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Written by: Realhistories

Category: Book of the Later Han （後漢書）

Published: 01 January 2025

Created: 01 January 2025

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The book says: "A wise ruler utilizes achievements to evaluate officials and employs salaries to reward their hard work." This means that in ancient times, wise rulers personally participated in eliminating significant calamities for the greater good, labored tirelessly, burdened by worries, and braved the cold and heat so that the people and all living beings could live and work in peace, free from the disasters of premature death, chaos, and tyranny. Therefore, the people of the world honor them as they would their own parents; they support them as they look up to the sun and moon. Those who love them hope for their enduring legacy and work tirelessly to build palaces, beams, and pillars to shelter them; those who respect them hope for their dignity and prominence, working tirelessly to craft carriages, wheels, banners, and tablets in their honor. This is love to the extreme, respect to the utmost. Even at their most generous, the gratitude may remain unexpressed. Some people may even sacrifice their lives for them to show their loyalty; generations will worship them to demonstrate their achievements. Therefore, their glorious accomplishments are as enduring as the heavens and the earth.

Wise rulers in later generations, knowing the profound concerns of the people, will inevitably share in their joy; diligent in benevolent governance, ensuring that all things do not perish, will surely be blessed. Therefore, rituals are established to regulate all of this, so that those kind rulers inherit the mandate of heaven, govern all things, do not boast of their achievements, and ensure that the people and all living beings live and work in peace, just as in the natural order, leaving no one knowing how to express their gratitude. "Laozi" said: "The sage is not kind, and regards the people as straw dogs," which encapsulates this truth.

The rise of the system of ceremonial dress is to honor achievements, demonstrate virtues, honor benevolence and righteousness, and promote talent and ability. Therefore, the hierarchy is rigid, and the levels of etiquette must not be transgressed; this is the essence of etiquette. Those whose status does not align cannot wear corresponding clothing; this is in accordance with etiquette. There is a clear order between superiors and inferiors; those with shallow virtues retreat to lower positions, while individuals of noble virtue occupy prominent positions. Therefore, sages occupy the position of the Son of Heaven, wearing ornate clothing adorned with jade embroidery, riding chariots with sun and moon rising dragon patterns, adorned with golden decorations and yellow banners, all to reflect their virtues and accomplishments. Virtuous and talented individuals assist the sage ruler, being appointed as vassals to govern the people; they wear luxurious clothing embroidered with auspicious patterns, riding chariots with descending dragon patterns, to showcase their benevolence and talents.

By the end of a dynasty, sages no longer wield power, and the virtuous individuals retreat into seclusion, causing the position of the Son of Heaven to decline, and the vassals begin to challenge the Son of Heaven. Thus, everyone competes for status, bribing one another with money, buying each other with benefits, leading to the complete chaos of the ceremonial system across the realm. During the time of King Yi of Zhou, he actually descended to greet the vassals, signaling the onset of the Son of Heaven's loss of dignity and the decline of the country. From then on, the vassals enjoyed lavish feasts in the palaces, offering sacrifices with high-quality white cattle, playing jade chimes, using intricately carved vessels and vermilion cords, and dancing the "Da Wu" dance while wearing crowns. The officials erected travel trees and reversed pedestals at the gates of their mansions, wearing red and black embroidered garments, all of which were actions of officials overstepping the etiquette expected of vassals. The Book of Songs satirically remarks, "The children of those people wear clothes that do not match their status at all," expressing sorrow for the corruption of society. The Book of Changes similarly criticizes, "Carrying and riding (referring to the use of noble items by ignoble people) will bring disaster," meaning that using items reserved for nobles by commoners is an indication of thievery, desiring to seize what is not theirs.

From then on, the rites were in chaos, and wars broke out frequently; there were no rules governing the relationships between the upper and lower classes, with vassals and attendants alike donning extravagant attire. By the time of the Warring States period, extravagance and overindulgence became rampant, and people even destroyed ritual books because they disliked the constraints. Everyone competed to pursue extravagant clothing, adorned themselves with luxurious vehicles and horses, wore exquisite silk fabrics, wore jade horse ornaments, used ivory-decorated horsewhips and golden saddles, and boasted to one another. They competed for the sharpness of their swords, killing people as easily as cutting grass, and their clans were swiftly annihilated. They were solely focused on indulging in wealth and honor, showing no remorse even in death. After the Qin Dynasty unified the country, it confiscated vehicles, horses, and clothing from all over the country, the best of which were used to worship the emperor, and the rest were rewarded to officials. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, cultural continuity was disrupted, everything was in its infancy, following the system of the Qin Dynasty, and later gradually modified and improved, drawing from the "Six Classics," gradually developing in a more elegant and proper direction. Confucius once said, "If someone inherits the rule of the Zhou Dynasty, they should implement the proper system of the Xia Dynasty, ride the chariots of the Shang Dynasty, wear the crowns of the Zhou Dynasty, perform Shao music, and dance." So he wrote the book "Yu Fu" to record these contents, to examine the evolution of ritual systems throughout history. Long ago, those sages, when they saw the wind blowing through the grass, understood the principles of the wheel. The wheel can be used to carry things, inspired by natural phenomena, and thus the subsequent invention of the chariot. The chariot and the wheel combined, constantly developing and changing, with no end in sight, carrying heavy burdens, traveling great distances, and benefiting all of humanity.

Later sages observed celestial phenomena, watched the rotation of the Big Dipper, the position of the North Star, and the shape of the Southern Dipper, and used the images of dragons and the Horned Star to design the emperor's carriage. They curved the carriage shafts, used oxen to pull the carriage, and horses to drive it, enabling travel up steep mountain roads, to dangerous places, and in all directions. Therefore, the Book of Changes, which is associated with the Book of Heaven, is called "Great Strength," meaning that there is no more powerful carriage than this.

From that time on, people began to decorate carriages. When Xi Zhong became the official in charge of chariot manufacturing in the Xia Dynasty, he began to adorn the carriage with flags, and the carriages were classified according to individual status. By the Zhou Dynasty, the national system was refined, and official positions were divided into six categories, with various craftsmen participating. Among all kinds of objects, the carriage required many craftsmen to meticulously carve and polish, so the production of carriages had to pay attention to the season, and the materials had to be top-notch. The shape of the carriage resembles the earth, the carriage cover is round like the sky; thirty spokes symbolize the sun and the moon; there are twenty-eight bow-shaped decorations on the carriage cover, symbolizing stars; the dragon flag on the emperor's carriage has nine flags, the flagpole stands seven ren tall, and the flags reach the carriage shafts; the bird flag has seven flags, the flagpole stands five ren tall, and the flags reach the carriage shafts; the bear flag has six flags, the flagpole stands five ren tall, and the flags reach the carriage shafts; the turtle flag has four flags, the flagpole stands four ren tall, and the flags reach the carriage shafts; there are also curved pennants and curved arrow flags, symbolizing bows and arrows. These can only be used by the feudal lords.

The emperor's carriage is decorated with jade, with twelve decorations on the carriage, twelve flags on the flagpole, standing nine ren tall, trailing on the ground, and the carriage also has patterns of the sun, moon, and dragon, symbolizing the brightness of the sky. From the reign of King Yi onwards, the Zhou Dynasty began to decline, and the carriages of the feudal lords became more and more luxurious. After the Qin Dynasty unified the country, referring to the ritual systems of the previous three dynasties, some people said that the carriage of the First Emperor of Qin resembled the auspicious mountain carriages of the Shang Dynasty, with golden decorations on the carriage. The Han Dynasty followed the system of the Qin Dynasty, and the emperor's carriage was referred to as the "Chariot of the Son," which is what Confucius referred to as the chariots of the Shang Dynasty period.

Ah, these ancient carriages are something else! The emperor's carriage is the best of the best! The wheels are bright red, inlaid with ivory, and the axles and shafts gleam with gold and are carved with dragons. There are lucky bamboo tubes on either side of the carriage shaft, a phoenix stands on the carriage's balance beam, and the carriage box is decorated with beautiful designs. The canopy is absolutely stunning, adorned with twelve big flags showing the sun, moon, and flying dragons. This six-horse carriage features gold and silver inlays on the harnesses, with pheasant feathers in the horses' tails, red fabric on the carriage seat, and gold on the twelve carriage shafts. The left carriage yoke even has decorative ornaments made of yak tail, as big as a winnowing basket, called the "De Carriage." The five-horse carriage is similar in color and style, except the white horse's mane and tail are dyed red. The emperor's carriage is pulled by six horses, while other carriages are pulled by four horses, followed by some auxiliary carriages.

