Lu Zhongguo, bearing the seal of a high-ranking official and carrying generous gifts worth thousands of gold coins, was sent to the Xiongnu. The Chanyu, believing the Han had killed his noble envoy, detained Lu Zhongguo and refused to let him return. The Chanyu's claims were entirely deceitful, as he had no intention of entering Han territory or sending his crown prince as a hostage. As a result, the Xiongnu repeatedly sent surprise forces to raid Han borders. In response, the Han appointed Guo Chang as General of the Ba Hu Army and stationed him along with Marquis Zhuoye east of Shuofang to guard against the Xiongnu.
Wuwei Chanyu ruled for ten years before passing away. His son, Zhanshi Lu, succeeded him as the new Chanyu, but as he was young, he was referred to as the "Child Chanyu." This was the sixth year of the Yuanfeng era. From then on, the Xiongnu expanded westward, with their left flank reaching Yunzhong and their right flank advancing to Jiuquan and Dunhuang.
After the Child Chanyu ascended the throne, the Han court sent two envoys—one to offer condolences to the Chanyu and another to the Right Wise King—hoping to sow discord among the Xiongnu. When the envoys arrived, the Xiongnu received them all. The Chanyu, however, grew furious and detained all the Han envoys. Over ten Han envoys were detained in total, while the Xiongnu envoys sent to the Han were similarly held.
That year, the Han dispatched General Ershi to campaign against Dayuan (Ferghana) and ordered General Yu to build Shouxiang Fortress. In the winter, heavy rains and snow fell in Xiongnu territory, causing many livestock to die from hunger and cold. Meanwhile, the young Chanyu, fond of violence, created unrest in his country. The Left Grand Protector plotted to kill the Chanyu and sent spies to inform the Han court: "I intend to kill the Chanyu and surrender to the Han. Once the Han army arrives, I will act." Upon hearing this, the Han began constructing Shouxiang Fortress, though they still considered the distance too great for immediate action.
The following spring, the Han sent Marquis Zhuoye with 20,000 cavalry, advancing over 2,000 li (approximately 1,000 kilometers) northward, intending to return after reaching Mount Xunji. Zhuoye arrived as planned, but the Left Grand Protector's plot was discovered, and the Chanyu executed him and sent troops to attack Zhuoye. Zhuoye captured several thousand Xiongnu leaders. On his return journey, about 400 li (approximately 200 kilometers) from Shouxiang Fortress, Zhuoye's forces were surrounded by 80,000 Xiongnu cavalry. While searching for water at night, Zhuoye was captured by the Xiongnu, who immediately attacked his army. The officers, fearing the loss of their commander, blamed one another, and no one rallied the troops, resulting in the complete annihilation of the Han army. The Chanyu, overjoyed, then launched an attack on Shouxiang Fortress, but failing to capture it, retreated after raiding the border. The following year, the Chanyu planned to personally attack Shouxiang Fortress but died before reaching it.
The Child Chanyu ruled for three years before passing away. His young son was deemed too inexperienced to rule, so the Xiongnu enthroned the Right Wise King, Juleihu, who was the younger brother of Wuwei Chanyu, as the new Chanyu. This was the third year of the Taichu era.
After Juleihu Chanyu ascended the throne, the Han court sent Guanglu Xuzi to build fortifications extending several hundred li from Wuyuan, with some areas stretching as far as 1,000 li. They constructed walls and watchtowers up to Luqu. At the same time, the Han sent Guerrilla General Han Yue and Marquis Changping Wei Kang to garrison nearby, while Strong Crossbow Commander Lu Bode built defensive structures at Juyan Marsh.
In the autumn, the Xiongnu launched a large-scale invasion of Yunzhong, Dingxiang, Wuyuan, and Shuofang, killing and capturing thousands of people. They defeated the Han forces stationed in these areas, destroying the fortifications and watchtowers built by Guanglu. The Xiongnu's Right Wise King also invaded Jiuquan and Zhangye, capturing thousands of people. However, Ren Wen led a counterattack, recovering the lost property before retreating. Upon hearing that General Ershi had defeated Dayuan and killed its king, the Chanyu considered intercepting him but did not dare to act. That winter, the Chanyu fell ill and died.
