In the third year of the Di Huang era (23 CE), during the first month, the construction of the nine ancestral temples was completed, and the ancestral tablets of past emperors were installed. Wang Mang went to perform the sacrificial rites. He rode in a grand carriage pulled by six horses, dressed in dragon-patterned robes woven with five-colored threads, and wore a three-foot-long horn-shaped headdress. His carriage was covered with an ornamented canopy, and ten war chariots preceded him as escorts. Afterward, he rewarded the Minister over the Masses (Situ) and Minister of Works (Da Sikong), who oversaw the temple construction, with ten million coins each. Officials from the rank of Attendant-in-Waiting (Shizhong) and Regular Attendants (Zhongchangshi) and below were also granted rewards, while the craftsman Qiu Yan was appointed as the steward of Handanli Auxiliary City.
In the second month, a fire broke out at Ba Bridge. Thousands of people attempted to extinguish the fire with water, but the flames could not be contained. Wang Mang was deeply displeased and issued an edict explaining: “The Three Sovereigns represent spring, the Five Emperors represent summer, the Three Kings represent autumn, and the Five Hegemons represent winter. Sovereigns and kings embody the mandate of Heaven, while feudal lords serve as supplements to continue historical order. Thus, their principles are mixed and impure. Many roads in Chang’an are named after places. On the night of the guisi day in the second month, and continuing through the day of jiawu, Ba Bridge caught fire from east to west, burning until the evening of jiawu. This fire may have been caused by cold and hungry people living under the bridge who accidentally started it. The next day, yiwei, marked the beginning of spring. I believe this is Heaven’s will, symbolizing that the New Dynasty must destroy the old ‘Ba Bridge’ and establish a lasting unified order. Therefore, Ba Guan will be renamed ‘Changcun Guan’ (Eternal Existence Pavilion), and Ba Bridge will be renamed ‘Changcun Bridge’ (Eternal Existence Bridge).”
That same month, the Chimei (Red Eyebrow) rebels killed Grand Tutor Xi Zhong Jing Shang. Meanwhile, severe famine struck the Guandong region, and reports of cannibalism among the people emerged.
In April, Wang Mang dispatched Grand Tutor Wang Kuang and General of the Gengshi Army, Lian Dan, to lead an eastern campaign. As they set out, heavy rain fell, soaking the soldiers’ clothing and halting their progress. Local elders sighed and said, “This is a weeping army!” Wang Mang, however, rationalized: “Last year’s Nine Calamities and evil omens brought drought, frost, and locust plagues, causing widespread famine and displacement, with spring being particularly harsh. I am deeply grieved by this. Thus, I ordered the Grand Tutor of Mount Tai, Marquis Bao Xin, to open eastern granaries to aid the poor. Additionally, Grand Tutor Wang Kuang and Lian Dan are leading over 100,000 elite troops to Yanzhou, Qingzhou, and Xuzhou to eliminate remaining bandits and pacify the people.” However, Wang Kuang and Lian Dan’s troops plundered wherever they went, prompting widespread resentment among the populace. A saying arose: “Better to encounter the Chimei rebels than the Grand Tutor’s army! The Grand Tutor is tolerable, but the Gengshi Army will kill you!” Events unfolded just as Tian Kuang had predicted.
Wang Mang also sent officials to teach the people how to make “curds” (a type of food made from plants), but the product was inedible and only added to their suffering. Wang Mang issued another edict: “The people are in distress. Although granaries have been opened for relief, it may still not suffice. I now decree that all mountains and marshes across the empire are open for the people to gather seasonal resources tax-free. This policy will remain in effect until the 30th year of Di Huang (an imaginary future year). I urge officials not to oppress the people and deny them this benefit.” However, these measures failed to alleviate the people’s hardships.
At this time, the Xiajiang troops gained strength, and Zhu Wei of Xinshi and Chen Mu of Pinglin regrouped their forces to attack villages and towns. Wang Mang sent General-in-Chief of Fate Kong Ren to Yuzhou, while Grand Commandant Yan You and General-in-Chief of Rituals Chen Mao were tasked with attacking Jingzhou. Each led over a hundred soldiers, traveling by boat along the Wei River to the Yellow River. Upon reaching Huayin, they continued on horseback to recruit more troops. Yan You remarked to Chen Mao: “Sending generals to battle without giving them authority tokens, requiring them to seek approval for every action, is like tying up hunting dogs but expecting them to catch prey. It simply won’t work.”
In the summer, locusts swarmed from the east, darkening the skies. They even entered Chang’an’s Weiyang Palace, covering its halls and pavilions. Wang Mang mobilized officials and civilians to capture the locusts and offered rewards for doing so.
As grain prices soared, Wang Mang attempted to stabilize the market by constructing a large granary named “Zhengshi Yemeng” and stationed soldiers to guard it.