The farming carriage is similarly decorated, but with three canopies. One of these is the "Zhi Carriage," that carries a plow and harrow for the emperor's personal use when farming. The war carriage is similarly decorated as well, but features more weapons such as spears, flags, drums, and feather fans. The hunting carriage, with wider wheels adorned with dragon patterns, features one known as the "Menxi Pig Carriage," used by the emperor for hunting. The Empress Dowager's and Empress's carriages are golden-rooted, with luxurious curtains. If not for official travel, they ride in purple carriages with beautiful designs on the carriage box, gold accents on the shafts, and a luxurious canopy. These carriages are drawn by three horses, one on either side. The Grand Princess travels in a red carriage, while the Great Lady, other noblewomen, Princesses, Consorts, and Marquises ride in lacquered carriages, featuring special decorations on the Great Lady's carriage shaft. All the horses for these carriages are on the right side.

The crown prince and prince's ceremonial carriage has red wheels, a green canopy with elaborate decorations on the edges, patterns painted on the carriage body, and gold on the carriage shaft. After becoming king, the prince rides in this carriage; thus, it is referred to as the "King's Green Canopy Carriage." The royal grandchildren follow in green carriages. All these carriages are drawn by three horses, with one on each side. The carriages of dukes and marquises have red wheels, deer antler and bear patterns on the carriage shaft, black carriage covers, black carriage shafts, and horses on the right side.

In ancient times, officials traveled in grand style! Different levels of officials had different decorations on their carriages. Officials at the 2000-dan level had black carriage covers and red carriage shafts, with two shafts. Officials at the 1000-dan and 600-dan levels had only one red carriage shaft on the left side. The shaft measures six feet in length, eight inches wide at the bottom, one foot two inches wide at the top, featuring nine decorative grooves and twelve initial patterns, and finally humbly reduced by an inch, like a newborn moon, symbolizing humility and a lack of pride. Starting from the fifth year of Emperor Jingdi's reign, officials above the 600-dan level were allowed to use carriages with carriage shafts, which had five copper decorations on the carriage shaft and a lucky sun pipe on the yoke. Officials at the 2000-dan level could have a deputy driver seated on the right; officials above the 300-dan level had black cloth carriage covers; officials above the 1000-dan level had black silk carriage covers; officials below the 200-dan level had only white cloth covers, but all officials' carriages were equipped with four support rods and carriage covers. It's worth noting that merchants were prohibited from using horse-drawn carriages. Officials' horse carriages had red yokes, while the others were blue.

When the dukes, marquises, officials of the second rank, and their wives attend court, the scene is like a group of diligent silkworms. Each person rides in their husband's carriage, which has space for a passenger on the right and is adorned with black drapes and curtains. If not attending court, these officials cannot ride in the court carriage, but must ride in lacquered carts, with five copper ornaments on the cart shafts.

When the emperor travels, it is a grand occasion! The nobles and high officials lead the way, the Grand Steward oversees the horses and carriages, and the Grand General rides alongside the emperor. There are eighty-one carriages in the entourage, creating a spectacular display of countless chariots and steeds! When going to the Western Capital to worship the heavens and earth, the Ganquan Palace also prepares such a procession, which is documented in the Ganquan Lu. Only during the emperor's inspection tour is the grand procession used in the Eastern Capital. The grand procession is orchestrated by the Grand Steward, while the legal procession is arranged by the Chief of the Yellow Gates.

In the emperor's legal procession, the high-ranking officials are not part of the procession. The Henan Intendant, Chief Commandant, and Luoyang Prefect lead the way, the Attendant of the Carriages manages the horses and chariots, and the Palace Attendant rides with the emperor. There are thirty-six carriages in the entourage. Nine fluttering cloud-patterned flags lead the way, along with the leather Xuan Yuan and Luan flags, borne by the officials' carriages. The Luan flag is woven from feathers and ox tails, arranged beside the banners. Sometimes the common folk mistakenly refer to it as a rooster tail, which is incorrect. Trailing behind are golden bells, yellow axes, and drum carriages overseen by the Chief of the Yellow Gates.

In ancient times, when feudal lords traveled, there were generally only two chariots and nine accompanying vehicles. After the Qin Dynasty conquered the six states, they collected all the chariots from each state. Therefore, the number of accompanying vehicles for the emperor's grand procession increased to eighty-one, while for the ceremonial procession, it was halved to thirty-six carriages. These accompanying vehicles had black carriage covers with red interiors, red carriage shafts, and were equipped with spears and crossbows. They were occupied by officials and censors. The last carriage displayed a leopard tail, and the carriages preceding it ranked higher than those within the palace.

When the emperor conducted sacrifices at the Altars of Heaven and Earth, he used the ceremonial procession, while for sacrifices at the Altar of Heaven, the Hall of Light, and ancestral temples, a simplified form called the small procession was used. Each time the emperor traveled, officials from the Ministry of Imperial Transport were in charge of the emperor's carriages and procession, with assistance from eunuchs and attendants. Officials from the Secretariat were responsible for overseeing, with assistance from junior officials and record keepers, while imperial censors and inspectors also assisted. They all carried record books to supervise the management of the carriage and horse teams, referred to as the protection of the procession. In the spring and autumn seasons when visiting tombs, it was further simplified, with only one official from the Secretariat accompanying, while other officials either preceded or followed.

Light chariots were ancient war chariots, with wheels painted bright red, no canopy, and spears, halberds, standards, and banners erected. Inside the chariot were loaded with crossbow arrows. These light chariots were stored in the military arsenal. When the emperor's procession or ceremonial procession took place, the Chief Archer, the Master of Horse, and soldiers were tasked with bringing out the light chariots and arranging them in order in the procession. These chariots were equipped with spears and halberds, and the banners and flags on these chariots displayed five colors, in accordance with the regulations of the "Rites of Zhou." The military strategies of Wu Qi and Sun Wu mentioned: "Chariots with canopies are called Wugang chariots." Wugang chariots led the procession, with light chariots as accompanying vehicles at the rear.

The ambassador's car for travel is the kind that allows standing, pulled by four horses, with red curtains. If the ambassador is on a diplomatic mission, there are many attendants: two thief carts, two axe carts, two inspector carts, and two officer carts; the main car is accompanied by a sergeant and twelve crossbowmen; four guards; and four accompanying vehicles. If the ambassador is not on a diplomatic mission, the number of attendants is halved.

The junior ambassador's car cannot accommodate standing, features shafts, and is painted with red clay, with dark red curtains. There are no axe carts in the entourage.

A simpler version of the junior ambassador's car features a blue carriage, red wheels, a white canopy, and red curtains. There are forty cavalrymen in the entourage. This type of car is used for pursuing criminals or recovering items.

All ambassador's cars have red wheels with four spokes and red shafts. If used for funerals, the wheels are painted white, and the car must be cleaned afterward. Officials, mid-ranking officials, and other personnel going to temples, shrines, or tombs for ceremonies, or on official trips, ride in large cars that can be stood in, pulled by four horses. For other trips, they ride in safety cars.

Let me tell you, this grand carriage is truly magnificent! The body is adorned to resemble gold, with exquisite jade discs at each corner, interwoven with one another, featuring a golden dragon head grasping a jade disc, with colorful decorations hanging, and tassels draping in front and back, cloud-patterned drapes inside the carriage, intricate carvings on the shafts, and long car curtains hanging on the body, extremely luxurious. This carriage is drawn by six pure white horses dyed with black dye to create tiger-like patterns. After use, the horses are sold off, and the carriage is concealed in a secret palace north of the city; no one can bring it through the city gates. When it is needed again, craftsmen from the Ministry of Works will redecorate and restore it, regardless of the occasion, it can be used for auspicious ceremonies, without concern for matching the event.