Juleihu Chanyu ruled for just one year before passing away. His younger brother, the Left Grand Protector Qiedihou, succeeded him as Chanyu.
After the Han had subdued Dayuan, their prestige spread among the foreign tribes. Emperor Wu sought to further weaken the Xiongnu and issued an edict, stating: "The worry of Pingcheng left to me by Emperor Gaozu and the Chanyu's defiance during Empress Gao's reign must be avenged. In ancient times, Duke Xiang of Qi avenged a grudge that spanned nine generations, as recorded in the *Spring and Autumn Annals*." This was the fourth year of the Taichu era.
Qiedihou Chanyu, newly enthroned and fearing a Han attack, released all Han envoys, including Lu Zhongguo, who had refused to surrender. The Chanyu consoled himself, saying, "My son, how could he dare to aspire to the Han emperor! The Han emperor is my father-in-law." The Han court sent Colonel Su Wu with generous gifts to bribe the Chanyu, who became even more arrogant and treated the Han envoys with cold indifference, as the Han court did not expect much progress. The following year, Marquis Zhuoye defeated the Xiongnu leader Nude and successfully returned to the Han.
The next year, the Han dispatched General Ershi with 30,000 cavalry to Jiuquan to attack the Right Wise King at the Tian Mountains, capturing over 10,000 enemies before returning. However, the Xiongnu launched a large-scale counterattack, nearly trapping General Ershi. The Han army suffered losses of 60-70%. Meanwhile, General Yu led an expedition to Xihe, joining forces with Strong Crossbow Commander Lu Bode at Mount Zhuoxie, but suffered heavy losses. Cavalry Commander Li Ling led 5,000 infantry over 1,000 li north of Juyan to engage the Chanyu. Although Li Ling inflicted over 10,000 casualties on the Xiongnu, his troops ran out of supplies and were surrounded by the Chanyu. Li Ling ultimately surrendered to the Xiongnu, with only 400 of his men returning to the Han. The Chanyu greatly valued Li Ling, even marrying his daughter to him.
Two years later, the Han sent General Ershi with 60,000 cavalry and 70,000 infantry to Shuofang. Strong Crossbow Commander Lu Bode led over 10,000 troops to join Ershi, while Guerrilla General Han Yue led 30,000 infantry from Wuyuan, and General Yu led 10,000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry from Yanmen. Upon hearing of the Han's movements, the Xiongnu withdrew their main forces north of the Yuwu River, while the Chanyu stationed 100,000 troops south of the river to confront Ershi. After over ten days of fighting, Ershi retreated. The Chanyu engaged in battle for another ten days, while Guerrilla General Han Yue lost all his spoils of war. General Yu clashed with the Left Wise King but was forced to retreat after unfavorable outcomes.
The following year, Qiedihou Chanyu passed away after ruling for five years. His eldest son, the Left Wise King, succeeded him as Hulugu Chanyu. This was the first year of the Taishi era.
Initially, Qiedihou Chanyu had two sons: the elder was the Left Wise King, and the younger was the Left General. Before the Left General died of illness, he recommended that the Left Wise King be made Chanyu. However, when the Left Wise King was delayed in arriving, the Xiongnu nobles believed he was gravely ill and instead enthroned the Left General's son as Chanyu. Upon hearing this, the Left Wise King hesitated to advance. The new Chanyu summoned the Left Wise King and offered to abdicate. The Left Wise King declined, citing illness, but the new Chanyu insisted, saying, "If I should die, the position will pass to me." The Left Wise King agreed and was thus enthroned as Hulugu Chanyu.
After Hulugu Chanyu ascended the throne, he appointed the Left General as the Left Wise King. A few years later, Hulugu Chanyu passed away. His son, Xianxian Dan, was not able to succeed the throne and was instead made the Rizhu King, a position lower than that of the Left Wise King. The Chanyu considered his son, the Left Wise King, to be of higher status.
