- Wudu Commandery has 51,376 households and a population of 235,560. It governs 9 counties: Wudu, Shanglu, Gudao, Hechi, Pingledao, Ju, Jialingdao, Xunchengdao, and Xiabiandao.
- Longxi Commandery has 53,964 households and a population of 236,824. It governs 11 counties: Didu, Shanggui, Angu, Didao, Shouyang, Yudao, Daxia, Qiangdao, Xiangwu, Lintao, and Xi.
- Jincheng Commandery has 38,470 households and a population of 149,648. It governs 13 counties: Yunwu, Haomi, Lingju, Zhiyang, Jincheng, Yuzhong, Fuhan, Baishi, Heguan, Poqiang, Anyi, Yunjie, and Linqiang.
- Tianshui Commandery has 60,370 households and a population of 261,348. It governs 16 counties: Pingxiang, Jiequan, Rongyidao, Wangyuan, Hankan, Mianzhu Dao, Ayang, Lueyang Dao, Ji, Yongshi, Chengji, Qingshui, Fengjie, Long, Huandao, and Langan.
- Wuwei Commandery has 17,581 households and a population of 76,419. It governs 10 counties: Guzang, Zhangye, Wuwei, Xiutu, Xuci, Luanniao, Puluan, Aowei, Cangdian, and Xuanwei.
- Zhangye Commandery has 24,352 households and a population of 88,731. It governs 10 counties: Ludde, Zhaowu, Shandan, Dichi, Wulan, Yuele, Lijian, Fanhe, Juyan, and Xianmei.
- Jiuquan Commandery has 18,137 households and a population of 76,726. It governs 9 counties: Lufu, Biaoshi, Leguan, Tianluan, Yumen, Huishui, Chitou, Suimi, and Qianqi.
- Dunhuang Commandery has 11,200 households and a population of 38,335. It governs 6 counties: Dunhuang, Ming'an, Xiaogu, Yuanquan, Guangzhi, and Longle.
- Anding Commandery has 42,725 households and a population of 143,294. It governs 21 counties: Gaoping, Fulei, Anbi, Fuyi, Chaona, Jingyang, Linjing, Lu, Wushi, Yinmi, Anding, Candou, Sanshui, Yinpan, Anwu, Zuli, Yuande, Xuanjuan, Pengyang, Chunyin, and Yuezhidao.
- Beidi Commandery has 64,461 households and a population of 210,688. It governs 19 counties: Maling, Zhilu, Lingwu, Fuping, Lingzhou, Xuyan, Fangqu, Chudao, Wujie, Chungu, Guide, Huihuo, Luepandao, Niyang, Yuzhi, Yiqudao, Yiju, Dayi, and Lian.
- Shang Commandery has 103,683 households and a population of 606,658. It governs 23 counties: Fushi, Dule, Yangzhou, Muhe, Pingdu, Qianshui, Jingshi, Luodu, Baitu, Xiangluo, Yuandu, Qiyuan, Sheyan, Diaoyin, Tuixie, Zhenlin, Gaowang, Diaoyindao, Qiuci, Dingyang, Gaonu, Wangsong, and Yidu.
- Xihe Commandery has 136,390 households and a population of 698,836. It governs 36 counties: Fuchang, Zouyu, Guze, Pingding, Meiji, Zhongyang, Lejie, Tujing, Gaolang, Dacheng, Guangtian, Yuanyin, Yilan, Pingzhou, Hongmen, Lin, Xuanwu, Qianzhang, Zengshan, Yuanyang, Guangyan, Wuche, Humeng, Lishi, Guluo, Rao, Fangli, Xicheng, Linshui, Tujun, Xidu, Pinglu, Yinshan, Nishi, Boling, and Yanguan.
- Shuofang Commandery has 34,338 households and a population of 136,628. It governs 10 counties: Sanfeng, Shuofang, Xiudu, Linhe, Huqiu, Yuhun, Qusou, Woye, Guangmu, and Linrong.
- Wuyuan Commandery has 39,322 households and a population of 231,328. It governs 16 counties: Jiuyuan, Guling, Wuyuan, Linwo, Wenguo, Heyin, Puze, Nanxing, Wudu, Yiliang, Manbai, Chengyi, Guyang, Mopang, Xi'anyang, and Hemu.
- Yunzhong Commandery has 38,303 households and a population of 173,270. It governs 11 counties: Yunzhong, Xianyang, Taolin, Zhenling, Duhe, Shaling, Yuanyang, Shanan, Beiyu, Wuquan, and Yangshou.
- Dingxiang Commandery has 38,559 households and a population of 163,144. It governs 12 counties: Chengle, Tongguo, Duwu, Wujin, Xiangyin, Wugao, Luo, Dingtao, Wucheng, Wuyao, Dingxiang, and Fulu.
- Yanmen Commandery has 73,138 households and a population of 293,454. It governs 14 counties: Shanwu, Woyang, Fangzhi, Zhongling, Yinguan, Loufan, Wuzhou, Bintao, Juyang, Guo, Pingcheng, Lue, Mayi, and Qiangyin.
- Dai Commandery has 56,771 households and a population of 278,754. It governs 18 counties: Sanggan, Daoren, Dangcheng, Gaoliu, Macheng, Banshi, Yanling, Yishi, Qieru, Pingyi, Yangyuan, Donganyang, Canhe, Pingshu, Dai, Lingqiu, Guangchang, and Lucheng.
- Shanggu Commandery has 36,608 households and a population of 117,762. It governs 15 counties: Juyang, Quanshang, Pan, Jundu, Juyong, Goumao, Yiyu, Ning, Changping, Guangning, Zhuolu, Qieju, Ru, Nuqi, and Xialuo.
Yuyang Commandery has 68,802 households and a population of 264,116. It governs 12 counties: Yuyang, Hunv, Lu, Yongnu, Quanzhou, Pinggu, Anle, Tixi, Guangping, Yaoyang, Baitan, and Huayan.
Youbeiping Commandery has 66,689 households and a population of 320,780. It governs 16 counties: Pinggang, Wuzhong, Shicheng, Tingling, Junmi, Ci, Xuwu, Zi, Tuyin, Bailang, Xiyang, Changcheng, Licheng, Guangcheng, Juyang, and Pingming.
Liaoxi Commandery has 72,654 households and a population of 352,325. It governs 14 counties: Qielu, Haiyang, Xin'anping, Liucheng, Lingzhi, Feiru, Bincong, Jiaoli, Yangle, Husu, Tuhe, Wencheng, Linyu, and Lei.
Liaodong Commandery has 55,972 households and a population of 272,539. It governs 18 counties: Xiangping, Xinchang, Wulu, Wangping, Fang, Houcheng, Liaodui, Liaoyang, Xiandu, Jiujiu, Gaoxian, Anshi, Wuci, Pingguo, Xi'anping, Wen, Fanhan, and Tashi.
