It is said in the "Book of Documents": "The East is called Yi." This "Yi" means "barbarian," suggesting they are peaceful and believe everything comes from the earth. As a result, their nature tends to be gentle and compliant, making them easy to educate and guide. Some Yi tribes even have legends of immortals and longevity. There are about nine types of Yi people: Quan Yi, Yu Yi, Fang Yi, Huang Yi, Bai Yi, Chi Yi, Xuan Yi, Feng Yi, and Yang Yi. Confucius wished to spend some time in these nine Yi regions.
During the time of Emperor Yao, Xi Zhong was sent to live in the eastern region of Yi, called Yanggu, the land where the sun rises. Later, during the Xia Dynasty, King Tai Kang neglected his duties as ruler, and the Yi people started to rebel. However, starting from King Shao Kang, the Yi people returned to the rule of the Xia Dynasty, becoming vassal states that frequently presented joyful dances as tribute. During the reign of King Jie of Xia, his tyranny prompted the Yi people to invade the Central Plains. Later, Shang Tang led a revolution, overthrew the Xia Dynasty, and subdued the invading Yi tribes. During the reign of King Zhong Ding of the Shang Dynasty, the Lan Yi tribe revolted. Since then, the Yi people have fluctuated between submission and rebellion, a pattern that persisted for over three hundred years. During the reign of King Wu Yi of the Shang Dynasty, the country weakened, and the power of the Eastern Yi tribes grew stronger, gradually moving to the Huai River and Mount Tai region, slowly establishing control over the Central Plains.
After King Wu defeated King Zhou, the Su Shen people came to present stone axes and poisoned arrows as tribute! However, Guan Shu and Cai Shu rebelled against the Zhou dynasty and colluded with the Yi and Di tribes. The Duke of Zhou personally led troops to quell the rebellion of the Eastern Yi. During King Kang's reign, the Su Shen people came to pay tribute once more. Later, the Xu Yi tribe declared independence and allied with nine other tribes to attack the Zhou dynasty, advancing as far as the Yellow River. King Mu of Zhou, fearing their growing power, divided the Eastern vassals and appointed King Yan of Xu to govern them. King Yan of Xu resided east of Huang Chi, overseeing a territory of five hundred li and implementing benevolent governance. Thirty-six states came to pay homage to him overland. Later, King Mu of Zhou acquired a fine horse named Jilu and sent Zhaofu to Chu to deliver a message, which prompted Chu to attack Xu, leading to its destruction. King Yan of Xu was kind-hearted, lacking significant power and unwilling to engage in conflict, which ultimately led to his defeat. He fled to the mountains east of Wuyuan County in Pengcheng, accompanied by tens of thousands of his followers, which led to the mountain being named Xu Mountain.
King Li of Zhou was tyrannical, and the Huai Yi people invaded once more. King Li sent Guo Zhong to suppress them, but he failed. During King Xuan's reign, the army was reorganized and dispatched to quell the rebellion. During King You's reign, he became decadent, and various barbarian tribes invaded from all directions, only to be driven away by Duke Huan of Qi. King Ling of Chu and Lord Shen also took part in Duke Huan of Qi's alliance. Later, the state of Yue moved its capital to Langya, joining other states in warfare, growing stronger, and oppressing the Central Plains states, ultimately extinguishing many smaller states.
After the unification of the Qin Dynasty, the people in the Huai River and Si River basins were all reclassified as commoners. Chen Sheng and Wu Guang rebelled, causing chaos in the world. Wei Man of the Yan state fled to Korea and eventually became the king of Korea. Over a hundred years later, Emperor Han Wu conquered Korea, finally establishing contact between the Eastern Yi regions and the central government. After Wang Mang usurped the Han Dynasty, the Goguryeo people (the Mo people of Goguryeo) frequently harassed the borders. In the early reign of Emperor Guangwu, they once again began to pay tribute. At that time, the Liaodong Prefect Ji Hong was famous in the north, and his reputation spread overseas, prompting the Mo, Yue, Wae, and Han countries to come from afar to pay tribute. Starting from the reigns of Emperor Zhang and Emperor He, envoys from these countries constantly visited. During the Yongchu era, the world was in turmoil, and the eastern barbarian regions began invading and plundering; during the reigns of Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling, the situation worsened.