Six years into Hulugu Chanyu's reign, the Xiongnu invaded Shanggu and Wuyuan, killing many civilians. That same year, they invaded Wuyuan and Jiuquan again, killing two Han commanders. In response, the Han court sent General Ershi with 70,000 troops to Wuyuan, Grand Minister of Justice Shangqiu Cheng with over 30,000 troops to Xihe, and Marquis Zhonghe Mang Tong with 40,000 cavalry from Jiuquan, marching over 1,000 li (approximately 500 kilometers). Upon hearing of the large-scale Han military deployment, the Chanyu mobilized his logistics and relocated the residents north of Zhao Xin City to the Zhiju River. The Left Wise King drove the people to cross the Yuwu River, traveling 600 to 700 li (approximately 300 to 350 kilometers), and stationed them at Mount Douxian. The Chanyu personally led elite troops across the Guqie River.
When the Grand Minister of Justice's army arrived, they pursued the Xiongnu but failed to find the enemy and returned. The Xiongnu sent a general and Li Ling with over 30,000 cavalry to pursue the Han army. The two sides fought at Mount Xunji for nine days, during which the Han army faced difficulties but inflicted heavy casualties on the enemy. When they reached the Punu River, the Xiongnu, finding themselves in an unfavorable position, retreated.
Marquis Zhonghe's army reached the Tianshan Mountains. The Xiongnu sent General Yanqu and the Left and Right Hu Zhi Kings with over 20,000 cavalry to confront the Han forces. However, upon seeing the strength of the Han army, they withdrew. Marquis Zhonghe achieved no significant results. At this time, the Han court, concerned that the Cheshi forces might block Marquis Zhonghe, sent Marquis Kailing with troops to attack Cheshi separately. They eventually captured the Cheshi king and many soldiers before returning.
General Ershi prepared to march beyond the border. The Xiongnu sent the Right Grand Protector and Wei Lü with 5,000 cavalry to ambush the Han army in the narrow terrain of Mount Fuyangju. General Ershi dispatched 2,000 allied Hu cavalry to engage the Xiongnu, resulting in the enemy's defeat and hundreds of casualties. The Han army pursued the fleeing Xiongnu to Fan Furen City, where the Xiongnu scattered and fled, with no one daring to resist. At this time, General Ershi received news that his wives had been implicated in witchcraft back in the Han court, causing him great anxiety and fear. Hu Yafu, a clerk who had joined the army to escape punishment, said to General Ershi, "Your wives' families are under the control of the authorities. If you return without achieving satisfactory results, won't you face punishment? Can you even meet them again north of Zhiju?" General Ershi hesitated but decided to press forward to achieve merit. He continued northward and reached the Zhiju River.
The Xiongnu had already retreated. General Ershi sent a deputy general with 20,000 cavalry to cross the Zhiju River. One day, Ershi encountered the Left Wise King and the Left General, who led 20,000 cavalry to engage the Han army in a day-long battle. The Han forces killed the Left General and inflicted heavy casualties on the Xiongnu. However, the army's chief clerk and the Juesui Commander Marquis Huiqu conspired, saying, "The general has ulterior motives and seeks glory through reckless risks. This will surely lead to disaster." They united to arrest General Ershi. Upon learning of this, General Ershi executed the chief clerk and led his troops back to Mount Suoxie Wuyanran. The Chanyu, aware that the Han army was exhausted, personally led 50,000 cavalry to attack General Ershi's forces, causing heavy losses. At night, the Chanyu dug trenches several feet deep in front of the Han army and launched a surprise attack from the rear, throwing the Han forces into chaos. In the end, General Ershi surrendered. The Chanyu, already familiar with Han generals and nobles, married his daughter to General Ershi, giving him a status even higher than Wei Lü.
The following year, the Chanyu sent an envoy to deliver a letter to the Han court, stating: "To the south is the powerful Han, and to the north are the mighty Hu. The Hu people are favored by Heaven and will not trouble themselves over trivial matters. I now wish to open major trade routes with the Han, marry a Han woman as my wife, and receive 10,000 shi of glutinous rice, 5,000 hu of millet, and 10,000 bolts of mixed silk annually. Everything else shall proceed according to previous agreements, and the borders will remain peaceful." The Han court sent an envoy to reply. The Chanyu, however, humiliated the Han envoy, saying, "The Han is a nation of propriety. Why did General Ershi and the crown prince rebel?" The envoy replied, "Indeed. The chancellor and the crown prince quarreled. The crown prince mobilized troops to kill the chancellor, but the chancellor framed him, leading to the chancellor's death. The boy misused his father's army, which was a minor offense deserving a flogging at most. But who could compare to Modu Chanyu, who personally killed his father to seize the throne? Truly a beastly act!" The Chanyu detained the envoy, releasing him only three years later.