A massive influx of refugees arrived in Chang’an, numbering in the hundreds of thousands. Wang Mang set up an “Office for Relief and Support” to distribute food, but the officials and clerks in charge embezzled much of the supplies, resulting in the starvation of 70-80% of the refugees. Previously, Wang Mang had appointed Wang Ye, a eunuch, to oversee market procurement in Chang’an, where he forcibly purchased grain at low prices, further angering the people. However, Wang Ye was commended by Wang Mang for his “cost-saving efforts” and was granted the title of Marquis of Fucheng. Later, when Wang Mang heard reports of severe famine in the city, he questioned Wang Ye, who lied, saying, “Those starving are just refugees.” To deceive Wang Mang further, Wang Ye presented him with a bowl of liangli meat soup (a type of porridge-like food), claiming, “The people in the city are eating well.” Wang Mang believed him.
In the winter, rebels led by Suolu Hui from Wuyan revolted and seized a city. Lian Dan and Wang Kuang recaptured it and slaughtered over 10,000 people. Wang Mang sent an envoy with an imperial decree to reward Lian Dan and Wang Kuang, granting them the title of Duke and rewarding over ten meritorious soldiers.
Meanwhile, a detachment of the Chimei rebels led by Dong Xian gathered tens of thousands of troops in Liang Commandery. Wang Kuang wanted to attack them, but Lian Dan argued that the soldiers were exhausted after their recent victory and needed rest. Wang Kuang ignored him and launched an attack alone, forcing Lian Dan to follow. The two armies clashed at Chengchang, where they suffered a devastating defeat. Wang Kuang fled, while Lian Dan handed his official seal to Wang Kuang, saying: “You can run, but I cannot!” He stayed behind to fight to the death and was ultimately killed in battle. Captains Ru Yun, Wang Long, and over twenty others, upon hearing of Lian Dan’s death, lamented: “If Lord Lian is dead, what reason do we have to live?” They charged into the enemy ranks and were all killed. Upon hearing the news, Wang Mang was deeply grieved and issued an edict: “Lord Lian commanded elite troops and ample supplies but failed to follow my orders and acted recklessly, leading to his demise. It is truly lamentable!” Wang Mang posthumously honored Lian Dan as “Duke Guo” (Duke of Loyalty).
State Minister Ai Zhang said to Wang Mang: “In ancient times, during the reign of the Yellow Emperor, the Zhonghuang General defeated Chiyou. Now, I hold the position of Zhonghuang General and am willing to pacify the rebellion in Shandong.” Wang Mang approved and sent Ai Zhang east to join forces with Grand Tutor Wang Kuang. Additionally, he dispatched General Yang Jun to guard Aocang and Minister over the Masses Wang Xun to lead over 100,000 troops to Luoyang to fill the vacancy left at the Southern Palace.
In the fourth year of the Di Huang era (24 CE), during the first month, the Han army recruited Wang Chang and others in the Xiajiang region as reinforcements to attack Xin Dynasty officials, including Front Division Chancellor Zhen Fu and Assistant Chancellor Liangqiu Ci. They successfully killed both commanders and annihilated their forces, slaying tens of thousands. At the time, it was reported in the capital that the rebel forces in Qingzhou and Xuzhou numbered in the hundreds of thousands, yet they had no banners or insignias, which seemed unusual. Some curious individuals privately speculated, “Could this be symbolic of the ancient Three Sovereigns, who ruled without written orders or commands?” Wang Mang also found this puzzling and asked his ministers for an explanation, but none could provide an answer. Only Yan You explained, “This is nothing extraordinary. From the armies of the Yellow Emperor to those of Shang Tang and King Wu of Zhou, all had banners and commands. These rebels, however, are nothing more than starving bandits who have gathered like flocks of sheep or dogs. They simply do not understand such things.” Wang Mang was delighted by this explanation, and his ministers echoed their praise. Later, however, the Han army, led by Liu Bosheng, officially unfurled their general’s banners, seized cities, and issued a proclamation to Wang Mang after killing Zhen Fu. Upon hearing this, Wang Mang became deeply anxious and fearful.
The Han army pressed their advantage and besieged Wancheng. Initially, Liu Xiu’s elder cousin, the Shenggong (Sacred Duke), was among the Pinglin forces. On the day of xinsi (the first day of the third month), the forces of Pinglin, Xinshi, and Xiajiang, led by commanders Wang Chang, Zhu Wei, and others, jointly proclaimed the Sacred Duke as emperor, adopting the reign title Gengshi (First Year of the Gengshi Era). They also established a full imperial court. Upon learning of this, Wang Mang grew even more fearful. However, he feigned calmness and pretended to be unshaken. To demonstrate his composure, he dyed his beard and hair black and married the daughter of the historian Shi clan from Duling, a woman renowned for her beauty, crowning her empress. For this wedding, Wang Mang prepared 30,000 jin of gold, along with a vast quantity of carriages, slaves, silk, and treasures. Wang Mang personally welcomed the empress, holding the ceremony on the steps between the front hall’s two staircases, and completed the “same-feast ritual” in the Upper West Hall. Additionally, he created multiple ranks for concubines, including He Bin (Harmonious Consorts), Mei Yu (Beautiful Attendants), and He Ren (Harmonious Ladies), totaling 120 women. These women were adorned with seals, carried bows and arrows, and enjoyed privileges according to their ranks. Wang Mang also granted the empress’s father, Shi Shen, the title of Marquis of Peace and appointed him General of Ning Shi, while Shi Shen’s two sons were made attendants-in-waiting. That same day, a violent wind suddenly arose, toppling buildings and snapping trees.