Xuantu Commandery has 45,506 households and a population of 221,845. It governs 3 counties: Goguryeo, Shangyintai, and Xigaima.
Lelang Commandery has 62,812 households and a population of 406,748. It governs 25 counties: Joseon, Yanhan, Paesui, Hanzi, Nianchan, Suicheng, Zengdi, Daifang, Siwang, Haiming, Liekou, Changcen, Tunyou, Zhaoming, Loufang, Tixi, Hunmi, Tunlie, Dongtang, Buer, Cantai, Huali, Xietoumei, Qianmo, and Fuzu.
Nanhai Commandery has 19,613 households and a population of 94,253. It governs 6 counties: Panyu, Boluo, Zhongsu, Longchuan, Sihui, and Jieyang.
Yulin Commandery has 12,415 households and a population of 71,162. It governs 12 counties: Bushan, Anguang, Alin, Guangyu, Zhongliu, Guilin, Tanchong, Linchen, Dingzhou, Zengshi, Lingfang, and Yongji.
Cangwu Commandery has 24,379 households and a population of 146,160. It governs 10 counties: Guangxin, Xiemu, Gaoyao, Fengyang, Linhe, Duanxi, Fengcheng, Fuchuan, Lipu, and Mengling.
Jiaozhi Commandery has 92,440 households and a population of 746,237. It governs 10 counties: Leiyue, Anding, Gouyin, Miling, Quyang, Beidai, Jixu, Xiyu, Longbian, and Zhugou.
Hepu Commandery has 15,398 households and a population of 78,980. It governs 5 counties: Xuwen, Gaoliang, Hepu, Linyun, and Zhulu.
Jiuzhen Commandery has 35,743 households and a population of 166,013. It governs 7 counties: Xupu, Jufeng, Dupang, Yufa, Xianhuan, Wuqie, and Wubian.
Rinan Commandery has 15,460 households and a population of 69,485. It governs 5 counties: Zhuwu, Bijing, Lurong, Xijuan, and Xianglin.
Zhao Kingdom has 84,202 households and a population of 349,952. It governs 4 counties: Handan, Yiyang, Bairen, and Xiangguo.
Guangping Kingdom has 27,984 households and a population of 198,558. It governs 16 counties: Guangping, Zhang, Chaoping, Nanhe, Lieren, Chizhang, Ren, Quzhou, Nanqu, Quliang, Guangxiang, Pingli, Pingxiang, Yangtai, Guangnian, and Chengxiang.
Zhendin Kingdom has 37,126 households and a population of 178,616. It governs 4 counties: Zhendin, Gaocheng, Feilei, and Mianman.
Zhongshan Kingdom has 160,873 households and a population of 668,080. It governs 14 counties: Lunu, Beiping, Beixincheng, Tang, Shenze, Kuxing, Anguo, Quni, Wangdu, Xinshi, Xincheng, Wujie, Lucheng, and Anxian.
Xindu Kingdom has 65,556 households and a population of 304,384. It governs 17 counties: Xindu, Li, Fuliu, Biyang, Nangong, Xiabo, Wuyi, Guanjin, Gaoti, Guangchuan, Lexiang, Pingti, Tao, Xiliang, Changcheng, Dongchang, and Xiu.
Hejian Kingdom has 45,043 households and a population of 187,662. It governs 4 counties: Lecheng, Houjing, Wusui, and Gonggao.
Guangyang Kingdom has 20,740 households and a population of 70,658. It governs 4 counties: Ji, Fangcheng, Guangyang, and Yinxian.
Zichuan Kingdom has 50,289 households and a population of 227,031. It governs 3 counties: Ju, Dong'anping, and Louxiang.
Guangyang Kingdom (duplicate entry) has 20,740 households and a population of 70,658. It governs 4 counties: Ji, Fangcheng, Guangyang, and Yinxian.
Jiaodong Kingdom has 72,002 households and a population of 323,331. It governs 8 counties: Jimo, Changwu, Xiamu, Zhuangwu, Yuzhi, Ting, Guanyang, and Zoulou.
Gaomi Kingdom has 40,531 households and a population of 192,536. It governs 5 counties: Gaomi, Chang'an, Shiquan, Yi'an, and Chengxiang.
Chengyang Kingdom has 56,642 households and a population of 205,784. It governs 4 counties: Ju, Yangdu, Dong'an, and Lu.
Huaiyang Kingdom has 135,544 households and a population of 981,423. It governs 9 counties: Chen, Ku, Yangxia, Ningping, Fugou, Gushi, Yu, Xinping, and Zhe.
Liang Kingdom has 38,709 households and a population of 106,752. It governs 8 counties: Dang, Zai, Zhuchou, Meng, Yishi, Yu, Xiayi, and Suiyang.
Dongping Kingdom has 131,753 households and a population of 607,976. It governs 7 counties: Wuyan, Rencheng, Dongpinglu, Fucheng, Zhang, Kangfu, and Fan.
Lu Kingdom has 118,045 households and a population of 607,381. It governs 6 counties: Lu, Bian, Wenyang, Fan, Zou, and Xue.
Chu Kingdom has 114,738 households and a population of 497,804. It governs 7 counties: Pengcheng, Liu, Wu, Fuyang, Lu, Wuyuan, and Zaiqiu.
Sishui Kingdom has 25,025 households and a population of 119,114. It governs 3 counties: Ling, Siyang, and Yu.
Guangling Kingdom has 36,773 households and a population of 140,722. It governs 4 counties: Guangling, Jiangdu, Gaoyou, and Ping'an.
Lu'an Kingdom has 38,345 households and a population of 178,616. It governs 5 counties: Lu, Liao, Anfeng, Anfeng (duplicate name with different character), and Yangquan.
Changsha Kingdom has 43,470 households and a population of 235,825. It governs 13 counties: Linxiang, Luo, Liandao, Yiyang, Xiaxun, Shou, Ling, Chengyang, Xiangnan, Zhaoling, Tuling, Rongling, and Ancheng.
The capital of the Qin Dynasty was referred to as Neishi, and the empire was divided into 36 commanderies. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, these commanderies were deemed too large, leading to a gradual reorganization and the establishment of vassal kingdoms. During Emperor Wu's reign, the frontiers were expanded. Consequently, starting from Emperor Gaozu of Han, 26 commanderies were added, with Emperors Wen and Jing each adding six more, Emperor Wu adding 28, and Emperor Zhao adding one. By the time of Emperor Ping, there were a total of 103 commanderies and kingdoms, 1,314 counties, 32 circuits, and 241 marquisates. The territory stretched 9,302 li from east to west and 13,368 li from north to south. The nation had a total of 1,451,364,500 qing of land, of which 1,022,528,889 qing were non-arable areas such as towns, roads, mountains, rivers, and forests. There were 322,909,947 qing of arable land, with 8,270,536 qing designated for farming. The entire country had 12,233,062 households and a population of 59,594,978 people. The Han Dynasty had reached its peak.