General Ershi remained with the Xiongnu for over a year. Wei Lü, once favored, fell out of favor due to jealousy. When his mother, the Yanzhi, fell ill, Wei Lü urged the Hu shamans, saying, "Previously, the Chanyu was angry because the Hu people did not offer sacrifices during their attacks, often saying they would use General Ershi for the altar. Why not use him now?" General Ershi was then sacrificed in a ritual. Furious, he declared, "Even in death, I will destroy the Xiongnu!" Afterward, heavy rains and snow fell for months, killing many livestock from hunger and cold. Epidemics spread among the people, and food shortages grew severe. The Chanyu, terrified, built a shrine to honor General Ershi.
After General Ershi's capture, the Han court lost a great general and tens of thousands of soldiers, and no further military campaigns were launched. Three years later, Emperor Wu passed away. For over twenty years prior, the Han army had pursued the Xiongnu deep into their territory, inflicting severe damage and leaving the Xiongnu in great suffering. From the Chanyu down, there were frequent proposals for peace.
Three years later, the Chanyu sought to establish peace with the Han but fell ill and died. Initially, the Chanyu had a half-brother who served as the Left Grand Protector, named Xian, who was well-regarded by the people. However, the Chanyu's mother, Yanzhi, feared the Chanyu would pass the throne to the Left Grand Protector instead of her own son, so she secretly arranged for his assassination. The Left Grand Protector's full brother harbored resentment and refused to return to the Chanyu's court. When the Chanyu fell gravely ill, he told his nobles, "My son is too young to govern the state. Make my younger brother, the Right Guli King, the Chanyu." After the Chanyu's death, Wei Lü and Zhuanqu Yanzhi conspired to conceal his death. They pretended the Chanyu was still alive and held a drinking ceremony with the nobles, during which they enthroned the Left Guli King as Huyandi Chanyu. This was the second year of the Shiyuan era.
When Huyandi Chanyu had just ascended the throne, he expressed to Han envoys his desire for peace and alliance through marriage. However, the Left Wise King and the Right Guli King, resentful for not being able to ascend the throne, gathered their followers and planned to defect south to the Han dynasty. Fearing for their safety, they threatened the Lutu King and sought to ally with the western Wusun to attack the Xiongnu. The Lutu King informed the Chanyu, but the Right Guli King refused to accept responsibility and instead blamed the Lutu King, causing widespread grievances among the Xiongnu people. As a result, the two princes left their residences and never returned to Longcheng (the Xiongnu capital).
Two years later, in the autumn, the Xiongnu invaded Dai Commandery and killed the commandant. The Chanyu, being young and newly enthroned, faced instability within his kingdom due to his mother, the Yanzhi, behaving improperly. The internal turmoil left them constantly worried about a Han attack. To address this, Wei Lü advised the Chanyu, saying, “Dig wells, build fortresses, and construct granaries and watchtowers to store food. Defend together with the Qins (Han people). When the Han troops arrive, we will have nothing to fear.” Consequently, they dug hundreds of wells and felled thousands of trees for construction. However, some argued that the nomadic Xiongnu were incapable of defending cities, and such actions would only leave supplies behind for the Han. Wei Lü then abandoned this plan and instead proposed releasing Han envoys Su Wu and Ma Hong, who had refused to surrender. Ma Hong, who had been sent to the Western Regions by former Vice Grand Herald Wang Zhong, was intercepted by the Xiongnu. Wang Zhong was killed in battle, but Ma Hong survived and also refused to surrender. The Xiongnu decided to return these two envoys to the Han to demonstrate goodwill. By this time, the Chanyu had been in power for three years.