After the revival of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the four barbarian tribes frequently came to pay tribute. Although rebellions sometimes occurred, the channels for envoys remained open, allowing us to understand some of their customs. The various eastern barbarian tribes were mostly local indigenous peoples, who enjoyed drinking, singing, dancing, wearing gorgeous clothes, and using exquisite utensils. The customs that were seen as improper in the Central Plains were common in the barbarian regions. We collectively refer to the Man, Yi, Rong, and Di as the four barbarians, similar to how lords, marquises, counts, sons, and men are collectively referred to as lords.
The kingdom of Fuyu is situated over a thousand li north of Xuanju County. It borders Goguryeo to the south, Yilou to the east, Xianbei to the west, and the Ruo River to the north. The land area is approximately two thousand li, originally the territory of the Mo people.
At first, the king of the Kingdom of Beiyi Suoli went out hunting, and his servant became pregnant. When the king returned, he sought to kill her. The servant said, "I saw a force in the sky, about the size of an egg, fall upon me, that's why I got pregnant." The king imprisoned her, and later she gave birth to a boy. The king ordered the child to be thrown into the pigpen, but the pigs took care of him, and he survived. He was then placed in the stable, where the horses also looked after him. The king felt that the child was favored by the gods, so he allowed the child's mother to raise him and named him Dongming.
When Dongming grew up, he was an expert archer. The king feared his prowess and sought to kill him. Dongming fled south to the Yanxi River, where he shot arrows into the water, causing fish and turtles to surface. Dongming crossed the river riding on the backs of the fish and turtles and arrived in Fuyu, where he became king. Fuyu was located in the eastern region, with flat terrain suitable for growing grains. The region produced fine horses, red jade, sable fur, and pearls the size of jujubes. They constructed circular enclosures for city walls, with palaces, warehouses, and prisons. The people of Fuyu were tall and robust, known for their caution and kindness, who did not engage in robbery or plunder. Their weapons were bows, arrows, knives, and spears. They named their official positions after livestock, such as Horse Chief, Ox Chief, and Dog Chief, and each village belonged to these positions. They ate and drank from square dishes, and during gatherings, they toasted one another and followed a specific order of respect.
Every year in the twelfth month of the lunar calendar, they hold grand celebrations over several days, where everyone gathers to eat, sing, and dance, a celebration called "Yinggu." During this period, they also adjudicate cases and release prisoners. If there are military actions, they also perform heavenly rituals, sacrifice oxen, and use their hooves for divination. The people of Fuyu do not differentiate between day and night while traveling, and they enjoy singing and reciting poetry continuously. Their customs involve strict punishments, with the entire family of an executed person being enslaved. Stealing any item incurs a punishment twelve times its value. Adultery for both men and women leads to death, with a particular focus on punishing jealous women harshly, who are killed and then thrown on the mountain. If an elder brother passes away, his younger brother is required to marry the widow. When someone dies, they are buried in a wooden casket, without a traditional coffin. They practice mass burials, sometimes entombing over a hundred individuals together. When a king dies, the body is placed in a jade box, often arranged in advance by the Han Dynasty through Xuantu Commandery for use in the king's burial after his death.