The official team is quite spectacular! From court ministers to officials with a salary of three hundred stones in the county, all must follow the procession. There are also five officials in the team: the Department of Thieves, the Thief Supervisor, and the Clerk of Works, all of whom must carry swords and each bring three carriages; the registrar and the chief clerk each bring two carriages. For officials at the rank of county magistrate or above, a ceremonial carriage bearing an axe must be added to the procession. If officials ride in a sedan chair, there must be mounted guards in front and behind. County magistrates in Chang'an, Luoyang, and in the capital city must also have military vehicles in front and behind the procession. The pavilion chief is assigned a two-horse carriage. In front of the crossbow car is a sergeant, and the number of attendants varies by official rank: eight for dukes, four for officials with a rank of two thousand stones or six hundred stones, and two for officials with a rank of four hundred stones to two hundred stones. Military officers with a yellow sash have sergeants, while civil officials have dedicated vehicles. Those in charge of bells, gates, floral arrangements, deployments, and street errands all have their own grades and numbers, which are determined by the tasks they are responsible for. Relay stations are established every thirty li, with relay officers donning red hats and crimson sleeves, exuding an imposing demeanor. In ancient times, when the army went on expedition, it was a grand spectacle, accompanied by various logistics personnel. During the Qin Dynasty, the army organization was streamlined, but the titles of these logistics personnel were preserved. From court ministers to officials with a rank of two thousand stones, all have four mounted attendants; officials with a rank of one thousand stones to three hundred stones have two attendants each, all carrying swords and halberds while leading the procession, and carrying bows, arrows, and quivers. When feudal lords travel, the spectacle is even more impressive, with officials and assistants following the ceremonial standards of the capital city officials, drawing bows and arrows, clearing the way along the route, and creating a grand spectacle. When marquises travel, family stewards and sons must follow. If going to participate in sacrificial activities, county magistrates must temporarily requisition vehicles and soldiers to assert their authority. After the event, these requisitioned personnel must be returned afterward.

Ah, the ancient system of chariots and horses is really impressive! Look at the emperor's carriage; it's absolutely grand! "The chariot, with dragons and tigers on the sides, exquisite patterns on the pole, dragon-headed and phoenix-balanced, stacked wheels, and flying dragons on the axle." In simple terms, the emperor’s carriage features dragons and tigers carved on the sides, beautiful patterns on the pole, a dragon head and phoenix design on the pole, stacked wheels, and flying dragons carved on the axle.

The carriages of the crown prince and princes also have high standards. "With tigers and deer on the sides, patterns on the pole, decorative items on the pole, red wheels, deer carved on the axle, and nine flags with dragon patterns." This means the carriage has tigers and deer carved on the sides, patterns on the pole, decorative items on the pole, red wheels, deer carved on the axle, and nine flags with dragon patterns. The carriages of dukes and marquises are slightly simpler. "With deer and bears on the sides, the pole painted black, red wheels, deer carved on the axle, and nine flags with dragon patterns." This means that deer and bears are carved on the sides of the carriage, the pole is painted black, the wheels are red, deer are carved on the axle, and the carriage has nine dragon flags. For lower-ranking officials, the carriage decorations are even simpler. However, for officials with a rank of two thousand stones or above, there will still be decorations on the yoke.

Let's talk about the decoration of the horses. The emperor's horse is even more resplendent. "The saddle is golden, the whip is adorned with gorgeous feathers, the bit has a dragon pattern, the decorations on the saddle are in the shape of flying dragons, the horse's sweat cloth is red, the horse's decorative accessories are blue, and the horse's tail is as beautiful as a swallow's tail." The decorations on the nobleman's horse are also exquisite, "red tassels on both sides, motifs of flying birds, red chest decorations," meaning that the horse's decorations are red tassels, the saddle has motifs of flying birds, and there are decorations on the chest as well. Sometimes the crown prince also adorns his horse with these decorations. The horses of kings and nobles have "exquisite carvings on the mane, red bridle and red deer motifs, red decorations, crimson sweat cloth, blue tail like a swallow's tail." The mane is carved with delicate patterns, the whip and decorations are red, the sweat cloth is crimson, the decorations are blue, and the tail is like a swallow's tail. For officials of lower ranks who possess horse-drawn carriages, the horse decorations are relatively simple: "red sweat cloth, blue tail, mane with decorations." The sweat cloth is red, the decorations are blue, and the mane has decorations. Luxurious horses can only be used by officials holding a rank above two thousand stones and by envoys.

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Written by: Realhistories

Category: Book of the Later Han （後漢書）

Published: 01 January 2025

Created: 01 January 2025

Hits: 38

It is said that during the Qin Dynasty, the country was divided into twelve provinces, each with a censor who received an annual salary of 600 stones of grain. Historical records show that during the Qin Dynasty, there were censors responsible for supervising the various counties. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, this position was abolished, and officials appointed by the Chancellor were responsible for overseeing the provinces without established titles. It was only in the early reign of Emperor Wu of Han that thirteen censors were formally established, each receiving an annual salary of 600 stones of grain. Later, Emperor Cheng of Han changed the title of censor to "shepherd" and increased the annual salary to 2,000 stones of grain. In the 18th year of the Jianwu period of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the title of censor was restored, with twelve censors each overseeing a province, except for one province under the jurisdiction of the Colonel of the Registrar. These censors were required to inspect their jurisdictions every August, check the prisoners in the prisons, and assess the performance of the counties. Initially, the censors had to report to the capital every year, but later this was changed to sending a subordinate official instead. Each censor had historians and assistants to assist them. According to historical records, the staffing structure of censors was similar to that of the Colonel of the Registrar, except that they did not have a director of the imperial archives, and the assistant to the censor was renamed the assistant to the magistrate. Yuzhou governed six counties, Jizhou governed nine, Yanzhou governed eight, Xuzhou governed five, Qingzhou governed six, Jingzhou governed seven, Yangzhou governed six, Yizhou governed twelve, Liangzhou governed twelve, Bingzhou governed nine, Youzhou governed eleven, Jiaozhou governed seven, totaling ninety-eight counties. Among them, twenty-seven were kingdoms managed by kings, while the remaining seventy-one were managed by prefects, and a few vassal states were managed by commandants. These vassal states were established by separating counties that were distant from the main administrative centers, and they were smaller in scale and named after the original counties. Emperor Guangwu Liu Xiu once consolidated and abolished over four hundred counties in one go, but they were gradually reinstated later.

Let's first talk about ancient administrative management. The highest official in the prefecture was the governor, equivalent to the current mayor, with a salary of 2,000 shi. Below him was a deputy governor, equivalent to a deputy mayor. Each county had a governor, also with a salary of 2,000 shi and a deputy. If the county was on the border, the deputy was referred to as a chief historian, responsible for military affairs. The prime minister, or chancellor, of the kingdom had a similar structure. Each vassal state had a commander, with a salary similar to 2,000 shi, and also a deputy. The books say that the main responsibilities of county and state officials included managing the populace, recommending talent, commending those who had rendered meritorious service, adjudicating cases, and dealing with treacherous individuals. In the spring, they would visit various counties in their jurisdiction to encourage the locals to farm and grow mulberry trees, as well as help the poor. In autumn and winter, they would send reliable officials to handle prisoner cases, make legal judgments, and evaluate the performance of officials at all levels. At the end of the year, they had to report their work to superiors, recommending candidates who are filial and incorrupt, with one recommended for every two hundred thousand people. The commander was responsible for the military, guarding against thieves, and during the reign of Emperor Jing, their title was changed to commander. Emperor Wu also established three commanders of the capital regions, responsible for supervising the entry and exit of passes. Border prefectures also had agricultural commanders responsible for agricultural production, as well as vassal state commanders responsible for managing the tribes that had submitted.

During the sixth year of the Jianwu period of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the position of Commandant in each commandery was abolished, which helped eliminate many unnecessary complications. The Commandant of the Passes was also abolished, with only the Commandants and their deputies in border commanderies retained, managing some counties with responsibilities similar to those of commanderies. During the reign of Emperor An, the Qiang people committed offenses, requiring enhanced defense in the Sanfu region, so the positions of Right Fufeng Commandant and Jizhao Huya Commandant were created. Each of these officials had various clerks and record keepers. Historical records indicate that the establishment of these offices was similar to that of the central government, without distinguishing between Eastern and Western offices. There were officials responsible for assessing the achievements of their peers, as well as clerks assisting the officials in their duties. Each commandery had five Supervisors of Departments and a Clerk, with a gatekeeper responsible for guarding the main entrance. There were record keepers responsible for documenting official documents and reminding of deadlines, but no position of an official in charge of issuing orders. Each bureau and government office had assistants responsible for handling documents.

Next, let's talk about the officials at lower levels. In each county, town, or district, a large area had a County Magistrate with a salary of one thousand shi, a medium area had a County Head with four hundred shi, and a small area had a County Head with three hundred shi. The salary of a Chancellor in a marquisate was similar. Historical records indicate that these officials were tasked with managing the populace, recognizing good deeds, preventing wrongdoing, punishing crimes, adjudicating cases, suppressing bandits, caring for the people's livelihoods, and attending to the needs of the people. In autumn and winter, they were expected to evaluate their performance and report their findings to their superiors.