The following year, the Xiongnu dispatched 20,000 cavalry from their left and right divisions, splitting into four groups to raid the Han border. Han forces pursued and killed or captured 9,000 enemies, including capturing Outuo King alive, without suffering any losses. Seeing that the Outuo King was now in Han custody, the Xiongnu grew fearful of an attack and retreated northwest, avoiding the southern pastures. They stationed their people at Outuo. The next year, they sent 9,000 cavalry to garrison Shouxian Fortress as a precaution against the Han. They also stationed troops at the northern bridge of the Yuwu River to prevent desertion. By this time, Wei Lü had already passed away. While alive, Wei Lü often advocated for the benefits of peace through marriage, but the Xiongnu did not believe him. After his death, the Xiongnu forces weakened further, and the nation became even more impoverished. The Chanyu’s younger brother, the Left Guli King, remembered Wei Lü’s words and wished to seek peace through marriage but feared that the Han would not agree. Thus, he did not dare to propose it outright. Instead, he frequently sent messengers to gather information from Han envoys. Meanwhile, Xiongnu incursions became less frequent, and their attitude toward Han envoys grew more amicable, reflecting their desire for peace. The Han court remained vigilant about these developments. Later, the Left Guli King passed away.
The following year, the Chanyu sent King Liwu to scout the border. Reports came back that the military forces in Jiuquan and Zhangye were weakening, prompting the Xiongnu to attempt an attack, hoping to reclaim these territories. At this time, the Han court received intelligence from a Xiongnu defector about this plan. The emperor ordered increased border defenses. Shortly after, the Right Wise King and King Liwu led 4,000 cavalry, splitting into three groups to raid Rile, Wulan, and Fanhou. The governor of Zhangye and the commandant of the allied states mobilized troops to counterattack, inflicting heavy losses on the Xiongnu, with only a few hundred escaping. Yi Qu Wang, a thousand-man commander of the allied states, killed King Liwu with an arrow. He was rewarded with 200 jin of gold, 200 horses, and was granted the title of King Liwu. The allied states' commandant, Guo Zhong, was enfeoffed as Marquis of Cheng'an. From then on, the Xiongnu no longer dared to invade Zhangye.
The following year, the Xiongnu sent over 3,000 cavalry into Wuyuan, killing thousands of people. Later, tens of thousands of cavalry moved south to besiege border outposts, attacking officials and civilians outside the forts and looting them. At this time, the Han border commanderies were on high alert, and the Xiongnu raiders gained little benefit from their incursions, making them hesitant to attack again. The Han court received intelligence from Xiongnu defectors that the Wuhuan had preemptively attacked the Chanyu’s tomb, enraging the Xiongnu. In retaliation, the Xiongnu sent 20,000 cavalry to attack the Wuhuan. General-in-Chief Huo Guang considered launching a campaign against the Xiongnu and consulted Colonel Protector Zhao Chongguo. Zhao believed, “The Wuhuan have repeatedly raided the border. Now that the Xiongnu are attacking them, it benefits the Han. Moreover, the Xiongnu’s interest in plundering has waned, and the northern frontier is relatively peaceful. If we attack them while they are engaged with the Wuhuan, it may provoke new incursions. This is not advisable.” Huo Guang then consulted Zhonglang General Fan Mingyou, who believed an attack was feasible. As a result, Huo Guang appointed Fan Mingyou as General of Crossing the Liao, leading 20,000 cavalry to campaign in Liaodong.
Upon hearing of the Han army’s approach, the Xiongnu retreated. Initially, Huo Guang instructed Fan Mingyou, “The troops must not be deployed in vain. Follow behind the Xiongnu and then attack the Wuhuan.” At that time, the Wuhuan were under attack by the Xiongnu. Taking advantage of the situation, Fan Mingyou attacked the Wuhuan from the rear, killing over 6,000, capturing three kings, and returning victorious. He was enfeoffed as Marquis of Pingling.