During the Jianwu period of the Eastern Han Dynasty, many Eastern barbarian states came to pay homage to the emperor. In the twenty-fifth year of Jianwu, the Buyeo kingdom sent envoys to present tributes, and Emperor Guangwu sent many gifts to them. From then on, the two countries had envoys visiting each other every year. Until the fifth year of the Yongchu era of Emperor An, the King of Buyeo unexpectedly led seven to eight thousand infantry and cavalry to attack the Lelang Commandery, killing many officials and civilians before returning and submitting. In the first year of the Yongning era, the King of Buyeo sent his son Weichou Tai to the capital to present tributes, and the emperor rewarded him with a seal, silk garments, and gold. In the first year of the Yonghe era during the reign of Emperor Shun, King Fudai of Buyeo personally came to the capital to pay homage to the emperor, who specially arranged a grand welcome ceremony for him, with palace eunuchs performing music and acrobatics to entertain him. In the fourth year of Yanxi during the reign of Emperor Huan, Buyeo sent envoys to pay tribute. In the first year of Yongkang, King Fudai of Buyeo led over twenty thousand troops to attack the Xuantu Commandery, but was defeated by Gongsun Yu, the Administrator of Xuantu, who killed over a thousand enemy soldiers. In the third year of Xiping during the reign of Emperor Ling, Buyeo once again presented tributes. In fact, Buyeo had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Xuantu Commandery, but by the time of Emperor Xian, the King of Buyeo sought to come under the jurisdiction of the Liaodong Commandery.
Yilou is a branch of the ancient Sushen country. It is located to the northeast of Buyeo, more than a thousand li away, with the sea to the east, bordering Nanwoju to the south and Beiwuju to the north. As for its northern part, no one knows. The area is mountainous and has steep terrain. The Yilou people look similar to the Buyeo people, but speak a distinct language. They can grow crops, weave hemp cloth, and produce red jade and high-quality mink fur. They do not have a unified monarch; each village has a leader. They live in the mountains and forests, a particularly cold place, so they live in caves, the deeper, the better. Some wealthy families even need to climb a nine-tiered ladder to enter their homes. They like to raise pigs, eat pork, and wear pigskin. In winter, they coat themselves in thick layers of pig fat to keep warm; in summer, they go shirtless, merely covering their front and back with a piece of cloth. They do not prioritize hygiene, with toilets inside their homes, surrounded by their living spaces. Since the establishment of the Han Dynasty, Yilou has always been under the rule of Buyeo. Although the Yilou people are not numerous, they are all quite brave. Living in the mountains, they are skilled archers, capable of shooting arrows through a person's eyes. Their bows are four feet long, with power comparable to that of a crossbow; the arrows are made of mulberry wood, measuring one foot eight inches, with arrowheads made of bluestone and coated with poison, which can cause immediate death upon impact. They are good at boating, enjoy raiding, and neighboring countries are afraid of them, but have been unable to subdue them. The Eastern Yi region, including Buyeo and other ethnic groups, all eat with zudou, except for the Yilou. Their customs are the least orderly.
Goguryeo, located far to the east of Liaodong, about a thousand miles away, borders Korea and the Mohe people to the south, to the east is Wujū, and to the north is Buyeo. The territory is about two thousand miles in size, with many mountains and deep valleys, so people live according to the terrain. There is little arable land, so they can hardly sustain themselves through farming alone. As a result, they lead a relatively frugal lifestyle, yet they take great pleasure in building beautiful palaces. Legend has it that the Dongyi people are a branch of Buyeo, so their language and grammar have many similarities. However, when they kneel, they only bend one leg, and they tend to run when they walk. They have a total of five tribes: the Xiaonu tribe, the Juenu tribe, the Shunnu tribe, the Guannu tribe, and the Guilou tribe. Initially, the Xiaonu tribe held power, but over time, their influence waned and they were replaced by the Guilou tribe. Their official titles include Xiangjia, Duolu, Peizhe, Guzhou Dajia, Zhubu, Youtai, Shizhe, and Bo Yi ancestors, among others. After Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty conquered Korea, Goguryeo was treated as a county under the jurisdiction of the Xuantu Commandery, and they were rewarded with musical instruments and orchestras. They have relatively open-minded customs and value cleanliness and hygiene, often gathering together at night for singing and dancing. They worship ghosts, gods, land gods, and stars, and in October, they hold a grand sacrifice to heaven called "Dongmeng." Participants in the sacrifice wear satin-embroidered clothing and adorn themselves with gold and silver. Dajia and Zhubu officials wear hats that resemble crowns but lack a back; the Xiaojia officials wear folded wind hats, similar in shape to a pointed hat. They do not have prisons, so if someone commits a crime, the officials will simply decide to execute them, confiscating their property and taking their wives as slaves. Marriages take place at the bride's home, and children are brought to the groom's family only after they come of age to prepare for funerals. They spend their wealth on lavish burials, building stone tombs and planting pine and cypress trees. The people of Goguryeo are known for their fierce and impulsive nature, immense strength, military prowess, and penchant for looting, and both Wujū and Dongmohe people are subject to them.