The court officials submitted congratulatory memorials, saying: “Today, on the gengzi day, Heaven sent rain to cleanse the roads, and on the xinchou day, the skies cleared, free of dust. In the evening, a grain-bearing wind blew from the northeast. The xinchou day corresponds to the Xun trigram, which symbolizes wind and harmony, signifying the empress’s luminous virtue, her role as the model mother of the empire, and her gentleness and benevolence. As the Book of Changes states: ‘This great blessing is bestowed upon the king’s mother.’ And as the Book of Rites says: ‘Receiving Heaven’s favor brings boundless blessings.’ Those who cling to the Liu family of the Han dynasty will be washed away like snowmelt. With abundant harvests, flourishing vegetation, and joyful people, everyone under Heaven will benefit from this fortune. It is truly a blessing for the world!” Meanwhile, Wang Mang spent his days in the palace with magicians from Zhuojun, such as Zhao Jun, studying occult practices and indulging in pleasures. He also declared a general amnesty but simultaneously issued an order to hunt down Liu Bosheng and other Han generals, accusing them of “spreading rumors to deceive the people and betraying the Mandate of Heaven.” He highlighted their killing of Gengshi General Lian Dan, Front Division Chancellor Zhen Fu, and Assistant Chancellor Liangqiu Ci. Wang Mang announced that anyone who captured Liu Bosheng would be granted the title of Duke, a fief of 10,000 households, and 50 million coins.
Subsequently, Wang Mang issued an edict commanding Grand Tutor Wang Kuang, State General Ai Zhang, Commander of Fate Kong Ren, Governor of Yanzhou Shou Liang, Assistant Chancellor Wang Hong, and Governor of Yangzhou Li Sheng to swiftly mobilize their provincial and commandery troops, totaling 300,000, to suppress the rebels in Qingzhou and Xuzhou. At the same time, he ordered General of Speech Yan You, General of Rituals Chen Mao, General of Chariots and Cavalry Wang Xun, and Left Division Chancellor Wang Wu to lead 100,000 troops to pursue the “bandits” of the Front Division. He instructed these generals to persuade the rebels to surrender, and if they refused, to unite their forces and annihilate them. Additionally, Wang Mang commanded Grand Minister of Works Wang Yi to lead an army of one million as a reserve force, ready to attack any rebels who refused to surrender. To publicize these orders, Wang Mang dispatched 72 envoys to various regions to issue pardons, but most of these envoys fled after leaving the capital.
In April, Liu Xiu and Wang Chang divided their forces to attack Yingchuan, capturing Kunyang, Yan, Dingling, and other cities. Upon hearing this, Wang Mang became even more terrified. He urgently dispatched Grand Minister of Works Wang Yi to Luoyang to join Minister over the Masses Wang Xun in assembling troops from various commanderies. They gathered a total of one million soldiers, known as the “Tiger Fang Five Mighty Army,” to suppress the rebellion in Shandong. Wang Mang granted Wang Yi extraordinary authority, allowing him to confer titles and make decisions on the spot. He also summoned 63 strategists proficient in military tactics from across the empire, ordering them to bring military texts and equipment to assist the army. To demonstrate the strength and wealth of the Xin Dynasty, Wang Mang emptied the state treasury to supply Wang Yi with vast quantities of treasures and exotic animals, hoping to intimidate the Shandong region. Upon arriving in Luoyang, Wang Yi oversaw the selection of elite soldiers from various provinces and commanderies, with governors personally leading their troops. Eventually, 420,000 troops were assembled in Luoyang, with reinforcements continuing to arrive. The scale of this campaign, including its carriages, armor, and warhorses, was said to be unprecedented in history.
In June, Wang Yi and Minister over the Masses Wang Xun led their army from Luoyang toward Wancheng, passing through Kunyang. At that time, Kunyang had already surrendered to the Han army and was under their control. After meeting up with Yan You and Chen Mao, Wang Yi and Wang Xun decided to besiege Kunyang. Yan You advised, “The Han emperor is in Wancheng. We should advance there quickly. If Wancheng falls, the other cities will naturally surrender.” However, Wang Yi dismissed this, saying, “We have a million troops, and wherever we go, we will destroy everything. Let us first annihilate Kunyang before moving forward—it will be immensely satisfying!” He then ordered the siege of Kunyang, constructing dozens of layers of fortifications around the city. The defenders inside the city offered to surrender, but Wang Yi refused. Yan You again advised, “The Art of War says, ‘Do not obstruct a retreating enemy, and leave an opening when besieging a city.’ This will allow the enemy to flee and intimidate the defenders of Wancheng.” Yet Wang Yi still refused to listen.