The Xiongnu, now fearful, refrained from further military campaigns. They sent envoys to the Wusun, seeking a Han princess. At the same time, they attacked the Wusun, seizing the territories of Cheyan and Eshi. The Wusun princess wrote to the Han court requesting assistance, but no decision was made. After Emperor Zhao’s death, Emperor Xuan ascended the throne. The Kunmi (king) of Wusun again petitioned the Han, stating, “We have endured years of Xiongnu harassment. The Kunmi is willing to send half of our nation’s elite troops and 50,000 horses to repel the Xiongnu. We only ask for the Son of Heaven to send troops to rescue the princess!”
In the second year of the Benshi era, the Han court launched a large-scale recruitment of elite soldiers from east of the Hangu Pass, selecting officials with ranks of 300 dan or higher and skilled archers and horsemen to join the army. The Han dispatched Grand Minister of Justice Tian Guangming as General of Qilian, leading over 40,000 cavalry to march from Xihe; General of Crossing the Liao Fan Mingyou with over 30,000 cavalry from Zhangye; General of the Front Han Zeng with over 30,000 cavalry from Yunzhong; General of the Rear Zhao Chongguo as General of Pulei, leading over 30,000 cavalry from Jiuquan; and Yunzhong Governor Tian Shun as General of Tiger Teeth, leading over 30,000 cavalry from Wuyuan. Altogether, the five generals commanded more than 100,000 cavalry, each advancing over 2,000 li (approximately 1,000 kilometers) beyond the border. Colonel Chang Hui also led troops to the Wusun in the Western Regions, while the Kunmi led over 50,000 cavalry from the west. Combined, the forces totaled over 200,000.
Hearing of the massive Han military mobilization, the Xiongnu fled, with the elderly and weak scattering and livestock driven away. As a result, the five generals achieved limited success.
The General of Crossing the Liao River advanced over 1,200 li (approximately 600 kilometers) beyond the border, reaching the Puli Marquis River. He killed or captured over 700 enemies and seized more than 10,000 horses, cattle, and sheep. The General of the Front advanced over 1,200 li to Wuyuan, where he killed or captured over 100 enemies and seized more than 2,000 horses, cattle, and sheep. The General of Pulei originally planned to join forces with the Wusun to attack the Xiongnu at Pulei Marsh, but the Wusun arrived early and left before the Han forces could rendezvous with them. The General of Pulei advanced over 1,800 li westward to Mount Hou, killing or capturing more than 300 enemies and seizing over 7,000 horses, cattle, and sheep. Upon hearing that the enemy had retreated, none of the generals returned on schedule. The emperor was lenient and did not punish them.
The General of Qilian advanced 1,600 li to Mount Jizhi, where he killed or captured 19 enemies and seized over 100 cattle, horses, and sheep. He encountered Ran Hong and others, Han envoys who had been returned by the Xiongnu. They informed him that there were many enemies west of Mount Jizhi. The General of Qilian, however, instructed Hong to report that there were no enemies in the area, intending to withdraw his troops. Imperial Censor Gongsun Yishou advised against this, but the General of Qilian ignored him and ultimately withdrew his forces.
The General of Tiger Teeth advanced over 800 li to the Danyuwu River, where he halted his march. He killed or captured more than 1,900 enemies and seized over 70,000 horses, cattle, and sheep before returning. The emperor believed that the General of Tiger Teeth had exaggerated his achievements and failed to return on schedule, while the General of Qilian knowingly avoided advancing despite the presence of enemies. As a result, both generals were forced to commit suicide by their subordinates. Gongsun Yishou was promoted to Attendant Censor for his integrity.
Colonel Chang Hui, along with the Wusun forces, reached the Right Guli King's court, where they captured the Chanyu's father Xing, his sister-in-law, his deputy, several titled kings, the Liwu Commandant, and numerous thousand-man commanders, totaling over 39,000 captives. They also seized more than 700,000 horses, cattle, sheep, donkeys, and camels. The Han court enfeoffed Chang Hui as Marquis of Changluo. However, countless Xiongnu civilians were killed or injured, and many livestock perished as they fled.
As a result, the Xiongnu gradually weakened and grew resentful of the Wusun.