In ancient times, the local officials in charge of the non-Han territories under the jurisdiction of the county were called "Dao," and the officials in charge of the places for the princesses' baths were called "Yi." For counties with a population of more than ten thousand households, a county magistrate was appointed, while for counties with less than ten thousand households, a county chief was appointed. Officials of marquis rank were called "Xiang." These were all systems of the Qin Dynasty. Each county had a Cheng in charge of handling documents, managing warehouses, and prisons; and one or two Wei in charge of capturing thieves. In case of a theft, if the criminal's identity was unknown, the Wei had to investigate the clues, investigate the case, and identify a breakthrough. There were various officials in the county, including a group of five officials known as Ting Yuan in charge of supervising five townships, seasonal officials for advising farmers in spring and summer, and officials responsible for planning systems in autumn and winter.

In the townships, there were Youzhi, Sanlao, and Youjiao. Youzhi was appointed by the county, with a salary of one hundred shi, responsible for managing the people in a township. If the township was small, a Steward was appointed by the county to manage the township affairs. They were responsible for understanding the villagers' moral conduct, organizing the order of corvée labor, understanding the wealth and poverty of the villagers, determining the amount of taxes, and fairly assessing their status. Sanlao was responsible for educating the people, and those who were filial, virtuous, helpful, or exemplary scholars were honored with a monument at their door to encourage good deeds. Youjiao was responsible for patrolling and preventing acts of robbery. There were also township assistants to assist the township head in collecting taxes from the residents.

In the pavilions, there were pavilion heads tasked with preventing theft. The pavilion heads were in charge of capturing thieves and following the orders of the Wei. In the neighborhoods, there were neighborhood leaders, and the residents practiced a system of mutual supervision, reporting good and bad deeds to the authorities. The neighborhood leaders were responsible for managing one hundred households in a neighborhood. A squad leader was appointed for every ten households, and a group leader for every five households to supervise and inspect each other. The residents' good and bad deeds had to be reported to the inspector.

There are border guards stationed in the border areas. The book explains that they are tasked with defending against invasions by the Qiang and Xiongnu tribes. If there are salt, iron, labor, and water officials in the commandery, then officials such as ling, zhang, and cheng may be appointed as needed based on the actual situation. Their ranks are the same as the officials in the counties and prefectures, without a military structure, and their salaries are the same as those of ordinary officials. The book explains that in counties where salt production is higher, salt officials are appointed to collect salt taxes; in areas with more iron production, iron officials are appointed to be responsible for smelting and casting; in areas with developed handicraft industries, labor officials are appointed to collect taxes on the handicraft industry; and in areas with developed water conservancy and abundant fishery resources, water officials are appointed to manage water conservancy and collect fishery taxes. The appointment of these officials is arranged in rotation by the commanderies and counties. The appointment of these officials is determined according to the actual situation and may not necessarily align with the organizational structure in the counties.

There is also one Xiongnu colonel, equivalent to the rank of 2,000 dan. The book explains that this official is responsible for protecting the Southern Xiongnu Chanyu. There are also two assistants, and the number can be adjusted as necessary; other officials can also be modified according to the situation. The appointment of the Qiang colonel and Wuhuan colonel follows the same pattern.

In short, the Qiang colonel oversees the Wuhuan people, and the rank is equivalent to that of a 2,000 dan official. The book explains that this official is mainly responsible for managing the Wuhuan people.

Similarly, the Qiang colonel who oversees the Western Qiang people also holds the same rank as a 2,000 dan official. The book explains that this official is mainly responsible for managing the Western Qiang people.

When the emperor's son is granted the title of prince, the commanderies under his authority are designated as his kingdom, and each kingdom must have a grand tutor and a prime minister, both of whom hold a rank of 2,000 dan. The book explains that the grand tutor guides the prince toward virtuous conduct, serving a role akin to that of a teacher, but without a monarch-subject dynamic; the prime minister's position is equivalent to that of a governor, and the chief historian of the kingdom holds a rank equivalent to that of a county magistrate.

During the early days of the Han Dynasty, it adopted the system of enfeoffing kings to various vassal states, with some of these kingdoms having vast territories extending even up to a thousand miles away. The officials in these kingdoms held titles such as Grand Tutor, Chancellor, and Grand Historian, with a rank of two thousand shi, following a similar system to that of the imperial court. The state was only responsible for appointing Chancellors, while officials below the rank of Grand Historian were appointed by the vassal kings themselves. During the reign of Emperor Jing, the Seven Kingdoms of Wu and Chu rebelled due to their large territories, nearly causing the downfall of the Han Dynasty. After the rebellion was quelled, Emperor Jing learned from this lesson and decreed that vassal kings could no longer directly manage the common people, instead appointing Intendants of Internal Affairs to oversee them. The title of Chancellor was changed to "Prime Minister," and other official positions like Grand Historian, Minister of Justice, Minister of Personnel, and Scholars were abolished. During the reign of Emperor Wu, the names of Han Intendant, Commandant, and Prefect were changed, but the system of the kingdoms remained the same, with the appointment and dismissal of officials decided by the imperial court, and vassal kings were not allowed to appoint officials themselves. By the time of Emperor Cheng, the system of Intendants of Internal Affairs managing the common people was abolished, replaced by Chancellors overseeing them, and the title of Grand Tutor was shortened to "Tutor." In ancient times, there was a Commandant, a position equivalent to a Prefect of a county, primarily responsible for capturing thieves, with a rank equivalent to a two thousand shi official. There was also a Commandant, who had a subordinate servant under him, both holding a rank of one thousand shi. The Commandant was in charge of managing the royal household officials and attendants, overseeing palace security, and held a position similar to that of a Chief Coachman. Officials of the Ministry of Finance also held a similar rank, with the subordinate servant mainly responsible for managing vehicles and drivers, similar to a Chief Coachman. Previously, Chief Coachmen were also two thousand shi officials, but during the reign of Emperor Wu, their title was changed to simply "Coachman," and their rank was lowered. Officials in charge of document administration held a rank of six hundred shi, a title derived from the Records of the Grand Historian. The title of Grandee also held a rank of six hundred shi, with an unspecified number of officials mainly responsible for transmitting royal orders, presenting tributes to the capital, or serving as envoys to other countries, previously requiring a symbol of authority but later dispensed with.

The Yezhe official is a position that pays 400 shi, mainly responsible for managing the hats in the imperial palace. There were originally sixteen people, but this number was later reduced. Officials such as the Master of Rites, Chief of Guards, Chief Physician, Chief of the Eternal Alley, and Chief of Ancestral Sacrifices each manage their own responsibilities, all with a salary of 400 shi. The Langzhong is an official with a salary of 200 shi, and the number of officials in this role varies. The titles Wei Gong and Song Gong were bestowed by the Han Dynasty upon the descendants of the Zhou and Yin Dynasties, ranking above the Three Dukes.

For marquises, their territory is known as their marquisate. This title has its origins in the Qin Dynasty and consists of twenty ranks. The highest rank is Che Hou, awarded to those who have rendered meritorious service, with a golden seal and purple sash. Those with great achievements are granted counties, while those with lesser achievements are granted townships, allowing them to oversee the people and officials within their territories. Later, to avoid using the name of Emperor Wu, they were renamed marquises. In the second year of Emperor Wu's Yuanshuo reign, it was stipulated that princes could divide their land among their sons, and the state would grant them land, leading to the creation of many more marquises. Previous marquises in Chang'an maintained a rank above the Three Dukes. Later, only those granted the title of Tejin held a status higher than that of Military Cavalry Generals; those who received the title of Chaohou ranked above the Five Commanders; those who were awarded the title of Shiji Hou ranked above the Grand Masters. Other marquises, along with the descendants of princesses who tend to their ancestors' tombs in the capital, ranked below the Professors and Court Gentlemen.

Those princes who were granted land were required to accept thatch for their land and sacrifices, and then establish the state altars and soil, as part of the ceremonial rites. Those holding the titles of Lietu, Tejin, and Chaohou were obligated to present jade bi as tribute during the first month of the year.

Each country has a chancellor, whose official rank is the same as a county magistrate in the country. The "Commentary" notes: the chancellor is mainly responsible for governing the people, with a status similar to that of a county magistrate. They are not imperial subjects, but only pay taxes to their lords, with the tax amount determined by the number of households. In the households of the lords, a household steward and a junior son are appointed. The "Commentary" notes: they are mainly responsible for serving the lords and managing household affairs. In the past, there were also couriers, stablemasters, and gatekeepers in the lords' mansions, totaling five official positions. Since the restoration, only lords with a land grant of over a thousand households have a household steward and a junior son appointed; those with less than a thousand households do not have a household steward, and couriers, stablemasters, and gatekeepers have all been abolished.