At this time, Emperor Guangwu of Han, Liu Xiu, led several thousand reinforcements from Yancheng and Dingling to rescue Kunyang. Wang Xun and Wang Yi underestimated this small force and personally led over 10,000 troops to confront them, ordering the other units not to act without permission. However, they were defeated in battle against the Han army. Taking advantage of their victory, the Han forces pursued and killed Wang Xun. The Han troops inside Kunyang also seized the opportunity to sally out and attack from both sides, resulting in a crushing defeat for Wang Yi's army. Wang Yi fled in panic. At the same time, a torrential downpour accompanied by fierce winds struck, scattering the soldiers. Wild animals panicked and ran loose, adding to the chaos. The soldiers fled in disarray, with many returning to their hometowns. Wang Yi managed to escape back to Luoyang with only a few thousand elite soldiers from Chang’an. The news of this defeat caused great shock throughout the Guanzhong region, and bandit uprisings erupted everywhere.
Rumors spread among the Han army that Wang Mang had poisoned Emperor Ping of Han. Upon hearing this, Wang Mang immediately summoned all officials, from the nobility down to lower-ranking ministers, to the Wanglu Hall. There, he publicly displayed the "Golden Box Strategy" (a document symbolizing legitimacy) that he had once submitted on behalf of Emperor Ping. While crying, he showed it to the officials. He also ordered Zhang Han, a scholar of Mingxue, to explain his merits and the significance of the heavenly mandate. Zhang Han said, “The Book of Changes states: ‘An ambush rises in the wilderness, ascends to the high mound, and does not prosper for three years.’ ‘Wilderness’ refers to the emperor’s name, Mang; ‘ascend’ refers to Liu Bosheng; and ‘high mound’ refers to Zhai Yi, the son of the Marquis of Gaoling. This means that rebels like Liu Bosheng and Zhai Yi, though lying in ambush, will ultimately be destroyed during the emperor’s reign and will not succeed.” The officials loudly proclaimed their loyalty and shouted, “Long live the emperor!” Wang Mang then ordered a group of prisoners to be transported east in shackles, falsely announcing, “Liu Bosheng and others have already been executed.” However, this was all fabricated, as I know.
Earlier, General of the Guards Wang She had been supporting a Taoist named Ximen Junhui, who was skilled in astronomy and prophecy. Ximen Junhui told Wang She, “The stars indicate that disaster will sweep through the palace, the Liu clan will rise again, and the name of the Grand Master aligns with the mandate of Heaven.” Wang She believed this deeply and shared it with Grand Marshal Dong Zhong. The two frequently visited the Grand Master’s temple to discuss celestial phenomena with Grand Master Liu Xin, but Liu Xin remained silent. Later, Wang She went alone to Liu Xin, tearfully saying, “I sincerely wish to work with you to safeguard our clans. Why do you not trust me?” Liu Xin then explained the changes in astronomy and human affairs, asserting that the situation in the east would inevitably succeed. Wang She said, “The Marquis of Xindu (Wang Mang’s grandson) has been unwell recently, and Gongxian Jun (another grandson of Wang Mang) is known for his drunkenness. I suspect the emperor is not even of the Wang family’s bloodline. Now, Dong Gong (Dong Zhong) commands the elite central army, I oversee the palace guards, and Yixiu Hou (Liu Xin’s eldest son) manages palace affairs. If we unite and seize the emperor, surrendering to the Liu clan’s emperor in Nanyang, we can save our families. Otherwise, we will all be exterminated!”
Yixiu Hou, Liu Xin’s eldest son, served as an attendant-in-waiting and a Five-Office Colonel. Wang Mang had always favored him. Liu Xin, harboring resentment over Wang Mang’s execution of his three sons and fearing future calamity, agreed to conspire with Wang She and Dong Zhong. Liu Xin added, “We must wait for the appearance of the Venus star before taking action.”
Dong Zhong also discussed the plan with Sun Ji, the Marquis of Qiwuhou. However, upon returning home, Sun Ji became visibly distressed, unable to eat or drink. His wife found this strange and pressed him for an explanation. Sun Ji revealed the plot to her, and she, in turn, told her brother Chen Han, who decided to report it. In July, Sun Ji and Chen Han jointly informed Wang Mang of the conspiracy. Wang Mang immediately dispatched messengers to summon Dong Zhong and the others separately. At the time, Dong Zhong was training troops. The guard commander Wang Xian advised him, “This matter has dragged on too long and seems to have been leaked. It would be better to kill the messenger and lead the troops into the palace directly.” Dong Zhong refused and instead went with Liu Xin and Wang She to the meeting with Wang Mang. Wang Mang ordered Que Yun to interrogate the three, and they quickly confessed. A eunuch drew his sword to escort Dong Zhong and the others away. Dong Zhong attempted to draw his own sword to commit suicide, but the attendant Wang Wang reported that the Grand Marshal had rebelled. The eunuchs then worked together to kill Dong Zhong.