In the winter, the Chanyu personally led 10,000 cavalry to attack the Wusun, capturing some of their elderly and weak before preparing to return. However, a heavy snowstorm struck, with the snow accumulating over one zhang (approximately 3 meters) in a single day. Many people and livestock froze to death, and less than one-tenth of the force managed to return. Taking advantage of the situation, the Dingling attacked the northern Xiongnu, the Wuhuan invaded from the east, and the Wusun attacked from the west. The three groups joined forces, killing tens of thousands of Xiongnu and capturing large numbers of horses, cattle, and sheep. Many Xiongnu also died from starvation, with the death rate among the population reaching 30% and livestock losses reaching 50%. The Xiongnu were severely weakened, and their vassal states began to collapse, leaving them unable to conduct effective raids.
Subsequently, the Han deployed over 3,000 cavalry, splitting into three groups to penetrate Xiongnu territory, capturing several thousand people before returning. The Xiongnu no longer dared to invade the Han borders and instead sought peace, resulting in fewer border conflicts.
After ruling for 17 years, Huyandi Chanyu passed away. His younger brother, the Left Wise King, succeeded him as Xulüquanqu Chanyu. This occurred in the second year of the Diji era.
After Xulüquanqu Chanyu ascended the throne, he married the daughter of the Right General, making her the Grand Yanzhi, and deposed the former Chanyu's favored Zhuanqu Yanzhi. Zhuanqu Yanzhi's father, the Left Da Chanyu, harbored resentment over this. At the time, the Xiongnu were no longer able to conduct border raids, prompting the Han to withdraw their outer fortifications to reassure the people. Upon hearing this, the Chanyu was pleased and convened his nobles to discuss seeking peace with the Han. However, the Left Da Chanyu opposed the idea, saying, “Previously, when Han envoys came, troops followed behind them. Now we should imitate the Han by sending troops first and then allowing envoys to enter.” He then volunteered to lead 10,000 cavalry southward with King Huluzhi for a hunting expedition, planning to join forces upon meeting.
Before they could act, three Xiongnu defectors surrendered to the Han and revealed the Xiongnu’s plans to raid. The emperor issued an edict to station troops at strategic points, appointing the Grand General to oversee operations. Four commanders, each leading 5,000 cavalry, were dispatched in three groups to advance several hundred li beyond the border. They captured dozens of Xiongnu before returning. The loss of three defectors deterred the Xiongnu, who abandoned their plans and retreated. That year, the Xiongnu suffered from famine, with 160,000 to 170,000 people and livestock dying. They stationed two garrisons, each with 10,000 cavalry, to guard against the Han.
In the autumn, the Xiongnu leaders in the western region of Xihe, along with thousands of subordinates, drove their livestock southward and clashed with the Outuo, killing many. Ultimately, they surrendered to the Han.
In the second year, the city-states of the Western Regions united to attack the Xiongnu, capturing the kingdom of Cheshi, seizing their king and people, and then departing. The Chanyu once again appointed Doumo, a brother of the former Cheshi king, as the new king of Cheshi. He gathered the remaining population and relocated them eastward, no longer daring to reside in their original territory. Meanwhile, the Han dynasty continued to station troops and cultivate fields in Cheshi territory to consolidate their control over the region.
The following year, the Xiongnu, resentful of the joint attack on Cheshi by the various states, dispatched their Left and Right Generals, each leading over 10,000 cavalry, to garrison the western regions in preparation for raiding the Wusun and the Western Regions. Two years later, the Xiongnu sent their Left and Right Aoqu Commanders, each leading 6,000 cavalry, to attack the Han-held Cheshi city, but they failed to capture it. The next year, the Dingling invaded the Xiongnu, killing and plundering thousands of people and driving off large numbers of horses. The Xiongnu dispatched over 10,000 cavalry to retaliate, but they achieved little success.
The following year, the Chanyu led over 100,000 cavalry on a hunting expedition, preparing to invade the Han border. Before they could reach their destination, civilians from the Tiququ Tang region surrendered to the Han, revealing the Xiongnu's plans. In response, the Han sent Rear General Zhao Chongguo to lead over 40,000 cavalry to garrison the nine commanderies and prepare for defense against the Xiongnu. Over a month later, the Chanyu suffered a severe hemorrhage due to illness and, unable to proceed with his plans, withdrew his troops and abandoned the campaign. He then sent Ti Wang Duli Hu and others to the Han court to request peace through marriage, but no response was given. Shortly afterward, the Chanyu passed away. This occurred in the second year of the Shenjue era.