Everyone possesses the qualities of the Five Constants (benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faithfulness), but due to differences in temperament, pace, and voice, influenced by the climate and geography, these are termed "customs." People's preferences and behaviors, constantly changing, are influenced by the desires of the ruler, hence termed "ways." Confucius said, "To change customs and habits, there is nothing better than music," implying that a wise ruler governs by fundamentally transforming customs, achieving harmony throughout the land, thus ensuring the success of moral governance. The Han Dynasty inherited the legacy of a hundred years, during which the territory changed and people migrated. During Emperor Cheng's reign, Liu Xiang briefly described the regions, and Chancellor Zhang Yu tasked Zhu Gan from Yingchuan to compile local customs, though it was not widely disseminated. Therefore, I have compiled this account, recording its origins and developments.
The land of Qin, in astronomical terms, falls under the Eastern Well and Yugu areas. Its territory extends west from the old passes of Hongnong, including Jingzhao, Fufeng, Fengyi, Beidi, Shangjun, Xihe, Anding, Tianshui, and Longxi. To the south are Ba, Shu, Guanghan, Jianwei, and Wudu; to the west are Jincheng, Wuwei, Zhangye, Jiuquan, and Dunhuang; and to the southwest are Zangke, Yuesui, and Yizhou, all belonging to Qin territory.
The ancestors of Qin were called Boyi, descending from Emperor Zhuanxu. During Yao's time, he assisted Yu the Great in controlling floods and was appointed by Shun as the Yu official, responsible for nurturing plants and animals, and was given the surname Ying. Over the Xia and Shang dynasties, they became vassals. During the Zhou dynasty, there was Zaofu, skilled in driving chariots and horses, who obtained two famous horses, Hualiu and Lu'er, earning King Mu's favor and being enfeoffed in Zhao City, thus changing the surname to Zhao. Later, there was Feizi, who raised horses between Qian and Wei for King Xiao of Zhou. King Xiao said, "Boyi understood animals, and his descendants continue." Thus, Feizi was made a vassal and given land in Qin, now Qin Pavilion and Qin Valley in Longxi. His great-grandson, known as Duke Zhuang, defeated the Western Rong and occupied their land. His son, Duke Xiang, aided King Ping of Zhou against the Quanrong, earning land in Jiu and Feng, and becoming a vassal. After eight generations, Duke Mu became a hegemon, marking the Yellow River as a boundary. Ten generations later, Duke Xiao employed Shang Yang, who reformed the land system, expanded territories, and campaigned against other vassals. His son, King Huiwen, first assumed the title of king, acquiring Shangjun and Xihe. His grandson, King Zhao, expanded into Ba and Shu, extinguished Zhou, and seized the Nine Tripod Cauldrons. King Zhao's great-grandson, Zheng, unified the six states, proclaimed himself emperor, relied on military might, burned books, and buried scholars, acting arrogantly. By the time of his son Huhai, the empire rebelled.
The regions of Tianshui and Longxi are mountainous with abundant forests, where inhabitants build wooden houses. In Anding, Beidi, Shangjun, and Xihe, close to the Rong and Di tribes, residents emphasize military preparedness, value strength, and prioritize hunting. Thus, the "Qin Poems" mention "in their wooden houses" and "the king raises an army, repairs armor and weapons, and marches with you," as well as songs like "Chelin," "Sizhi," and "Xiaorong," which depict chariots, horses, and hunting. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, sons from good families in the six commanderies were selected into the Yulin and Qimen guards, serving based on their abilities, with many famous generals emerging from these regions. Confucius said, "A gentleman with courage but without righteousness becomes unruly; a petty man with courage but without righteousness becomes a thief." Therefore, the customs of these commanderies are simple, not considering banditry shameful.
Thus, Qin land during the Yu Gong era spanned Yong and Liang provinces, with poetry styles from both Qin and Bin. Hou Ji was enfeoffed at Bin, Gong Liu lived in Bin, King Tai moved to Jiu, King Wen established the capital at Feng, and King Wu governed at Hao. The people inherited the legacy of former kings, loving agriculture and focusing on their primary occupation. Therefore, the "Bin Poems" detail the fundamentals of farming, mulberry cultivation, clothing, and food. With Hu and Du bamboo forests, Nanshan sandalwood, and zhe trees, referred to as the land sea, it is fertile soil among the nine provinces. In the early Qin Shi Huang era, Zheng Guo dug canals, diverting Jing River water to irrigate fields, enriching the land for a thousand miles, making the people prosperous. After the Han Dynasty's founding, the capital was set at Chang'an, relocating the Tian family from Qi, the Zhao, Qu, and Jing families from Chu, and families of meritorious officials to Changling. Later, successive generations relocated high-ranking officials, wealthy individuals, and powerful families near various mausoleums. This was not only for offering to the mountain gardens but also to strengthen central power and weaken local forces. Consequently, with diverse populations, customs became impure. Noble families valued etiquette and culture, the wealthy pursued commerce, and the powerful engaged in chivalry and deceit. Near Nanshan, close to Xiayang, with many obstacles and frivolity, it was prone to banditry, often troubling the nation. Additionally, with commanderies and kingdoms converging, many lived off others, abandoning farming for commerce. The carriages and clothing of marquises and nobles were extravagant, imitated by the common people, who felt ashamed if they fell short, especially in lavish weddings and excessive funerals.
From Wuwei westward, originally lands of the Xiongnu's Kunxie King and Xiutu King, were incorporated during Emperor Wu's reign, initially establishing four commanderies to connect with the Western Regions, isolating the Southern Qiang and Xiongnu. Local residents either migrated due to poverty in Guandong, sought excessive revenge, or were relocated due to unfilial or immoral behavior. Customs varied greatly, with vast lands and sparse populations, suitable for grazing, making ancient Liangzhou's livestock the wealthiest in the nation. To defend the borders, high-ranking officials governed, prioritizing military forces. Social gatherings with wine fostered harmony between officials and civilians. Thus, customs and climate were favorable, grain prices remained low, and banditry was rare, presenting a harmonious atmosphere, more virtuous than inland commanderies. This was due to lenient policies and non-oppressive officials.
Ba, Shu, and Guanghan were originally lands of the Southern Yi tribes, annexed by the Qin state and established as commanderies. These regions are fertile, nourished by river waters, rich in mountains, forests, bamboo, and timber, with abundant fruits. To the south, they border areas like Dian and Bo; to the west, they are close to Qiong and Zuo, where there are horses and yak-like cattle. The locals primarily consume rice and fish, free from worries of famine, living without hardship. However, their temperament is frivolous, prone to indulgence, weak, and narrow-minded. During the reigns of Emperors Jing and Wu of the Han Dynasty, Wen Weng served as the governor of Shu, educating the people in literacy and law, yet the populace did not truly embrace morality, instead preferring to use writings for satire and criticism, and valuing power and status. Later, Sima Xiangru gained fame for his literary talents while traveling between the capital and various vassal states, inspiring admiration and imitation among locals. Subsequently, figures like Wang Bao, Yan Zun, and Yang Xiong emerged, whose writings were renowned throughout the land. The education promoted by Wen Weng, with Xiangru as a model, echoes Confucius's saying: "In education, there should be no class distinctions."