Goguryeo, also known as Mò, had a branch that lived by a small river, hence they were called Xiaoshui Mo. They produced very good bows, known as "Mo bows." When Wang Mang had just become emperor, he sent soldiers from Goguryeo to fight the Xiongnu. Those soldiers were completely unwilling to go and were forced to march, ultimately running away and becoming bandits outside the border. Tian Tan, the Governor of Liaoxi, went to pursue them and was killed in battle. Wang Mang ordered General Yan You to confront them. Yan You deceived the Marquis of Goguryeo, Hou Zou, into coming inside the border and killed him, then sent his head to Chang'an to take credit. Wang Mang was very happy and changed the name of the King of Goguryeo to Marquis of Xiaojuli. This emboldened the Mo people (Goguryeo people) even further, and they kept harassing the border.
Later, in the eighth year of Emperor Guangwu's reign, Goguryeo sent envoys to pay tribute, and Emperor Guangwu restored their original royal title. In the winter of the twenty-third year of the Jianwu era, the leader of the Silkworm Clan of Goguryeo, Dai Sheng, surrendered with over ten thousand people to Lelang Commandery. However, in the spring of the twenty-fifth year of the Jianwu era, Goguryeo attacked several commanderies including Youbeiping, Yuyang, Shanggu, and Taiyuan. The Governor of Liaodong, Ji Rou, used both kindness and force to persuade them to surrender, and the Goguryeo people reluctantly retreated beyond the border.
It is said that this later King of Goguryeo was said to have been able to see from birth, and the common people liked him very much. He grew into a brave and strong young man who frequently caused trouble along the border. In the spring of the first year of Emperor He of Han, he went to raid Liaodong again, raiding six counties. The Governor, Geng Kui, defeated him and killed their leader. In the fifth year of Emperor An of Han, the later King of Goguryeo sent gifts once more, hoping to persuade Xuanfu Commandery to submit to them.
In the fifth year of the Yuan Chu era, he once again joined forces with the Mo people to attack Xuantu Commandery, and even reached Huali City. In the spring of the Jianguang era, Feng Huan, the Inspector of Youzhou; Yao Guang, the Administrator of Xuantu; and Cai Feng, the Administrator of Liaodong led troops to the border to fight against them. As a result, they defeated the Mo people, killed their leaders, and captured a lot of troops, horses, and wealth.
The Prince of Li's palace was not satisfied, so he sent his son Sui Cheng with more than two thousand men to confront Feng Huan and his men, and even sent people to pretend to surrender. Feng Huan believed them, but Sui Cheng used the terrain advantage to block the army and secretly sent three thousand men to attack Xuantu and Liaodong, burning and killing, leading to the deaths of over two thousand people.
This was a grave situation, prompting the court to quickly dispatch over three thousand cavalry from the vassal states of Guangyang, Yuyang, Right Beiping, and Zhuo Commandery to rescue them. However, by the time they arrived, the Mo people had already vanished.
In the summer, the Prince of Li's palace allied once more with more than eight thousand Xianbei people from Liaodong to attack Liaodong, killing many officials and civilians. Cai Feng and his men pursued them to Xinchang, and during the battle, Cai Feng, Geng Hao, Long Duan, and Gong Sun Pu, who were protecting Cai Feng, all died in battle, resulting in around a hundred casualties.