Xulüquanqu Chanyu died after ruling for nine years. During his reign, he had deposed Zhuanqu Yanzhi, who subsequently had an affair with the Right Wise King. When the Right Wise King left Longcheng, Zhuanqu Yanzhi warned him that the Chanyu was gravely ill and advised him not to travel far. A few days later, the Chanyu died. King Xing of Hesu, Xing Weiyang, sent messengers to summon the other kings, but before they arrived, Zhuanqu Yanzhi and her brother, the Left Da Chanyu Dulongqi, conspired to install the Right Wise King Tuqitang as Woyanqudi Chanyu. Woyanqudi Chanyu was the grandson of Wuwei Chanyu and succeeded his father as the Right Wise King.
After ascending the throne, Woyanqudi Chanyu sought to restore friendly relations with the Han and sent his brother, Yiqiuruo King Sheng, to the Han court to present tribute. However, early in his reign, he was ruthless, killing key officials from Xulüquanqu Chanyu's administration, including Xing Weiyang. He appointed Zhuanqu Yanzhi's brother, Dulongqi, to a high position and dismissed Xulüquanqu's relatives, replacing them with his own family members. Xulüquanqu Chanyu's son, Ji Houzhi, fled to his father-in-law Wuchanmu after failing to secure the throne. Wuchanmu, a small state located between the Wusun and Kangju, had suffered repeated invasions. With several thousand followers, he surrendered to the Xiongnu. Hulugu Chanyu married the sister of the Rizhu King, a descendant of Ji Houzhi, to him in order to strengthen his power, and they settled in the Right Region. The Rizhu King's father was the Left Wise King and was originally supposed to become Chanyu but had ceded the position to Hulugu Chanyu, who had promised to support him. Consequently, many in the Xiongnu believed that the Rizhu King should become Chanyu. The Rizhu King, already estranged from Woyanqudi Chanyu, defected to the Han with tens of thousands of cavalry. The Han enfeoffed him as Marquis of Guide. The Chanyu then appointed his cousin Boxutang as the new Rizhu King.
The following year, the Chanyu killed two of Xianxian Dan's brothers. Wuchanmu pleaded with the Chanyu to spare them, but the Chanyu refused, angering Wuchanmu. Later, the Left Aoqu King passed away, and the Chanyu appointed his own son as the new Aoqu King, keeping him in the palace. However, the nobles of the Aoqu region appointed the son of the former Aoqu King as their new king and relocated eastward with their followers. The Chanyu sent his Right Chancellor with 10,000 cavalry to attack them but suffered thousands of casualties and failed to subdue them. By this time, the Chanyu had ruled for two years. His cruelty and tyranny alienated the people, leaving him without support. The Crown Prince and the Left Wise King repeatedly slandered the nobles of the Left Region, causing widespread resentment among them.
The following year, the Wuhuan attacked the Xiongnu's eastern Guxi King, capturing some of his people. The Chanyu was enraged, while the Guxi King, fearing for his safety, allied with Wuchanmu and the nobles of the Left Region to install Ji Houzhi as Huhanye Chanyu. They mobilized 40,000 to 50,000 troops from the Left Region to attack Woyanqudi Chanyu, advancing as far as north of the Guqie River. Before the battle began, Woyanqudi Chanyu's forces were defeated, and he fled. He sent messengers to his brother, the Right Wise King, asking for reinforcements, saying, "The Xiongnu have united against me. Can you send troops to help me?" The Right Wise King replied, "If you do not cherish the people, kill your brothers and nobles, and cause everyone to perish, why should I intervene and tarnish myself?" Enraged, Woyanqudi Chanyu eventually committed suicide. The Left Da Chanyu Dulongqi defected to the Right Wise King, and the Chanyu's people surrendered en masse to Huhanye Chanyu.
This occurred in the fourth year of the Shenjue era. Woyanqudi Chanyu's rule lasted only three years before his downfall.