The Wudu region, inhabited by Di and Qiang tribes, along with Jianwei, Zangke, and Yuesui, are southwestern foreign territories first developed and established during Emperor Wu's reign. The customs here are generally similar to those of Ba and Shu, while Wudu's proximity to Tianshui results in some shared customs.
Thus, the land of Qin occupied one-third of the empire, yet its population was only three-tenths, while its wealth accounted for six-tenths. Wu Zha of Qin and Bin observed the music, composing songs known as "Xia Sounds." He remarked, "This is what is called Xia Sounds. Achieving the realm of Xia is great, and the pinnacle of greatness, isn't it the old customs of Zhou?"
From 10 degrees of the Eastern Well to 3 degrees of the Willow Star, this area is called the Quail's Head, marking Qin's domain.
Wei territory falls under the domain of the Beak and Orion stars. Its territory stretches east from Gaoling to Hedong and Henan, with Chenliu and Zhaoling, Liqiang, Xinji, Xihua, Changping of Runan, Wuyang, Yan, Xu, and Yiling of Yingchuan, and Kaifeng, Zhongmou, Yangwu, Suanzao, and Juan of Henan all within Wei's scope.
Henei was originally the old capital of the Yin and Shang dynasties. After Zhou conquered Yin and Shang, the area was divided into three states within its territory: the Bei, Yong, and Wei states mentioned in the Book of Songs. Bei was enfeoffed to King Zhou's son Wu Geng; Yong was managed by Duke Guan; Wei was managed by Duke Cai, to monitor the people of Yin and Shang, known as the Three Overseers. Therefore, the Book of Documents states, "After King Wu's death, the Three Overseers rebelled," and Duke Zhou executed them, enfeoffing all their lands to his brother Kang Shu, titled Marquis Meng, to assist the Zhou court. The people of Bei and Yong were relocated to Luoyi, so the poetry styles of Bei, Yong, and Wei were similar. The Bei poems say "Below the Jùn," Yong says "In the suburbs of Jùn," Bei also says "Also flows to Qi," "The river flows broadly," Yong says "Send me on Qi," "In the middle of the river there," Wei says "Gaze upon Qi's banks," "The river flows broadly." Thus, when Wu Zha heard the songs of Bei, Yong, and Wei in Lu, he remarked, "How beautifully profound! I heard that Kang Shu's virtue was like this, and this must be the style of Wei." Sixteen generations later, Duke Yi's misrule led to destruction by the Di people. Duke Huan of Qi led the vassals to campaign against the Di, re-establishing Wei in Cao and Chuqiu of Henan, marking Duke Wen. Meanwhile, Yin Xu of Henei became part of Jin. The customs of Kang Shu faded, while King Zhou's influence persisted, resulting in local customs of strength, frequent power struggles, and disregard for kindness and justice.
Hedong is flat, rich in salt and iron resources, originally the residence of Tang Yao, with poetry styles belonging to the Tang and Wei states. King Wu of Zhou's son, Tang Shu, was named Yu before birth because King Wu dreamt of Shangdi saying, "I will grant your son Yu, giving him the land of Tang, part of the Orion star domain." Upon his birth, he was named Yu. When King Cheng conquered Tang, he enfeoffed Tang Shu Yu as a vassal. Tang had the Jin River, and when Shu Yu's son Xie became Marquis of Jin, the Orion star was called Jin Star. The locals inherited the teachings of former kings, with gentlemen being contemplative and commoners frugal and simple. Thus, the Tang poems such as "Cricket," "Mountain Ash," and "Kudzu Vine" express thoughts on luxury and frugality, and concerns about life and death. Wu Zha, upon hearing Tang's songs, said, "Such profound contemplation! These must be the remnants of the Tao Tang clan."
The state of Wei, also of the Ji surname, was located at the southern bend of the Jin state, so the Book of Songs mentions "There at the bend of Fen," "Placed beside the river." From Tang Shu to the sixteenth generation Duke Xian, Wei was extinguished and enfeoffed to the grandee Bi Wan, while Geng was enfeoffed to grandee Zhao Su, and grandee Han Wuzi was granted land at Hanyuan, leading to Jin's rise. By the time of Duke Wen, he became a hegemon among the vassals, respecting the Zhou court, and began possessing Henei. Wu Zha, upon hearing Wei's songs, said, "How beautifully resonant! A wise ruler would support this with virtue." Sixteen generations after Duke Wen, Wei was destroyed by Han, Wei, and Zhao, each establishing themselves as vassals, forming the Three Jin. Zhao shared ancestry with Qin, while Han and Zhao were of the Ji surname. From Bi Wan's tenth generation, they assumed the title of marquis, and his grandson became king, moving the capital to Daliang, thus Wei was also known as Liang, later destroyed by Qin after seven generations.
Zhou territory falls under the domain of the Willow, Seven Stars, and Zhang stars. Present-day Henan, Luoyang, Gucheng, Pingyin, Yanshi, Gong, and Goushi are within Zhou's range.
In the past, Duke Zhou established Luoyi, considering it central to the plains, surrounded by vassals, thus founding the capital. After King You perished due to his favor for Baosi, his son King Ping moved east to Luoyi. Subsequently, the Five Hegemons took turns leading the vassals to honor the Zhou court, making the Zhou dynasty the longest-lasting of the three dynasties. Over 800 years later, King Nan was annexed by Qin. Initially, Luoyi and the ancestral Zhou were both within the capital's territory, long from east to west and short from north to south, connected as a thousand li. By King Xiang's time, Henei was granted to Duke Wen of Jin, later encroached by vassals, shrinking its territory.
The Zhou people's failure stemmed from pursuing cunning and profit, valuing wealth over righteousness, admiring wealth and despising poverty, preferring commerce over officialdom.
From 3 degrees of the Willow Star to 12 degrees of the Zhang Star, this area is called the Quail's Fire, marking Zhou's domain.
Han territory falls under the domain of the Horn, Neck, and Root stars. Han separated from Jin, acquiring Nanyang Commandery and Yingchuan's Fucheng, Dingling, Xiangcheng, Yingyang, Yingyin, Changshe, Yangzhai, and Jia, bordering Runan to the east and Hongnong to the west, including Xin'an and Yiyang, all within Han's scope. The poetry styles of Chen and Zheng in the Book of Songs share the same domain as Han.