The news spread quickly within the palace, and the guards drew their weapons, preparing for a confrontation. General of Gengshi Shi Shen patrolled the area and reassured the palace guards, saying, “The Grand Marshal had a fit of madness and has already been executed.” This calmed the soldiers, who then laid down their weapons. To dispel bad omens, Wang Mang ordered the Tiger Guards to use a horse-cutting sword to decapitate Dong Zhong. His body was placed in a bamboo basket, and Wang Mang announced, “The traitor has been punished.” He then issued an edict pardoning all officials and soldiers implicated in the conspiracy, as long as their involvement had not been discovered. However, he also ordered the arrest of Dong Zhong’s entire clan, who were executed with poison, blades, and fire before being buried in a mass grave. Liu Xin and Wang She both committed suicide. Although Wang Mang was furious at their betrayal, as they had been his trusted officials, he concealed the true cause of their deaths to avoid scandal. As for Liu Xin’s eldest son, Yixiu Hou, who had always been cautious, Liu Xin never implicated him. Wang Mang merely removed him from his positions as an attendant-in-waiting and Five-Office Colonel, reassigning him as a Gentleman of Scattered Ranks.
Later, rumors spread within the palace that in a certain area of the palace’s Hook Shield Earth Mound, there was an elderly man with white hair dressed in green robes. The palace guards privately referred to him as the “Grand Master.” Yan Gonghou Xi, known for his divination skills, was asked by Wang Mang to predict the future. Xi said, “There will be calamities of war and fire.” Wang Mang replied, “What do children know of such nonsense? This is merely my imperial uncle, Ziqiao, coming to welcome me.”
Wang Mang's army suffered continuous defeats on the battlefield, and within the court, ministers kept defecting. He found himself surrounded by no one he could trust and was even unable to manage the affairs of the local commanderies and kingdoms. He considered summoning Wang Yi back to discuss countermeasures. Cui Fa advised him, “Wang Yi has always been timid and cautious. If he is summoned back after losing his army, he might choose to die in loyalty. You should comfort him instead.” Thus, Wang Mang sent Cui Fa to deliver a message to Wang Yi: “I am old and have no suitable heir. I intend to pass the empire to you. Do not decline or say anything more; we will discuss it when we meet.” Hearing this, Wang Yi returned to the capital and was appointed Grand Marshal. Zhang Han, the Grand Minister of Autumn, was appointed Grand Minister over the Masses, Cui Fa became the Grand Minister over Works, Shou Rong Miao Xin from the Department of the Interior was made Grand Master, and Tongyue Marquis Lin was named General of the Guards.
Wang Mang was deeply anxious, unable to eat, and could only sustain himself by drinking wine and eating abalone. Exhausted from reviewing military reports, he would nap leaning on his desk rather than resting in bed. He enjoyed studying divination and astrology, but in times of crisis, he frequently resorted to superstitious rituals in an attempt to resolve his problems. He even ordered the destruction of the gates and fences of the mausoleums at Weiling and Yanling, saying, “Do not let the people continue to long for the past.” He also had the walls of the mausoleums painted black with ink. Furthermore, he gave his troops superstitious names such as “Yearly Constellations,” “Supporting Generals,” and “Woodcut Captains,” declaring, “Use great axes to fell dead trees, and use great floods to extinguish blazing fires.” His many superstitious practices were too numerous to recount.
In autumn, the planet Venus entered the Taiwei constellation, its light illuminating the earth as brightly as the moon.
In Chengji, the brothers Wei Cui and Wei Xiu kidnapped the Chief Commandant Li Yu and proclaimed their nephew Wei Ao as Grand General. They attacked and killed Chen Qing, the Governor of Yongzhou, and Wang Xun, the Commander of Anding, taking over their forces. They then issued proclamations to the various commanderies and counties, listing Wang Mang’s crimes and accusing him of being even more tyrannical than the infamous Jie and Zhou of ancient times.
That same month, Deng Ye and Yu Kuang raised an army in Nanxiang, initially numbering just over a hundred men. At that time, the magistrate of Xixian was stationed at Qiaoting with several thousand soldiers to guard Wuguan. Deng Ye and Yu Kuang approached the magistrate and said, “The emperor of the Liu clan has already ascended the throne. Why do you not follow the mandate of Heaven?” The magistrate promptly surrendered, and Deng Ye and Yu Kuang incorporated his troops. Deng Ye declared himself Left Supporting General of Han, while Yu Kuang took the title of Right General. They captured Xixian and Danshui, then advanced on Wuguan, where the commander Zhu Meng surrendered. They continued their offensive, killed Right Division Gentleman Song Gang, and then moved west to seize Hucheng.