In the autumn, the Prince of Li's palace, with Ma Han and the Mo people, surrounded Xuantu with thousands of cavalrymen. At this time, the Prince of Fuyu dispatched his son Yechou Tai with more than twenty thousand men to join forces with the local military, defeating the army of the Prince of Li's palace and killing more than five hundred people.
In a certain year of the Common Era, Gong, the leader of the Xianbei tribe, died, and his son succeeded him. Yao Guang suggested taking advantage of Gong's death to attack his son, and everyone thought it was a good idea. However, the Minister Chen Zhong stood up and said, "Gong was already difficult to deal with when he was alive; Yao Guang couldn't even touch him. Now that Gong is dead, it would be unreasonable to attack his son. We should send someone to offer condolences, condemn their previous crimes, and then grant amnesty to everyone, not holding them accountable, to encourage them to be good people in the future." The emperor accepted his suggestion.
The following year, the new leader surrendered to Xuanfu Commandery along with his captives. The emperor issued a decree saying, "The new leader and his followers had committed rebellion and deserved the harshest punishment. They should be chopped up and fed to the dogs to serve as a warning to others! But now they have fortunately surrendered during the amnesty. The Xianbei and Wuhuan tribes have been harassing the border for years, looting the people. Each time they take away over a thousand people, but they only return a few dozen captives. This does not reflect a genuine submission! From now on, if those tribes do not fight against the officials and voluntarily return captives, we will pay a ransom. For each adult returned, they will receive forty pieces of silk, and for children, half of that."
After the new leader's death, his son Bogu succeeded him. Subsequently, the Wuhuan and other tribes became more compliant, and there were fewer border conflicts. In the first year of Emperor Shun's Yangjia reign, six agricultural departments were established in Xuanfu Commandery. During the reigns of Emperor Zhi and Emperor Huan, the Wuhuan tribe invaded Liaodong and Xi'anping, killed the magistrate of Daifang Commandery, and kidnapped the wife and children of the magistrate of Lelang Commandery. In the second year of Jianning, the Commandant of Xuanfu led troops to subdue them, killing hundreds of enemies. Bogu surrendered once more, seeking to align himself with Xuanfu Commandery.
The tribe of Dongwoju lived east of the Gaema Mountains, bordering Yilou and Fuyu to the north and adjacent to Huimei to the south. Their territory was narrow from east to west and long from north to south, covering about a thousand square miles. The land was fertile, backed by mountains and facing the sea, suitable for growing grains. Agriculture was developed, governed by their own village leaders. The people were upright and brave, skilled in infantry combat with long spears. Their language, food, housing, and clothing were very similar to those of the Gaema people.
Their burial customs were unique, making huge wooden coffins over ten zhang in length, with only one opening as a door. After a person died, they were temporarily buried, and once the body had decomposed, leaving only the bones, the bones were placed in the coffin. Usually, a family was buried together in a large coffin, with lifelike wooden carvings on the coffin, corresponding to the number of deceased.
After Emperor Wu of Han defeated Korea, the territory of Woju was established as Xuanfu County. However, they were later bullied by the Yimo tribe, so Xuanfu County moved to the northwest of Goguryeo. The original Woju territory was then reclassified as a county under the jurisdiction of the eastern commandery of Lelang. When Emperor Guangwu ascended to the throne, he abolished the commandery position and appointed the leaders of Woju as marquises. Woju was a small territory caught between major powers, eventually submitting to Goguryeo. Goguryeo established officials in the Woju region, sent people to supervise and manage, collect taxes, including sable fur, cloth, fish, salt, and various seafood, and even compelled them to send beautiful women as concubines.
In addition, there is a region known as Beiwuju, also referred to as Zhigoulou, located approximately eight hundred miles from Nanwuju. Their customs are similar to those of Nanwuju. Beiwuju is adjacent to the south of Yilou. The people of Yilou enjoy raiding from their boats, and the people of Beiwuju are particularly fearful of them. Every summer, they take refuge in caves, only daring to return to their villages when the boats can no longer sail in winter. The village elders recounted that they once discovered a piece of clothing in the sea that resembled human clothing but had sleeves that were extraordinarily long—three zhang, to be exact! They also said they once saw a person on the shore sitting in a broken boat with a face atop their head, unable to communicate, ultimately dying without consuming anything. They also claimed that there is a country of women in the sea, without any men. Some say that this country has a magical well that can cause a woman to conceive and give birth just by looking into it.