The state of Zheng was located in what is now Xinzheng, Henan. It was originally the residence of Zhu Rong, the fire god of the Gaoxin clan. This area included Chenggao, Xingyang, and Chonggao and Yangcheng in Yingchuan, all part of Zheng territory. Initially, it was the fief of You, the brother of King Xuan of Zhou, serving as the Minister of Works, within the Zhou capital's territory—this became the state of Zheng. Duke Huan of Zheng once asked Shi Bo, "With the royal court in turmoil, where should we flee to avoid disaster?" Shi Bo replied, "The states around us are either related to the royal family or are barbarian tribes, unsuitable for refuge. Perhaps between the Ji, Luo, Yellow, and Ying Rivers would be better. Among the small states, Guo and Hui are the largest, relying on power and strategic locations, but they are extravagant and greedy. If you entrust your wealth to them, once the Zhou court falls into chaos, they will surely betray you. You can rely on the power of Chengzhou, claiming to punish wrongdoing, and you will succeed." Duke Huan asked, "What about the south?" Shi Bo answered, "The state of Chu descends from Chongli, who was the fire god of the Gaoxin clan, illuminating heaven and earth, producing talented descendants. The Jiang, Ying, Jing, and Mi families have long been intermarried with the Ji clan of the Zhou. Jiang descends from Bo Yi; Ying from Bo Yi. Bo Yi could offer sacrifices and assist Yao; Bo Yi could manage all things and assist Shun. Their descendants have not lost their sacrificial rites, but none have risen to prominence. As the Zhou declines, they will rise, so they cannot be pressured." Duke Huan followed his advice and entrusted his wealth to the east, accepted by Guo and Hui. Three years later, King You was defeated, and Duke Wei died. His son, Duke Wu, moved east with King Ping, eventually occupying the lands of Guo and Hui, with the Luo River on the right and the Pei River on the left, residing between the Zhen and Wei Rivers. The land was fertile and strategically important, with mountains and valleys, and men and women frequently gathered, leading to licentious customs. The "Zheng Poems" mention, "Exiting the eastern gate, there are women like clouds," and "The Zhen and Wei are overflowing, men and women holding reeds," "Joyful and playful, men and women jest together." This reflects their customs. Wu Zha, upon hearing the songs of Zheng, remarked, "Beautiful! But too delicate for the people to bear, perhaps this is why they perished first?" Twenty-three generations after Duke Wu, Zheng was destroyed by the state of Han.
The state of Chen was located in what is now the Huaiyang area. Originally, it was the residence of Taihao. King Wu of Zhou enfeoffed Gui Man, a descendant of Shun, in Chen, known as Duke Hu, marrying him to Lady Da Ji. The women held high status, favored sacrifices, and used shamans, leading to customs filled with witchcraft. The "Chen Poems" say, "Drumming under Wanqiu, no winter nor summer, adorned with egret feathers," and "The elm at the east gate, the oak at Wanqiu, the sons of Zizhong dance beneath." These reflect their customs. Wu Zha, upon hearing the songs of Chen, said, "A state without a ruler, how can it endure?" Twenty-three generations after Duke Hu, Chen was destroyed by Chu. Although Chen belonged to Chu, astronomically, it retained its original domain.
Yingchuan and Nanyang were originally the state of Xia Yu. The Xia people were loyal but had simple customs. After seven generations from Wuzi, the state of Han assumed the title of marquis, and after six generations, the title of king, eventually being destroyed by Qin after five generations. After Qin destroyed Han, it relocated unruly people from across the empire to Nanyang, leading to exaggerated and extravagant customs, valuing physical strength, and engaging in commerce, fishing, and hunting, with behavior difficult to control. Wan City connected westward to Wuguan and eastward to the Yangtze and Huai Rivers, becoming an important metropolis. During Emperor Xuan of Han, Zheng Hong and Zhao Xincheng served as governors of Nanyang, with their governance recorded. Xincheng encouraged agriculture and sericulture, eliminating secondary industries, returning to primary occupations, enriching the commandery. Yingchuan, the capital of Han, produced talents like Shen Buhai and Han Fei, leaving a legacy of harshness, with officials favoring legalism and the people greedy and litigious, leading to tense interpersonal relations. When Han Yanshou served as governor, he prioritized courtesy and humility; Huang Ba succeeded him, spreading education widely, and sometimes for eight years, there were no serious criminals in the prisons. People in Nanyang favored commerce, with Zhao's father becoming wealthy through his trade; people in Yingchuan liked litigation, but Huang and Han transformed them with great virtue. "A gentleman's virtue is like the wind, a petty man's virtue like grass," truly a credible saying.
From 6 degrees of the Eastern Well to 6 degrees of the Neck Star, this area is called the Longevity Star, marking the domain of Zheng, sharing a domain with Han.
Zhao territory falls under the domain of the Pleiades and Orion stars. Zhao separated from Jin, acquiring the state of Zhao. To the north, it included Xindu, Zhendong, Changshan, and Zhongshan, also acquiring Gaoyang, Mo, and Zhoushi of Zhuo Commandery; to the east, Guangping, Julu, Qinghe, and Hejian, also acquiring Dongpingshu, Zhongyi, Wen'an, Shuzhou, Chengping, and Zhangwu of Bohai Commandery, north of the Yellow River; south to Fushui, Fanyang, Neihuang, and Chiqiu; west included Taiyuan, Dingxiang, Yunzhong, Wuyuan, and Shangdang. Shangdang was originally a separate commandery of Han, distant from Han and near Zhao, later belonging to Zhao, all within Zhao's scope.
After nine generations from Zhao Su, they assumed the title of marquis, and in the fourth generation, Marquis Jing moved the capital to Handan. His great-grandson King Wuling assumed the title of king, and five generations later, Zhao was destroyed by Qin.
The lands of Zhao and Zhongshan were barren but densely populated, with remnants of licentious customs from King Zhou's time at Sand Hill. Men gathered for games, sang mournful songs, and upon rising, engaged in robbery and tomb raiding, skilled in cunning and performance. Women played musical instruments, mingled with the wealthy and noble, filling the harems of vassal states.
Handan connected northward to Yan and Zhuo, southward to Zheng and Wei, situated between the Zhang River and the Yellow River, becoming an important metropolis. The land was vast, with diverse customs, and people were mostly shrewd and impatient, fond of showing off, and prone to illegal behavior.
In Taiyuan and Shangdang, many descendants of the Jin royal family engaged in fraud and power struggles, boasting of achievements, seeking excessive revenge, and conducting weddings and funerals extravagantly. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, these areas were considered difficult to govern, often selecting strict generals to rule, sometimes allowing them to establish authority through killing. When fathers and brothers were killed, the younger generation became extremely angry, even reporting and assassinating inspectors and high officials, sometimes avenging the murder of their relatives.
The regions of Zhong, Dai, Shi, and Bei were close to the Hu people, with fierce customs, fond of displaying strength and committing evil, neglecting agriculture and commerce. From the Jin period, their ferocity was a headache, and King Wuling of Zhao further encouraged them. Thus, bandits from Jizhou often became a major problem for other provinces.