When Wang Mang received the news, he became even more anxious and at a loss for what to do. Cui Fa suggested, “According to the *Rites of Zhou* and the *Zuo Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals*, when a state faces great disasters, the ruler should use weeping to resolve the crisis. The *Book of Changes* also says, ‘First wailing and lamentation, then laughter.’ Your Majesty should cry and plead to Heaven for salvation.” Knowing his fate was sealed, Wang Mang led his ministers to the southern suburbs, where he gave a detailed account of the origins of his heavenly mandate. He cried out to Heaven, saying, “Heaven granted the mandate to me, Wang Mang. Why does it not eliminate these rebels? If I, Wang Mang, have done wrong, then strike me down with thunder and lightning!” Afterward, he beat his chest and wept bitterly, collapsing to the ground in grief and repeatedly kowtowing.
Subsequently, Wang Mang wrote a “Proclamation to Heaven,” a self-narrative of his achievements, totaling over a thousand words. He gathered a large number of commoners and Confucian scholars, instructing them to take turns crying and kneeling day and night, providing them with porridge and meals. Those who could recite the “Proclamation to Heaven” were appointed as court gentlemen, with the total number exceeding 5,000, all placed under the command of Que Yun.
Wang Mang then appointed nine generals, all bearing the title “Tiger,” collectively referred to as the “Nine Tigers.” They led tens of thousands of elite troops from the Northern Army on an eastern campaign. Wang Mang held the generals’ wives and children in the palace as hostages. At the time, the palace held 60 chests of gold, with each chest containing 10,000 jin. Other places, such as the Yellow Gate, Hook Shield, Treasury, and Central Workshops, also had several chests of gold. The Longle Imperial Treasury, Central Imperial Treasury, and other storerooms within the capital were filled with mountains of money, silk, jewels, and other treasures. However, Wang Mang was extremely stingy with these resources, granting each of the Nine Tiger generals only 4,000 coins. The soldiers were deeply resentful and lacked any fighting spirit.
The Nine Tiger army reached Huayin and Huixi, where they encountered a narrow pass defended by enemy forces. Yu Kuang led several thousand crossbowmen to challenge them from high ground, while Deng Ye led over 20,000 troops from Wenxiang, south of Zaojie and Zuogu, to attack the enemy’s flank. They routed part of the enemy forces before circling around to launch a rear assault on the Nine Tigers. Six of the Nine Tiger armies were defeated and fled. Shi Xiong and Wang Kuang returned to the capital to plead for forgiveness. Wang Mang sent envoys to interrogate them about their failure, and both committed suicide in shame. The remaining four Tiger generals deserted. Only three—Guo Qin, Chen Hui, and Cheng Zhong—managed to regroup their remaining soldiers and retreat to defend the imperial granaries in the capital.
Deng Ye opened Wuguan to welcome the Han Chancellor’s Director Li Song, who led over 2,000 troops to Huxian. There, they joined forces with Deng Ye and others to attack the capital’s granaries but failed to capture them. Deng Ye appointed Wang Xian, a county official from Hongnong, as a colonel to lead several hundred men across the Wei River into the territory of Zuo Fengyi. Along the way, they captured cities and recruited local forces. Li Song dispatched subordinate General Han Chen and others to head straight for Xinfeng, where they clashed with Wang Mang’s General of Boshi. Han Chen defeated the enemy and pursued them as far as Changmen Palace. Meanwhile, Wang Xian advanced north to Pinyang, where locals surrendered en masse. Prominent families in the region, such as Shen Dang of Liyang and Wang Da of Xiagui, led their followers to join Wang Xian. Local officials in subordinate counties, including Yan Chun of Laixian, Dong Xi of Maoling, Wang Meng of Lantian, Ru Chen of Huaili, Wang Fu of Zhizhi, Yan Ben of Yangling, and Tu Men Shao of Duling, each gathered thousands of men, claiming to be Han generals in the name of the Han army.
At the time, Li Song and Deng Ye believed that since they could not even capture the small granaries near the capital, let alone Chang’an itself, they would need to wait for the main forces of Emperor Gengshi to arrive. Thus, they withdrew their troops to Huayin and began preparing siege equipment. However, the various forces surrounding Chang’an were already gathering beneath the city walls. Upon hearing that reinforcements from the Wei clan of Tianshui were en route, they all vied to be the first to storm the city, eager to claim credit and plunder.
Wang Mang sent emissaries to pardon all prisoners in the city, armed them, and made them swear an oath by slaughtering pigs and drinking their blood, saying, "Anyone who does not remain loyal to the Xin Dynasty will be remembered by the gods of the state!" Gengshi General Shi Chen attempted to cross the Wei Bridge, but his soldiers fled upon hearing the news, forcing Shi Chen to return empty-handed. Meanwhile, the soldiers besieging Chang'an dug up the graves of Wang Mang's wife and ancestors, burned their coffins, and set fire to the Nine Temples, the Mingtang, and the Biyong. The flames illuminated the entire city. Someone informed Wang Mang, "The guards at the city gates are mostly from the eastern regions and cannot be trusted." Wang Mang then replaced them with cavalrymen, stationing 600 soldiers at each gate under the command of a captain.