The Marquis Within the Passes holds one of the nineteen ranks established during the Qin Dynasty, known as the Marquis Within the Passes, without a fief and residing in their respective counties, with the amount of taxes and rents based on the number of households.

The kings of the four non-Han tribes, as well as the vassal kings, allied lords, village lords, and chiefs of villages who have submitted, all have chancellors, with a status similar to that of a prefect or county magistrate.

The salary structure for officials is as follows: the Grand General and the three high officials receive three hundred and fifty hu of salary per month; officials of the rank of Two Thousand Stones receive one hundred and eighty hu monthly; officials of the rank of Two Thousand Stones receive one hundred and twenty hu monthly; officials ranked below Two Thousand Stones receive one hundred hu monthly; officials of the rank of One Thousand Stones receive eighty hu monthly; officials of the rank of Six Hundred Stones receive seventy hu monthly; officials ranked below Six Hundred Stones receive fifty hu monthly; officials of the rank of Four Hundred Stones receive forty-five hu monthly; officials ranked below Four Hundred Stones receive forty hu monthly; officials of the rank of Three Hundred Stones receive forty hu monthly; officials ranked below Three Hundred Stones receive thirty-seven hu monthly; officials of the rank of Two Hundred Stones receive thirty hu monthly; officials ranked below Two Hundred Stones receive twenty-seven hu monthly; officials of the rank of One Hundred Stones receive sixteen hu monthly; officials compensated in bushels receive eleven hu monthly; aide historians receive eight hu monthly. All these salaries are half in money and half in grain.

It is said: The emperor's way is deep and unspoken; high-ranking generals nurture their character. By having a few lead the many, success is achieved through teamwork and division of labor. Without officials or oversight, arrogance and extravagance will not arise. Implementing this master-disciple system is crucial for maintaining the people's peace and the nation’s stability.

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Written by: Realhistories

Category: Book of the Later Han （後漢書）

Published: 01 January 2025

Created: 01 January 2025

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Once upon a time, there were twelve provinces in the country, each with a censor who earned an annual salary of 600 shi. It is said in the books that during the Qin Dynasty, there were imperial censors responsible for supervising the various counties. This position was abolished after the establishment of the Han Dynasty, and instead, the Prime Minister sent people to inspect the provinces, without a fixed official position. It was not until the early reign of Emperor Wu of Han that thirteen inspectors were officially appointed, each earning an annual salary of 600 shi. During the reign of Emperor Cheng of Han, the title of inspector was changed to provincial governor, with an increased annual salary of 2,000 shi. In the 18th year of the Jianwu period, the title was changed back to inspector, with a total of twelve, each overseeing a province, except for one province under the jurisdiction of the Colonel of the Registrar. These inspectors had to inspect their jurisdictions every August, inspect prisoners, and assess the performance of officials. Initially, they had to report back to the capital at the end of each year, but later it was changed to sending reports through couriers.

Each inspector had historians and assistant aides under him. It is said in the books that their duties were similar to those of the Colonel of the Registrar, except that they did not have an official historian, and their chief clerks were equivalent to those of the Colonel of the Registrar. Yuzhou oversaw six counties, Jizhou oversaw nine, Yanzhou oversaw eight, Xuzhou oversaw five, Qingzhou oversaw six, Jingzhou oversaw seven, Yangzhou oversaw six, Yizhou oversaw twelve, Liangzhou oversaw twelve, Bingzhou oversaw nine, Youzhou oversaw eleven, Jiaozhou oversaw seven, totaling ninety-eight counties. Among them, twenty-seven were kingdoms managed by kings; the remaining seventy-one counties were managed by governors; and there were also some dependent territories managed by commandants. These dependent territories were established by separating counties located far from the main administrative center, smaller in scale, usually named after the county. Emperor Guangwu once merged and abolished over four hundred counties in one go, but later they gradually increased.

In ancient times, prefectures were all under the capital's jurisdiction. Each prefecture had a prefect earning a salary of two thousand shi, along with an assistant. Each county also had a magistrate, also earning a salary of two thousand shi, and an assistant as well. If the county was on the border, the assistant would serve as the chief historian. The kingdom's ministers held similar positions. Each vassal state had a commandant earning a salary equivalent to two thousand shi, and an assistant. According to historical records, local officials were responsible for managing the people, recommending talents, commending those who performed well, adjudicating lawsuits, and addressing wrongdoing. Every spring, they would inspect the counties in their jurisdiction, encourage the people to engage in agriculture and cultivate mulberry trees, and help the poor. In the autumn and winter, they would send reliable officials to investigate and adjudicate prisoners, render judgments in accordance with the law, and assess the performance of officials. At the end of the year, they would report their findings to higher authorities and recommend virtuous individuals, with one nomination for every two hundred thousand people. There were also commandants overseeing military affairs and public security, preventing theft and banditry, which were renamed commandants during Emperor Jing's reign. Emperor Wu also established three commandants overseeing the three borders, each responsible for supervision of entry and exit. Border counties also had agricultural commandants in charge of agricultural production and grain cultivation, and vassal state commandants tasked with overseeing the surrendered tribes.

In the sixth year of the Jianwu period of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the positions of various local county officials were abolished, and their duties were merged into the governor, streamlining administrative processes. The position of Guan Captain was also abolished; only some county officials and vassal state officials were retained in the border counties, managing the populace similarly to the county officials. Later, during the reign of Emperor An, the Qiang people committed offenses, and because there were tombs that needed guarding in the Sanfu region, the positions of Youfu Feng and Jingzhao Huya were created. According to historical records, the organization of these clerks mirrors that of the central government, with no distinction between the eastern and western clerks. There are merit clerks who support the merit clerks and other clerks in their work. Each county has five departments overseen by a superintendent, as well as a clerk. Additionally, there is a gatekeeper at the main entrance, responsible for recording and transmitting documents, urging the completion of tasks, without a record keeper. The state government and various offices have scribes responsible for handling document work.

Let's talk about the officials at various levels below. In each county, township, and district, a magistrate is appointed in larger areas, earning a salary of one thousand shi; in medium-sized areas, a chief is appointed, earning four hundred shi; in smaller areas, a chief is appointed, earning three hundred shi; officials in marquisates hold comparable positions. The records indicate that these officials are tasked with managing the populace, commending good deeds, promoting justice, prohibiting evil, punishing wrongdoing, adjudicating lawsuits, suppressing bandits, caring for the populace, and staying informed on current affairs. In autumn and winter, they must summarize their work and report to the higher-level jurisdictions.

Wow, this discusses the administrative system of the Qin Dynasty! First of all, the regions inhabited by non-Han people under the county's jurisdiction are referred to as "dao," and the princess's land grant is referred to as "yi." Counties with a population exceeding ten thousand households appoint a county magistrate, while those with fewer than ten thousand appoint a county head. Marquisates appoint ministers; these are all part of the Qin Dynasty's administrative system. Each county has one magistrate, two deputy magistrates in large counties, and one in smaller counties. The book explains that the magistrate is responsible for handling documents, managing warehouses and prisons; the deputy magistrates are responsible for apprehending thieves. In the event of a theft, if the identity of the thief is unknown, the deputy magistrates must pursue leads to investigate the case and find the source of the matter. The county has various officials, similar to those in the commandery, including five officials responsible for court matters, supervising the five departments in the township, with agricultural advisors in spring and summer and officials responsible for formulating regulations in autumn and winter.

In the township, there are ranks, three elders, and patrol officers. The book explains that "rank" refers to an official responsible for managing a hundred households, appointed by the commandery; if the township is relatively small, one frugal official is appointed by the county. These individuals are mainly responsible for understanding the good and bad of the villagers, arranging the order of labor service, understanding the wealth and poverty of the villagers, determining the amount of taxes, and fairly dividing the ranks. The three elders are responsible for instructing the people, and any filial sons and grandsons, virtuous women, helpful individuals, and learned people will have a monument erected at their homes to promote good deeds. The patrol officers are tasked with patrolling to prevent theft. There are also township assistants who assist the township head and are mainly responsible for collecting taxes from the people.

In the pavilion, there is a pavilion leader responsible for capturing thieves. The book explains that the pavilion leader is responsible for searching for thieves and reporting to the commandant. In the village, there is a village leader, and the villagers implement a system of mutual accountability, reporting good and bad deeds to the authorities. The book explains that the village leader oversees one hundred households; ten households make up a unit, and five units make up a group, mutually supervising and inspecting. The villagers' good and bad deeds must be reported to the inspector.