Dingxiang, Yunzhong, and Wuyuan were originally lands of the Rong and Di tribes, later settled by migrants from Zhao, Qi, Wei, and Chu. The people here are simple and unrefined, with a fondness for archery and hunting. The customs in the Yanmen area are similar, but astronomically it falls under the domain of the state of Yan.
The territory of Yan is associated with the Tail and Ji stars. After King Wu of Zhou defeated the Shang dynasty, he enfeoffed the Duke of Shao in the state of Yan. Yan continued for thirty-six generations, eventually declaring itself a kingdom alongside the other six states. To the east, it included Yuyang, Youbeiping, Liaoxi, and Liaodong; to the west, Shanggu, Dai Commandery, and Yanmen; and to the south, it encompassed Yi County, Rongcheng, Fanyang, Beixincheng, Guguan, Zhuo County, Liangxiang, Xinchang of Zhuo Commandery, and Anci in Bohai, all within Yan's domain. Lelang and Xuantu should also be considered part of Yan.
After ten generations of kings, the state of Qin sought to conquer the six states. Crown Prince Dan of Yan sent the warrior Jing Ke to assassinate the King of Qin, but the attempt failed, and Jing Ke was killed. Consequently, Qin launched a campaign and destroyed Yan.
Jicheng, located between Bohai and Jieshi, was an important metropolis, connecting southward to Qi and Zhao. Crown Prince Dan initially hosted warriors, sparing no expense with palace beauties, which influenced the local customs, persisting to this day. Guests visiting each other would offer women for companionship, and on wedding nights, men and women mingled indiscriminately, taking pride in such practices. Though later somewhat restrained, these customs were never fully abandoned. Their customs are coarse and bold, lacking deep thought, frivolous and lacking authority, but they have the virtue of being willing to help others, a legacy from Yan Dan.
From Shanggu to Liaodong, the land is vast and sparsely populated, often harassed by Hu tribes, with customs similar to those of Zhao and Dai. The region is rich in resources, including fish, salt, dates, and chestnuts. To the north, it borders Wuhuan and Fuyu, and to the east, it benefits from trade with Zhenfan.
Xuantu and Lelang were established during Emperor Wu's reign, inhabited by the Yi tribes of Korea, Yemaek, and Goguryeo. When the Yin dynasty declined, Jizi left Korea, teaching the local people about propriety, agriculture, and weaving. Lelang Korea had eight prohibitions: murder was punishable by death; injury required compensation with grain; male thieves became slaves, female thieves became maidservants, and those wishing to redeem themselves paid 500,000 coins each. Even when redeemed, they felt shame and harbored no enmity during marriage, so theft was rare, doors were left unlocked, and women were chaste and honest. Their farmers used sacrificial vessels for meals, and townsfolk emulated the officials and merchants of the interior, often using cups and utensils for dining. Initially, officials were selected from Liaodong, but observing the people's open doors, merchants began stealing at night, gradually corrupting local customs. Today, violations of prohibitions have increased to over sixty. Truly remarkable is the education of benevolence and virtue! However, the Eastern Yi are naturally gentle and different from other regions, which is why Confucius lamented the lack of a path and wished to cross the sea to live among the Nine Yi tribes. This is the reason! In the sea of Lelang, there are the Wa people, divided into over a hundred countries, who regularly present tribute.
From 4 degrees of the Wei star to 6 degrees of the Dou star, this area is known as the position of Ximu, marking the domain of Yan.
The territory of Qi belongs to the domain of the Void and Wei stars. To the east, it includes Zichuan, Donglai, Langya, Gaomi, and Jiaodong; to the south, Taishan and Chengyang; to the north, Qiancheng, south of Qinghe, and Gaole, Gaocheng, Chonghe, Yangxin in Bohai; to the west, Jinan and Pingyuan, all within Qi's range.
In the era of Shaohao, there was the Shuangjiu clan; during the Yu and Xia eras, there was Ji Ce; during the Shang Tang period, there was Feng Gong Bailing; and at the end of the Yin dynasty, there was the Bogu clan—all vassal states located in this region. By the time of King Cheng of Zhou, the Bogu clan rebelled along with four other states, leading to their destruction by King Cheng, who granted the land to the Grand Duke of Shi, known as Taigong. The poetic style of Qi reflects this. Linzi was called Yingqiu, so the "Qi Poems" say, "Your encampment, encountering us between Hu and Nao," and "Waiting for me at Zhehu and Er," reflecting their relaxed style. Upon hearing the songs of Qi, Wu Zha remarked, "Majestic indeed, like a great wind! This must be the style of Taigong. The state is immeasurable!"
In ancient times, land was divided, not people. Taigong, recognizing Qi's coastal saline lands, encouraged female labor and exploited the benefits of fish and salt, leading to a concentration of resources. Fourteen generations later, Duke Huan employed Guan Zhong, establishing economic policies to enrich the state, uniting vassals to achieve hegemony, achieving three returns of power as a subordinate. Consequently, their customs became more extravagant, producing exquisite textiles and garments, renowned throughout the land.
When Taigong governed Qi, he cultivated governance techniques, respected the wise, and rewarded meritorious individuals, leading to a populace that valued learning and reputation, with a calm, broad-minded, and intelligent disposition. However, they also tended toward extravagance, forming cliques, inconsistency between words and actions, hypocrisy, and disunity in times of urgency, indulgence in times of leisure. Initially, Duke Huan's brother, Duke Xiang, was licentious, preventing cousins from marrying, decreeing that the eldest daughters in households remain unmarried as "witch daughters" for family sacrifices, believing marriage would harm the family—a custom persisting to this day. Alas, governing the people requires caution!
When Taigong was first enfeoffed, the Duke of Zhou asked him how he would govern Qi. Taigong replied, "By recommending talents and rewarding the meritorious." The Duke of Zhou said, "In the future, there will be ministers who usurp power and kill their lords." Twenty-nine generations later, the powerful minister Tian He usurped Qi, establishing himself as Marquis of Qi. Initially, Tian He's ancestor, Prince Wan of Chen, fled to Qi due to a crime, where Duke Huan appointed him as a minister, renaming him Tian. Nine generations later, Tian He usurped Qi, and his grandson King Wei declared himself king. Five generations later, Qi was destroyed by Qin.
Linzi is an important city between the sea and Mount Tai, home to five different groups of residents.
The territory of Lu belongs to the domain of the Kui and Lou stars. To the east, it reaches the East Sea; to the south, it includes the Si River, extending to the Huai River, encompassing Xiaxiang, Suiling, Tong, and Qulv in Linhuai, all within Lu's range.