On the first day of the tenth month (Wushen day), the Han army breached the Xuanping Gate, commonly known among the people as the "Capital Gate." Zhang Han, while inspecting the gates, encountered the Han army and was killed. Wang Yi, Wang Lin, Wang Xun, Que Yun, and others divided their forces to resist and engaged the Han army in battle beneath the northern watchtower. The Han soldiers, motivated by the promise of rewards from Wang Mang, fought desperately, resulting in over 700 casualties on both sides. By nightfall, government officials and nobles had fled the city.
The next day (Jiyou day), young men in the city, including Zhu Di and Zhang Yu, fearing plunder, gathered together, created a commotion, and set fire to the Zuoshi Gate. They broke open the Jingfata Gate (a palace gate) and shouted, "Traitor Wang Mang, why don’t you come out and surrender?" The fire spread to the Chengming Hall in the Yetian Palace, where the empress resided. To avoid the fire, Wang Mang retreated to the front hall of the Xuanshi Palace, but the flames continued to approach. The women in the palace cried out in terror, not knowing what to do.
At this time, Wang Mang, dressed in a dark green ceremonial robe and wearing the jade seal sash, held Emperor Yu's dagger in his hand. The Astronomer An Shi stood before him, reporting celestial phenomena and explaining the positions of certain stars. Wang Mang adjusted his sitting posture in alignment with the direction of the Big Dipper and muttered to himself, "Heaven has bestowed virtue upon me. What can the Han army do to me?" However, by this point, Wang Mang had not eaten for several days. He was weak, his breath faint, and his body extremely frail.
On the morning of the third day (Gengxu day), Wang Mang was supported by his ministers as he descended from the front hall to the Jiao Steps, passing through the White Tiger Gate. Wang Yi of Hexin had prepared a carriage and horses outside the gate. Wang Mang boarded the carriage and headed to the Jian Terrace, intending to use the pool as a defensive barrier. He still held the imperial talismans and insignia symbolizing his authority, accompanied by over a thousand officials, attendants, and palace guards. Wang Yi, exhausted from days and nights of fighting, had lost nearly all his soldiers in battle. He returned to the palace, eventually reaching the Jian Terrace, where he found his son, Chamberlain Wang Mu, removing his official attire to flee. Wang Yi scolded him and ordered him to return. Together, they stood guard over Wang Mang.
The Han army stormed into the hall, shouting, "Where is the traitor Wang Mang?" A palace maid emerged from a room and said, "He is on the Jian Terrace." The Han army immediately surrounded the terrace, encircling it hundreds of times over. The defenders on the terrace used bows and crossbows to resist, but their arrows quickly ran out, forcing them into close combat with the enemy. Wang Yi, Wang Xun, Que Yun, and others fought to the death, while Wang Mang retreated into the inner chamber. By noon, the Han army breached the Jian Terrace. Wang Yi, Zhao Bo, Miao Xin, Tang Zun, Wang Sheng, and the palace attendant Wang Can were all killed on the terrace. Eventually, a merchant named Du Wu killed Wang Mang and took his sash.
The captain Gong Bin from Donghai, who had once been in charge of Wang Mang's funeral arrangements, approached Du Wu and asked where the owner of the sash was. Du Wu replied, "In the northwest corner of the room." Gong Bin entered the room, confirmed Wang Mang's identity, and severed his head, bringing it to Wang Xian. Wang Xian declared himself Grand General of Han, took control of the city's hundreds of thousands of troops, occupied the Eastern Palace, married Wang Mang's concubines, and used Wang Mang's carriages and horses.
On the sixth day (Guichou day), Li Song and Deng Ye entered Chang'an, followed by Generals Zhao Meng and Shentu Jian. Because Wang Xian had taken the imperial seal and sash without handing them over and had seized palace women, Shentu Jian raised the emperor's banner and drums, arrested Wang Xian, and executed him. Wang Mang's head was then sent to Emperor Gengshi and displayed in the marketplace of Wancheng. Crowds of people gathered to see it, and some even cut off Wang Mang's tongue and ate it.
Wang Mang's Governor of Yangzhou, Li Sheng, and Commander Kong Ren were defeated in Shandong. Li Sheng died in battle, while Kong Ren surrendered and lamented, "I have heard that those who eat human flesh will eventually perish by their own sins." He then drew his sword and committed suicide. Elsewhere, officials such as Du Pu, Chen Ding, and Shen Yi resisted in their respective commanderies but were ultimately killed by the Han army. Wang Qin and Guo Qin, who had defended the imperial granaries in Chang'an, surrendered after learning of Wang Mang's death. Emperor Gengshi, recognizing their loyalty, granted them marquis titles. Grand Preceptor Wang Kuang and National General Ai Zhang surrendered in Luoyang but were executed in Wancheng. Yan You and Chen Mao, who had fled to Qiao County in Pei Commandery after their defeat at Kunyang, proclaimed themselves Han generals and recruited local officials and civilians. Yan You spoke of Wang Mang's usurpation and the restoration of the Han mandate, moving Chen Mao to tears. Later, upon hearing that Liu Sheng, the Marquis of Zhongwu from the Former Han, had gathered a following in Runan and declared himself emperor, they surrendered to him. Liu Sheng appointed Yan You as Grand Marshal and Chen Mao as Chancellor. However, within just over ten days, they were defeated again and both died in battle. From then on, commanderies and counties across the land surrendered one after another, and the realm was restored to the Han Dynasty.