Border areas establish barriers and garrison guards. The book explains that the guards are tasked with defending against invasions by the Qiang and Yi tribes. If there are officials in charge of salt, iron, industry, or water management in a county, then based on the actual situation, officials such as Ling, Zhang, and Cheng are appointed as needed, with the same rank as county and district officials, without distinction between scholars and other officials, and with the same salary as regular officials. The book explains that officials in charge of salt are appointed in counties with abundant salt production, responsible for salt taxes; officials in charge of iron are appointed in counties with abundant iron production, responsible for metal casting; officials in charge of industry are appointed in counties with developed handicrafts, responsible for taxes related to industry; officials in charge of water management are appointed in counties with abundant water resources and developed fisheries, responsible for water management and fisheries taxes. The appointment and dismissal of these officials are rotated among the counties. These officials are appointed to meet actual needs and may not necessarily follow the county's administrative system.

Finally, a Xiongnu General is appointed, equivalent to a 2,000 stone official. The book explains that he is responsible for guarding the Southern Xiongnu Chanyu. There are also two assistants appointed, with the option to increase their number as required, and clerks are adjusted based on actual circumstances. The appointment of the Protector of the Qiang and the Protector of the Wuhuan follows the same pattern.

According to historical accounts, during the Han Dynasty, there was a Protector of the Wuhuan, equivalent to a 2,000 stone official. The book clarifies that this official oversees the Wuhuan people. There is also a Protector of the Qiang, with the same rank as a 2,000 stone official. The book explains that this official is in charge of the Western Qiang.

If a prince is granted the title of king, the county he governs is elevated to a kingdom, and each kingdom must have a Grand Tutor and a Prime Minister, both of whom hold the rank of a 2,000 stone official. The book explains that the Grand Tutor is responsible for guiding the prince on the right path, providing guidance akin to a teacher, but not in a ruler-subject relationship; the position of the Prime Minister is equivalent to a governor, and his Chief Clerk is equivalent to a county magistrate.

During the early days of the Han Dynasty, the feudal lords were bestowed vast territories, following the system established by Xiang Yu, with some territories even spanning thousands of square miles! These kingdoms had officials with the same titles as those in the central government, such as Grand Tutor, Chancellor, Grand Historian, and a host of other officials at the rank of 2,000 stone, mirroring the imperial court's system. The state was responsible solely for appointing Chancellors, while the feudal lords themselves could appoint their own officials.

However, during the reign of Emperor Jing, the Seven Kingdoms of Wu and Chu revolted, emboldened by their extensive territories, almost leading to the collapse of the Han Dynasty. After suppressing the rebellion, Emperor Jing learned from the experience and forbade feudal lords from governing the common people, instead assigning this task to the Interior Minister and changing the title of Chancellor to "Prime Minister." Additionally, the positions of Grand Historian, Minister of Justice, Minister of Finance, Director of the Imperial Clan, and Imperial Scholars were all eliminated.

During the reign of Emperor Wu, the titles of Interior Minister, Commandant of Justice, and Prefect of the Household were revised, but the system of the feudal kingdoms remained the same, with all officials now appointed by the imperial court and the kingdoms no longer able to appoint officials independently. Finally, during the reign of Emperor Cheng, the responsibility for governing the common people was transferred from the Interior Minister to the Chancellor ("Prime Minister"), and the title of Grand Tutor was reduced to "Tutor."

First of all, let's talk about official positions and ranks. Zhongwei is actually a higher rank than an official of two thousand shi! The book says that this official is similar to a county magistrate, primarily tasked with apprehending thieves. The Langzhongling, on the other hand, only consists of one person, plus a servant, both at the level of one thousand shi. The book explains that the Langzhongling is in charge of the security of the royal doctors and Lang officials, with a status comparable to that of the Groom of the Stool. The positions within the Shaofu are quite similar, with the servant mainly responsible for vehicles and driving, somewhat akin to the Grand Herald. In the past, the Grand Herald was also an official of two thousand shi, but it was renamed to 'servant,' and its rank was lowered during the reign of Emperor Wu. Zhi Shu refers to an official of six hundred shi; the book notes that this official was previously referred to as the Shangshu before the name was changed. The Daifu is also six hundred shi; the book states there is no fixed number, mainly responsible for escorting royal envoys to the capital, presenting jade bi to congratulate the New Year, or going on missions to other countries. Historically, these envoys were required to carry a ceremonial staff, which was later abolished. The Yezhe is a four hundred shi official responsible for ceremonial attire; there used to be sixteen people, but later reduced. The officials overseeing ritual music, guards, medical affairs, eternal lanes, and sacrifices are all at the four hundred shi level. The Langzhong is a two hundred shi official; the book says there is no fixed number.

Now, let's discuss the Weigong and Songgong. The book records that in the second year of Jianwu, Zhou Houji Chang was conferred the title of Zhou Chengxiu Gong; in the fifth year, Yin Hou Kong An was conferred the title of Yin Shaojia Gong. In the thirteenth year, Ji Chang was appointed as Weigong, and Kong An was appointed as Songgong, treating them as guests of the Han Dynasty, with a status superior to that of the Three Excellencies. Weigong, Songgong.

Finally, let's talk about marquesses. The title of marquis is determined based on the size of their fiefdom, with larger fiefdoms being granted the title of marquis. According to historical records, this system of titles was inherited from the Qin Dynasty, with a total of twenty levels, the highest being the Chè Marquis, awarded with a golden seal and purple ribbon to reward meritorious subjects. Those with great achievements were granted the title of marquis of the county, while those with lesser achievements were granted the title of marquis of the township, allowing them to govern the people and officials within their fiefdom. Later, in order to avoid invoking the name of Emperor Wu, the title was subsequently changed to marquis. In the second year of Emperor Wu's reign, it was stipulated that princes could divide land among their sons, and the state would grant them titles, which also counted as marquis titles. Previously, marquesses in Chang'an held a higher status than the Three Excellencies. After the Zhongxing period, only those granted the title of special merit for their achievements ranked below the General of Chariots and Cavalry; those granted the title of Morning Marquis ranked below the Five Colonels; and those granted the title of attendant marquis ranked below the Grand Master. Others, such as those related by marriage or descendants of princesses guarding imperial tombs in the capital, also participated in some court meetings, ranking below scholars and officials. "Marquis, the county they govern is their marquisate." After being granted titles, princes were required to offer sacrifices to the heavens and earth, as part of the ritual. "The princes receiving titles are given thatched earth to establish the altar of the state, as part of the ceremony. Marquis, special merit, Morning Marquis, congratulate the new year by holding a jade tablet." Each country appointed a prime minister, whose official rank was similar to that of a county magistrate in their own country. According to historical annotations, the prime minister primarily governed the people, with a status comparable to that of a county magistrate or governor, and not subordinate to them. However, they were required to pay tribute to the marquesses, with the amount based on the number of households. In the households of marquesses, there were a family steward and a junior son. Historical annotations state that the family steward and junior son were primarily responsible for serving the marquesses and managing household affairs. Previously, marquesses' households also included messengers, stable hands, and gatekeepers, totaling five official positions. Since the revival of the state, marquesses with fiefdoms (territories) of over one thousand households appointed a family steward and a junior son each, while those with fewer than one thousand households did not appoint a family steward, and the roles of messenger, stable hand, and gatekeeper were eliminated. The title of Inner Marquis was inherited from the Qin Dynasty, with a total of nineteen levels known as Inner Marquis, without any territory, relying on the fiefdoms of the counties they belonged to, with restrictions on the number of households determining the tax obligations.

The kings of the four foreign kingdoms, as well as the vassal kings, marquises, and local leaders who have submitted to them, all have prime ministers, with official ranks similar to those of county governors and prefects.

The standard salary for officials is as follows: the Grand General and the Three Excellencies receive 350 hu of grain per month; officials of the rank of 2000 dan receive 180 hu of grain per month; officials of the rank of 1200 dan receive 120 hu of grain per month; officials of the rank below 2000 dan receive 100 hu of grain per month; officials of the rank of 1000 dan receive 80 hu of grain per month; officials of the rank of 600 dan receive 70 hu of grain per month; officials of the rank below 600 dan receive 50 hu of grain per month; officials of the rank of 400 dan receive 45 hu of grain per month; officials of the rank below 400 dan receive 40 hu of grain per month; officials of the rank of 300 dan receive 40 hu of grain per month; officials of the rank below 300 dan receive 37 hu of grain per month; officials of the rank of 200 dan receive 30 hu of grain per month; officials of the rank below 200 dan receive 27 hu of grain per month; officials of the rank of 100 dan receive 16 hu of grain per month; officials receiving grain rations receive 11 hu of grain per month; assistant historians receive 8 hu of grain per month. All these salaries are half in money and half in grain.