After the establishment of the Zhou Dynasty, the land of Qufu, originally belonging to Shaohao, was granted to Boqin, the son of the Duke of Zhou, who became the Marquis of Lu, thus beginning the governance of the state of Lu. The people here were influenced by the teachings of sages, which led Confucius to say, "The customs of Qi change to those of Lu, and the customs of Lu change to morality," meaning that the customs of Lu were close to the right path. Situated near the Zhu and Si Rivers, the people here were adept at crossing waters, and the young would assist the elderly and take over their work. Although customs gradually became more superficial, the elders remained uneasy, and there was mutual respect between the old and the young. Thus, it was said, "Even though the moral standards of Lu have declined, the customs between Zhu and Si remain strict." Confucius lamented the impending decline of the royal way, so he organized the Six Classics, passing on the principles of the Tang, Yu, and Three Dynasties, with seventy-seven disciples achieving mastery. Therefore, the people here valued learning, propriety, and integrity. When the Duke of Zhou was first enfeoffed, Taigong asked him how he would govern Lu. The Duke of Zhou replied, "By respecting the noble and being close to kin." Taigong said, "In future generations, this will lead to weakness." Consequently, after Duke Wen, power shifted away from the royal family, and governance fell into the hands of ministers. The Ji family expelled Duke Zhao, and the state's power gradually weakened, eventually being destroyed by Chu in its thirty-fourth generation. However, Lu was originally a great state, thus forming its own distinct domain.
Now, as much time has passed since the era of sages, the teachings of the Duke of Zhou have gradually faded, and Confucius's school has also declined. The land here is fertile and populous, engaged in mulberry and hemp cultivation, but lacking in forest and marsh resources. The customs are frugal and stingy, with a love of wealth akin to life itself, a keen interest in commerce, an inclination to criticize others, and full of cunning. Although funeral and sacrificial rites are complete, they are seldom practiced in reality. However, their love of learning remains superior to other places.
Since the establishment of the Han Dynasty, many high-ranking officials have come from the regions of Lu and Donghai. Dongping, Xuchang, and Shouliang are located in Jidong, belonging to the land of Lu, not Song, which requires verification.
The territory of Song belongs to the domain of the Fang and Xin stars. Present-day Pei, Liang, Chu, Shanyang, Jiyin, Dongping, and Xuchang and Shouzhang in Dongjun were within the boundaries of Song.
The Zhou Dynasty enfeoffed Weizi in Song, and present-day Suiyang was the land of Song, originally the territory of Ebo, the fire official of the Tao Tang clan. The poetic style of Dingtao in Jiyin is that of the state of Cao. King Wu enfeoffed his brother Shu Zhenduo in the state of Cao, which later grew strong, acquiring Shanyang and Chenliu, passing through more than twenty generations before being destroyed by Song.
Emperor Yao once visited Chengyang, Emperor Shun fished in Kuangze, and Shang Tang resided in Bo, so the people here still retain the legacy of the former kings, valuing honesty, with many gentlemen, favoring agriculture, wearing simple clothing, and practicing frugality in food, with the aim of accumulating wealth.
The state of Song passed from Weizi through more than twenty generations until Duke Jing destroyed the state of Cao. Five generations after conquering Cao, Song was also destroyed by Qi, Chu, and Wei, with its land divided among the three states. Wei obtained Liang and Chenliu, Qi acquired Jiyin and Dongping, and Chu gained Pei. Therefore, present-day Pengcheng in Chu was originally Song territory, as stated in the "Spring and Autumn Annals": "Besiege Song Pengcheng." Although the state of Song perished, it was originally a great state, thus forming its own distinct domain.
The problem in the Pei and Chu regions is impatience and selfishness, with barren land and impoverished people, while the Shanyang area has a tendency toward criminal behavior.
The territory of Wei belongs to the domain of the Ying and Dongbi stars. Present-day Dongjun and Liyang in Weijun, as well as Yewang and Chaoge in Henei, were within the boundaries of Wei.
The state of Wei was originally a country, later destroyed by the Di people. Duke Wen was relocated to Chu Qiu, and more than thirty years later, Duke Cheng moved to Di Qiu. Thus, the "Spring and Autumn Annals" states, "Wei moved to Di Qiu," which is present-day Puyang. This area was originally the territory of Zhuanxu, hence the name Di Qiu. During the Xia Hou period, the Kunwu clan resided here. More than ten generations after Duke Cheng, Wei was invaded by Han and Wei, losing all its affiliated cities, leaving only Puyang. Later, Qin destroyed Puyang, establishing Dongjun and relocating Wei to Yewang. After Emperor Qin unified the world, he retained the Marquis of Wei, but by the second emperor of Qin, he was demoted to commoner status. The state of Wei lasted for forty generations and nine hundred years before its line ended, thus forming its own distinct domain.
The territory of Wei had the obstruction of Sangjian and Puyang, where men and women often gathered, leading to the rise of music and dance, hence the term "the music of Zheng and Wei." At the end of the Zhou dynasty, there were figures like Zilu and Xiayu, whom the people admired, so the customs here were strong and brave, valuing physical strength. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, officials of the rank of 2,000 bushels governed here by establishing authority through executions. During Emperor Xuan's reign, Han Yanshou served as the governor of Dongjun, promoting propriety and integrity, respecting remonstrance, and to this day, Dongjun is known for its good governance, all due to Yanshou's influence. However, the shortcomings of Wei are extravagance, with excessive pomp in weddings and funerals, while the Yewang area values strength and chivalry, retaining the customs of Puyang.
The territory of Chu belongs to the domain of the Yi and Zhen stars. Present-day Nanjun, Jiangxia, Lingling, Guiyang, Wuling, Changsha, and Hanzhong, Runan Commandery were within the boundaries of Chu.
During the reign of King Cheng of Zhou, the great-grandson of Yuxiong, the mentor of Kings Wen and Wu, was enfeoffed in Jingman, becoming the Viscount of Chu, residing in Danyang. More than ten generations later, Xiong Da, known as King Wu, led Chu to greatness. Five generations later, King Yan led the vassal lords, intimidating the Zhou court, annexing the region between the Yangtze and Han Rivers, and destroying states like Chen and Lu. More than ten generations later, King Qingxiang moved east to Chen.
The territory of Chu is rich in rivers, lakes, mountains, and forests; the land south of the Yangtze is vast, with some areas practicing slash-and-burn agriculture. The people rely on fish and rice for food, engage in fishing, hunting, and logging, with abundant fruits, snails, and clams. As a result, people are lazy and lack savings, eating and drinking without concern for hunger or cold, and there are no wealthy families. They believe in witchcraft and emphasize licentious rituals. The customs in Hanzhong are unrestrained and similar to those in Bashu. The people of Runan are impatient and spirited. Jiangling, the former capital of Ying, connects westward to Wu and Ba, and eastward to the riches of Yunmeng, making it an important metropolis.
The territory of Wu belongs to the domain of the Dou star. Present-day Kuaiji, Jiujiang, Danyang, Yuzhang, Lujiang, Guangling, Lu'an, and Linhuai Commandery were within the boundaries of Wu.