Initially, Shentu Jian had served under Cui Fa. After entering Chang'an, Cui Fa surrendered, but Shentu Jian still exposed his crimes and ordered Chancellor Liu Ci to execute Cui Fa publicly. Shi Chen, Wang Yan, Wang Lin, Wang Wu, Zhao Hong, and others also surrendered but were ultimately killed. Many soldiers who had fought under the false banner of the Han hoped to be rewarded with noble titles, but Shentu Jian not only executed Wang Xian but also spread rumors that the people of the Three Adjuncts (Sanfu) region had killed their leaders. This caused panic among officials and civilians, who gathered to defend themselves. Shentu Jian and others were unable to pacify the region and had to urgently report to Emperor Gengshi.
In the second year of Emperor Gengshi's reign (25 CE), he arrived in Chang'an and issued a general amnesty, sparing all members of the Wang clan except Wang Mang's sons. Thus, the Wang family was preserved. The Three Adjuncts region was completely pacified, and Emperor Gengshi made Chang'an his capital, residing in the Changle Palace. The treasury and storerooms were intact, but the Weiyang Palace, which had been burned during the attack on Wang Mang, took three days to restore. However, after Emperor Gengshi's arrival in Chang'an, his decrees failed to take effect. The following summer, the Red Eyebrow Army, led by Fan Chong and others, entered the Guanzhong region with tens of thousands of troops, proclaimed Liu Penzi emperor, and attacked Emperor Gengshi. Emperor Gengshi surrendered and was killed. The Red Eyebrow Army burned the palaces and streets of Chang'an, leaving the people starving and resorting to cannibalism. Tens of thousands died, and Chang'an became a ghost town, devoid of people. The ancestral temples and imperial tombs were looted, with only Baling and Duling spared. In June, Emperor Guangwu of Han, Liu Xiu, ascended the throne, reestablishing the imperial temples and restoring peace to the realm.
Commentary: Wang Mang initially rose to prominence as a member of the imperial in-law clan. He was modest and cautious, diligently practicing virtuous conduct to cultivate a reputation. His clan praised him for his filial piety, and his teachers and friends admired his benevolence. When he held high office and assisted in governing during the reigns of Emperor Cheng and Emperor Ai of the Han Dynasty, he indeed worked hard for the state, conducted himself according to proper principles, and his words and actions were widely praised. Is this not what is meant by "praised within the family, and likewise praised in the state" and "appearing benevolent on the surface, while acting against righteousness"?
Wang Mang's true nature was unkind, yet he possessed a cunning and deceitful talent. Relying on the power accumulated over four generations of his family as imperial in-laws, he happened to encounter a period of decline in the Han Dynasty, with the imperial bloodline broken for three generations and the empress dowager, who lived to an old age, becoming the dominant force in the royal clan. As a result, Wang Mang was able to act with impunity, carrying out his schemes and ultimately bringing about the disaster of usurping the throne. From this, one can infer that this was a result of fate, not something that human effort could have entirely controlled.
When he finally seized the throne, proclaimed himself emperor, and sat on a throne that did not belong to him, his downfall became even more inevitable than that of the tyrants Jie and Zhou. Yet Wang Mang remained complacent, convinced that he was a sage ruler like the legendary emperors Huangdi and Shun reborn. He indulged his desires, abused his power through deceit, implemented tyrannical policies, and cruelly oppressed the people. His wickedness reached its peak, bringing suffering not only to the people of the Central Plains but also spreading disaster to the barbarian tribes and border regions. Even this could not satisfy his greed.
As a result, across the entire realm, the people were filled with resentment and lost their will to live. Dissatisfaction boiled over both within and outside the court, and uprisings erupted everywhere. Cities could not be defended, and Wang Mang's own body was ultimately torn apart. The cities of the empire were reduced to ruins, tombs were desecrated, and calamities afflicted the people so severely that even the dead could not escape. Throughout history, among all the treacherous ministers, rebels, and immoral figures recorded in the annals, none have caused chaos and met a downfall as severe as Wang Mang's.
In ancient times, the First Emperor of Qin burned books to enforce his personal will, while Wang Mang recited the Six Classics to embellish his deceitful rhetoric with Confucian ideology. Yet their fates were the same—they were both overthrown and ultimately destroyed. They were like trapped dragons, completely cut off from any vitality, a destiny that was inevitable. Wang Mang's so-called "purple auspicious omen" (a symbol of imperial legitimacy) was nothing more than an illusion, a temporary occupation of the throne. A truly wise and virtuous ruler would inevitably expel him. This is the way of Heaven!