It is said that the emperor's way is profound and silent, and the generals cultivate moral virtues. By having a few manage the many, success can be achieved through division of labor and cooperation. If there are no supervisory officials in place, there will be no extravagance, luxury, or misconduct. Establishing such a mentorship system is essential for ensuring the people's peace and the country's strength.

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Written by: Realhistories

Category: Book of the Later Han （後漢書）

Published: 01 January 2025

Created: 01 January 2025

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The Chief Commandant is a position held by one individual, with a salary of two thousand shi. According to historical records, this position is mainly responsible for guarding outside the palace and handling emergencies like fires and floods. The Chief Commandant must patrol outside the palace three times a month and manage the weapons. This position holds a very high status, equivalent to that of the emperor's bodyguard. Below this position is a Deputy, also held by one person, with a salary of one thousand shi. There are also two hundred cavalry. Historical records state that they have no rank, and their salary is the same as that of regular officials.

The Keeper of the Armory is another position held by one individual, with a salary of six hundred shi. Historical records state that this role is responsible for managing the weapons. Below is a Deputy, one person. The Keeper of the Armory is under the jurisdiction of the Chief Commandant. Historical records indicate that there were previously three individuals in this role: Shi Dao, Left Middle Waiter, and Right Middle Waiter, each earning a salary of six hundred shi. When the emperor travels, they are responsible for clearing the way ahead, and when returning, they escort the emperor's carriage to the palace gate, which will only open then. Eventually, only one individual remained, and this was not a permanent position. Whenever the emperor travels, a temporary official is selected to serve as Shi Dao Hou. After the matter is over, it is no longer under the jurisdiction of the Chief Commandant. In addition, the positions of Zhong Lei, Si Hu, Du Chuan Ling, Deputy, and Left and Right Capital Auxiliary Commandants have also been abolished.

The Tutor of the Crown Prince is another position held by one individual, with a salary of two thousand shi. Historical records state that this role functions as a teacher to the crown prince and does not involve managing other officials.

The Grand Chamberlain is a position held by one individual, with a salary of two thousand shi. Historical records indicate that this position originated in the Qin Dynasty and was held by eunuchs. During the reign of Emperor Jing, it was renamed Grand Chamberlain and sometimes held by scholars. During the period of establishment, this position was typically held by eunuchs, primarily responsible for conveying the commands of the Empress Dowager. All rewards given to members of the royal family, as well as matters concerning royal family members entering the palace to meet, must be communicated and coordinated through him; he also accompanies the Empress Dowager when she travels. Below is a Deputy, one person, with a salary of six hundred shi. The books say: also a eunuch.

The Chief Palace Attendant is another position held by one individual, with a salary of one thousand shi. Historical records state that this role is a eunuch responsible for managing vehicles. Historical records also indicate that the salary of the Grand Equerry was two thousand shi; however, during the period of establishment, the title 'Grand' was removed, and the salary was reduced to one thousand shi, placing it under the jurisdiction of the Grand Chamberlain.

The Central Palace Envoy, one person serving, with a salary of 600 stones. The book says: he is a eunuch. There are three Central Palace Envoys, with a salary of 400 stones. The book says: they are all eunuchs, responsible for conveying the empress's orders. There are five Central Palace Secretaries, with a salary of 600 stones. The book says: they are all eunuchs, responsible for handling the empress's documents. The Central Palace Private Treasury Envoy, one person serving, with a salary of 600 stones. The book says: he is a eunuch, responsible for managing the empress's private treasury, including money, cloth, and other items, as well as the sewing, washing, and other affairs of the empress's clothes. There is also one deputy. The book says: he is also a eunuch. The Central Palace Permanent Lane Envoy, one person serving, with a salary of 600 stones. The book says: he is a eunuch, responsible for managing the palace maids. There is also one deputy. The book says: he is also a eunuch. The Central Palace Yellow Gate Supervisor, one person serving, with a salary of 600 stones. The book says: he is a eunuch, responsible for managing the personnel at the palace's Yellow Gate. There is a Central Palace Office Envoy in the palace, with an annual salary of 600 stones. The book says who is a eunuch, responsible for reporting on the situation in the harem to the emperor. In addition, there are six female riders, one deputy, one deputy in charge of the corridors; the book also states that they are all eunuchs. The deputy in charge of the corridors manages the palace's passageways.

Let's talk about the palace's medicine officer again, who earns an annual salary of 400 stones, and he is also a eunuch. All of these officials fall under the authority of the Grand Chancellor. The book explains that during the Qin Dynasty, there was a Chancellor whose official position was higher than that of the Grand Chancellor, and he was also a eunuch responsible for managing the palace officials. Later, Emperor Cheng felt that this position was somewhat redundant, so he merged the duties of the Chancellor into those of the Grand Chancellor. Therefore, when the Empress leaves the palace, officials like Zhongye and Zhonghuan will also assume the responsibilities of the Chancellor, who are in charge of escorting and protecting her until she returns. If a eunuch commits a crime and is killed, the Ministry of Personnel would select someone to temporarily fill this role. Both the Changxin Palace and Changle Palace have stewards, whose responsibilities are similar to those of the Grand Chancellor. Other officials in the palace are also named after the names of the palaces, and the number and rank of officials are comparable to those in the Central Palace. The book says that because the emperor's grandmother lived in the Changxin Palace, the positions of Changxin Steward and Changle Steward were created, who rank above the Grand Chancellor and are also eunuchs, with the same rank as the officials in the Central Palace. The Changle Palace also has a guard and a high steward, both high-ranking officials earning an annual salary of 2,000 stones, which is more than that of the steward. However, these positions are only created upon the passing of the emperor's grandmother and are not typically held.

The Prince's Grand Tutor has an annual salary of two thousand stones. The books say that his duty is to assist the prince and manage all the officials in the prince's residence. The Prince's Chief Officer has an annual salary of one thousand stones, responsible for arranging the duties of the junior attendants and the guards, with duties similar to the Grand Chamberlain. The Prince's Junior Attendants have an annual salary of four hundred stones, with a fluctuating number of officials, akin to the Attendants of the Three Offices. The Prince's Attendants have an annual salary of two hundred stones, with a variable number of people who take turns on duty guarding, similar to the Gentlemen of the Two Offices. The Prince's Household Officer has an annual salary of one thousand stones, responsible for managing the prince's warehouses, food, and diet, with duties similar to the Minister of Agriculture and the Minister of Works. The Prince's Warehouse Officer has an annual salary of six hundred stones, responsible for managing the warehouses and food. The Prince's Food Officer has an annual salary of six hundred stones, responsible for managing the food. The Prince's Steward has an annual salary of one thousand stones, responsible for managing the chariots and horses, with duties similar to the Grand Steward. The Prince's Stable Master has an annual salary of four hundred stones, responsible for managing the chariots and horses. The Prince's Chief Gate Official has an annual salary of six hundred stones, previously noted to have a position similar to a Commanding Officer. There used to be Left and Right Doorkeepers who managed the officials at the left and right palace gates, but they were abolished during the Jianwu period. The Prince's Middle Attendants have an annual salary of six hundred stones, totaling five people, with responsibilities comparable to those of the Palace Attendants. The Prince's Horse Groom earns a salary of six hundred stones, described in the books as having a total of sixteen people whose work is similar to receiving officials at the court. When the prince goes out, the attendants on duty must lead the way in front to maintain order. In simple terms, the Prince's Horse Groom earns a salary of six hundred stones, roughly equivalent to the modern... (this part needs to be supplemented with the modern equivalent salary based on specific historical background), and their job is similar to that of receptionists nowadays. When the prince goes out, they must lead the way in front to maintain the order and dignity of the procession. The Prince's Chief Guard, a single person, has a salary of four hundred stones. The books say that he is primarily responsible for the palace's security, patrolling to ensure its safety.

Prince's Guard Commander, one person, with a salary of 400 stones. It is noted that he is responsible for guarding the palace gates.

Similar to the above, also one person, with a salary of 400 stones, mainly responsible for guarding the palace gates.

All of these positions are overseen by the Prince's Tutor. According to the records, if the emperor has just ascended the throne and has not appointed a prince, these positions will all be canceled, except for the position of Attendant, which falls under the supervision of the Minor Treasurer.

These positions are all under the supervision of the Prince's Tutor. However, if the emperor has just taken office and has not appointed a prince, then these positions will all be vacant, except for the position of Attendant, which still exists and falls under the supervision of the Minor Treasurer.