The Shang dynasty was in decline when King Tai of Zhou rose to power in the region of Jiuliang. He had three sons: the eldest was Taibo, the second was Zhongyong, and the youngest was Gongji. Gongji had a wise son named Chang, whom King Tai wanted to pass the kingdom to. Taibo and Zhongyong left to gather herbs, eventually reaching the Jingman region. Gongji succeeded to the throne, and by the time of Chang, he became the Western Duke, ordained as king. Confucius praised them, saying, "Taibo can be said to have the highest virtue! Three times he yielded the world, and the people had nothing to praise." He also said, "Yuzhong and Yiyi, living in seclusion and not concerning themselves with worldly affairs, were pure in heart and renounced power." Taibo initially fled to Jingman, where the people submitted to him, calling him Gou Wu. After Taibo's death, Zhongyong succeeded him, and by the time of his great-grandson Zhouzhang, King Wu defeated the Shang dynasty and enfeoffed him as king. He also enfeoffed Zhouzhang's brother Zhong in Hebei, which became known as Northern Wu, later referred to as the state of Yu, which was destroyed by Jin after twelve generations. Two generations later, the Wuzi Shoumeng of Jingman grew strong and declared himself king. His youngest son, Jizha, was extraordinarily talented. His brothers wanted to pass the kingdom to him, but Jizha declined. From Taibo to Shoumeng's kingship spanned six generations, during which Helü employed Wu Zixu and Sun Wu as generals, achieving victories and gaining fame among the vassal states. By the time of his son Fuchai, he killed Wu Zixu and favored Zhaopi, leading to their downfall by the Yue king Goujian.
The rulers of Wu and Yue admired martial prowess, so their people to this day favor using swords, are fearless of death, and are easily stirred.
After Yue annexed Wu, it lasted six generations before being destroyed by Chu. Later, Qin attacked Chu, relocating them to Shouchun, eventually leading to their destruction by Qin.
Shouchun and Hefei received transportation of leather, abalone, and timber from the southern and northern lakes, making them important metropolises. Initially, the virtuous minister of Chu, Qu Yuan, was slandered and exiled, writing "Li Sao" and other poems to express his sorrow and grief. Later, Song Yu, Tang Le, and others admired him and passed on his works, gaining fame. After the establishment of the Han dynasty, Emperor Gaozu enfeoffed his nephew Liu Bi as the King of Wu, attracting scholars and disciples from across the land. Mei Cheng, Zou Yang, and Yan Fuzi emerged during the reigns of Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing. The King of Huainan, Liu An, also gathered guests and wrote books in Shouchun. Wu had ministers like Yan Zhu and Zhu Jia, who were prominent in the Han dynasty, and their literary works flourished, leading people to praise Chu Ci. However, the region's flaw is an abundance of cunning and a lack of integrity. Initially, the King of Huainan had daughters from common families abroad, who were married to wandering scholars, leading to a surplus of women and a shortage of men to this day. Originally, Wu and Yue bordered Chu, frequently annexing each other, resulting in similar customs.
To the east of Wu, there are sea salt and copper mines in Zhangshan, and resources from the Three Rivers and Five Lakes, making it an important metropolis in Jiangdong. Yuzhang produces gold, but these resources are limited and insufficient to cover expenses. The Jiangnan region is humid, and men often have short lifespans.
Overseas from Kuaiji are the Dongyi people, divided into more than twenty countries, who regularly pay tribute.
The territory of Yue belongs to the domain of the Celestial Ox and Maiden stars. Present-day Cangwu, Yulin, Hepu, Jiaozhi, Jiuzhen, Nanhai, and Rinan are within the boundaries of Yue.
Their rulers are said to be descendants of the Great Yu, a son of Emperor Shaokang, enfeoffed in Kuaiji, tattooed and cut their hair to avoid harm from dragons. By the twentieth generation, Goujian declared himself king and fought Wu King Helü, losing at Ju Li. After Fuchai succeeded, Goujian took advantage of the victory to attack Wu again, resulting in Wu's defeat and retreat to Kuaiji, where they submitted and sought peace. Later, using the strategies of Fan Li and Grandee Zhong, Yue finally destroyed Wu and annexed its territory. They crossed the Huai River to ally with the vassal states of Qi and Jin, paying tribute to the Zhou dynasty. King Yuan of Zhou sent envoys to confer the title of overlord, and the vassal states came to congratulate. Five generations later, Yue was destroyed by Chu, its descendants scattered, and its rulers served Chu. Ten generations later, the Min King Yao assisted the vassal states in subduing Qin. After the establishment of the Han dynasty, Yao was reinstated as King of Yue. At that time, Zhao Tuo, the Nanhai Inspector of Qin, also declared himself king, but by Emperor Wu's reign, he was completely destroyed and established as a commandery.
The land of Yue, close to the sea, is rich in rhinoceros, ivory, poison, pearls, jewels, silver, copper, fruits, and cloth, from which Chinese merchants often gain wealth. Panyu is one of its major metropolises.
From Hepu and Xuwen southward into the sea, one can reach a large island, about a thousand miles in each direction, which was briefly established as the commanderies of Dan'er and Zhuya in the first year of Emperor Wu's Yuanfeng era. The local people wear cloth garments like single-layered clothes with a hole in the middle to put over their heads. Men farm, growing rice and ramie, while women raise silkworms and weave cloth. There are no horses or tigers, but there are five types of livestock, and the mountains are full of deer. Their weapons include spears, shields, knives, wooden bows and crossbows, bamboo arrows, and bone arrowheads. Since the establishment of commanderies and counties, Chinese officials and soldiers have often harassed them, leading to periodic rebellions. During Emperor Yuan's reign, the area was finally abandoned.
From Rinan Barrier, Xuwen, and Hepu, sailing for about five months, one can reach the country of Duyuan; another four months of sailing leads to the country of Yilumei; after about twenty days of sailing, one reaches the country of Chenli; walking for about ten days leads to the country of Fugandulu. From Fugandulu, sailing for about two months, one reaches the country of Huangzhi, whose customs are similar to those of Zhuya. This place is vast, populous, and rich in exotic goods, contributing tribute since Emperor Wu of Han. There are interpreters belonging to the Yellow Gate, who, along with volunteers, go overseas to trade, carrying gold and silk. The countries they reach provide food as compensation, and barbarian merchants transport goods by ship. This facilitates trade but also poses risks of robbery and murder. Sometimes, they encounter storms and perish at sea, only returning after several years. Large pearls are about two inches in diameter. During the Yuanshi period of Emperor Ping, Wang Mang, as regent, wanted to display his virtue and generously gifted the King of Huangzhi, ordering them to send envoys with live rhinoceroses. From Huangzhi, sailing for about eight months, one can reach Pizong; another eight months of sailing leads to the border of Rinan and Xianglin. South of Huangzhi is the country of Yichengbu, from which Han translators returned.