The Grand Master of Works, one person, with a salary of 2,000 stones. It is noted that this position has been inherited from the Qin Dynasty, previously known as the Grand Supervisor of Works, and was changed to the Grand Master of Works during the reign of Emperor Jing. His primary responsibilities include overseeing the construction of ancestral temples, palaces, imperial tombs, as well as related civil engineering projects, and also planting trees along the roadsides, such as paulownia and catalpa trees. He also has a Deputy with a salary of 600 stones.

The Grand Master of Works, this is a big deal with a salary of 2,000 stones! This position has been around since the Qin Dynasty, previously known as the Grand Supervisor of Works, and later changed to the Grand Master of Works during the reign of Emperor Jing. His primary responsibilities include overseeing the construction of royal buildings, such as ancestral temples, palaces, imperial tombs, and more, including civil engineering projects, and even the planting of trees along the roadside. He also has a Deputy with a salary of 600 stones.

The Commandant of the Left, one person, with a salary of 600 stones. It is noted that he is responsible for managing the artisans on the left side. He also has a Deputy.

The Commandant of the Left, with a salary of 600 stones, overseeing the artisans on the left side. He also has a Deputy.

The Commandant of the Right, one person, with a salary of 600 stones. It is noted that he is responsible for managing the artisans on the right side. He also has a Deputy.

The Commandant of the Right, similar to the Commandant of the Left, with a salary of 600 stones, overseeing the artisans on the right side, and also has a Deputy.

All of these positions are under the Grand Master of Works.

The Commandant of the City Gates, one person, with a salary equivalent to 2,000 stones. It is noted that he is responsible for managing the twelve city gates of Luoyang.

The Commandant of the City Gates, with a salary of 2,000 stones, holds a prestigious position and is responsible for managing the twelve city gates of Luoyang.

Sima, a position held by one person, with a salary of one thousand stones. The book says: responsible for the military defense of the city gates. Each city gate also has a hou, who receives a salary of six hundred stones. The book says: There are twelve city gates in Luoyang City. The main southern gate, known as Pingcheng Gate, is managed by the Guard Commander. The other city gates include Upper West Gate, Yong Gate, Guangyang Gate, Jin Gate, Xiaoyuan Gate, Kaiyang Gate, Shao Gate, Middle East Gate, Upper East Gate, Gu Gate, and Xia Gate, totaling twelve gates.

Each city gate also has a Sima with a salary of one thousand stones, responsible for the military defense of the city gates. There is also a hou with a salary of six hundred stones at each city gate. Luoyang City has a total of twelve city gates, with the main southern gate called Pingcheng Gate, and the North Palace Gate managed by the Guard Commander; the other city gates are... (here are listed the names of the twelve city gates).

All these officials report to the City Gate Colonel. In the Northern Army, there is one hou, who earns a salary of six hundred stones. The book says: responsible for supervising the five camps of soldiers and horses. In the Northern Army, there is a hou with a salary of six hundred stones, responsible for supervising the five camps of the army.

The Garrison Cavalry Colonel, with a salary equivalent to two thousand stones, is responsible for guarding the imperial palace. Under his command, there is also a Sima earning a salary of one thousand stones.

The Overriding Cavalry Colonel, similar to the Garrison Cavalry Colonel, is also tasked with guarding the imperial palace, with a salary equivalent to two thousand stones, and under him is a Sima with a salary of one thousand stones.

The Infantry Colonel, who also earns a salary of two thousand stones, is responsible for guarding the imperial palace. Under him, there is a Sima with a salary of one thousand stones.

The Longwater Colonel, who also earns a salary of two thousand stones, is responsible for guarding the imperial palace. Under him, there is a Sima and a Huqi Sima, both earning a salary of one thousand stones each. The book states that he is responsible for guarding and managing the Wuhuan cavalry.

Colonel of Changshui, also in charge of guarding the imperial palace, earning a salary equivalent to two thousand shi. He has a Sima and a Huqi Sima under his command, both with a salary of one thousand shi, responsible for guarding and managing the Wuhuan cavalry.

The Shesheng Colonel earns a salary equivalent to two thousand shi. The book says he is in charge of guarding the imperial palace. Below him is a Sima, with a salary of one thousand shi.

The Shesheng Colonel, the last one, is also in charge of guarding the imperial palace, earning a salary equivalent to two thousand shi. Under his command is a Sima, with a salary of one thousand shi.

This official is referred to as the Zhonghou of the Northern Army. The book states that there used to be a Zhonglei Colonel responsible for the affairs of the Northern Army's camp. There were also the Huqi Colonel and the Huben Colonel, both established during the reign of Emperor Wu. Later, during the Zhongxing period, the position of Zhonglei Colonel was abolished, leaving only the Zhonghou in charge of supervising five camps. The Huqi Colonel and Colonel of Changshui were merged, while the Huben Colonel was responsible for light chariots and archers.

The salaries of official positions are as follows: generally, for a position rated at two thousand shi, the salary of their deputy is equivalent to one thousand shi; for a true position rated at two thousand shi, the salary of the deputy and chief clerk is six hundred shi; for positions rated at two thousand shi, the salary of the deputy is six hundred shi; for positions rated at one thousand shi, the deputy and guard earn a salary of four hundred shi; if the position is rated at six hundred shi, the salary of the deputy and guard is three hundred shi; for positions rated at four hundred or three hundred shi, the salary of the deputy and guard is two hundred shi; for the deputies of princes and princesses, the salary is equivalent to one hundred shi; for the guards of border fortresses and the colonels and chiefs of tombs, the salary is two hundred shi; some positions have fixed salaries and do not require separate notation.

The Colonel of the Inspectorate is the only one, and his salary is equivalent to 2,000 shi. The book says that this official position was established during the reign of Emperor Xiaowu, responsible for supervising officials below the rank of 100, as well as those who commit crimes in the capital and nearby counties. The supervisory authority was revoked during the reign of Emperor Yuan, and the official position was restructured during the reign of Emperor Cheng. During the Jianwu period, it was reinstated and given jurisdiction over a province. The Colonel of the Inspectorate has twelve subordinates. The book explains that the Inspector is responsible for supervising the illegal activities of officials; the Chief Clerk oversees the selection and appointment of officials within the prefecture and manages various affairs; the Adjutant assists the Colonel during inspections and records various affairs; the Record Clerk is responsible for recording finances and documents; during military operations, a Military Affairs Officer is appointed to handle military affairs; each county has a Duties Officer who is responsible for supervising and monitoring illegal activities, appointed by the provincial government, so their salary is generally one hundred shi. The Colonel also has twenty-five aides. The book says that the Chief Clerk is responsible for recording affairs in the prefecture and reviewing documents; the Gatekeeper is responsible for the security of the prefecture; the Gate Chief Clerk is responsible for selection and appointment; the Instructor of the "Classic of Filial Piety" is responsible for supervising the "Classic of Filial Piety"; the Instructor of the "Monthly Ordinances" is responsible for conducting sacrifices according to the seasons; the Instructor of the Legal Code is responsible for explaining the law; the Record Clerk Assistant is responsible for document recording; the Duties Officer Assistant and each county have a County Clerk Assistant, each responsible for managing the documents of their respective counties, appointed by county officials and rotate annually. The Colonel oversees seven counties.

There was a magistrate of Henan who was in charge of the affairs of the capital city, a position specifically appointed by the emperor. In the early days of the Han Dynasty, the capital was in Chang'an, and the three officials - Jingzhao magistrate, Zuo Fengyi, and You Fufeng - were all high-ranking officials of the court with a rank of 2,000 shi, referred to collectively as the "Three Fu." Later, when the capital moved to Luoyang, Henan Commandery replaced the original Henan magistrate. Because the area of the Three Fu contained the tombs of emperors from past dynasties, the name stayed the same, but the official rank was somewhat lower. As for the official positions in Hongnong, Henei, and Hedong commanderies, including magistrates, Fengyi, Fufeng, as well as governors and deputies, all this information is detailed in the "Geography Records."

There was a senior official in charge of the capital, the magistrate of Henan, appointed by the emperor. When the Han Dynasty initially built its capital in Chang'an, the Jingzhao magistrate, Zuo Fengyi, and You Fufeng were all high-ranking officials with high salaries, referred to collectively as the "Three Fu." Later, when the capital moved to Luoyang, Henan Commandery replaced the Henan magistrate. However, because the Three Fu region contained important tombs, the name remained the same, but the official rank was lower. For details on the official positions in Hongnong, Henei, and Hedong commanderies, you can check out the "Geography Records."