The Hui tribe lives to the north of Goguryeo and Wuju, borders Chenhan to the south, faces the sea to the east, and stretches to Lelang County in the west. The Hui tribe, Wuju, and Goguryeo originally belonged to Korea. Historically, King Wu granted Jizi a fief in Korea, and Jizi taught them rituals, farming, sericulture, and established eight principles of conduct. However, they have made little progress, with households lacking doors, women being known for their chastity and reliability, and using exquisite utensils for their meals. After more than forty generations, the Marquis of Korea proclaimed himself king. In the early Han Dynasty, the world was in turmoil, prompting tens of thousands from the Yan, Qi, and Zhao states to flee to Korea seeking refuge. The Yan people, led by Wei Man, defeated the Marquis and established their own rule over Korea, passing down to his grandson, You Qu.
In the first year of Yuanshuo, the leader of the Wèi tribe, Nan Lu and others betrayed Youqu, and surrendered to Liaodong along with 280,000 people. Emperor Wu of Han designated their territory as Canghai County, but it was revoked a few years later. In the third year of Yuanfeng, Emperor Wu of Han conquered Korea and established the four commanderies of Lelang, Lintun, Xuantu, and Zhenfan. In the fifth year of Zhaoling, Lintun and Zhenfan were abolished, and their territories were absorbed into Lelang and Xuantu. Later, Xuantu County was relocated to the Goguryeo region. East of Dandan Daling, Woji and Huimo were all placed under the jurisdiction of Lelang County. Later, due to the extensive jurisdiction, seven counties were carved out, establishing the Lelang Eastern Commandery.
Since the surrender of the Wèi tribe to the Han Dynasty, their customs gradually declined, and the number of laws and regulations grew, eventually exceeding sixty. In the sixth year of Jianwu, the Han Dynasty abolished the position of Commandery, relinquished jurisdiction over those eastern counties, and granted those leaders the title of county marquises, requiring them to attend court annually.
It is said that this place has no big officials, only some marquises, city lords, and three elders in charge. The local elders claim to be family with the Juren, and their speech is quite similar. The people here are honest, are content with little, and aren't into begging. Men and women all wear round-neck shirts. They have a deep respect for the mountains and rivers, with each mountain and river having its own boundaries that no one can cross at will. People with the same surname cannot marry. They have many superstitions; if someone in the family gets sick or dies, they’ll move right away and build a new house. They grow hemp, raise silkworms, and weave cloth. They also watch the stars to see whether the next year will be a good harvest or a poor one. Every October, they make offerings to the heavens, drinking and dancing all day and night in a celebration called "Dance of the Heavens." They also worship tigers as gods. If there are conflicts between villages, they fine each other, punishing people, cows, and horses in a practice known as "punishment for misfortune." If someone commits murder, they face the death penalty. Thieves are pretty rare around here. They engage in battles, using spears that are about ten feet long, sometimes carried by a few people. They make the Yulangtan bow here, and there are many leopards, fruit-bearing horses, and class fish in the sea, all of which are tributes sent by envoys. The Han region is split into three parts: Mahan, Chenhan, and Bianchen. Mahan is in the west, which has fifty-four countries, bordered by Yulang to the north and Wa to the south; Chenhan is in the east, with twelve countries, bordered by Mohe to the north; Bianchen is south of Chenhan, also with twelve countries, and borders Wa to the south. In total, there are seventy-eight countries, and Boji is one of them. The larger countries have over ten thousand households, while the smaller ones have several thousand, spread out among the mountains and rivers in an area of over four thousand li square, with the sea on both sides, all part of the ancient Chen Kingdom. Mahan is the largest, where they elect their own kings, with its capital in Muzhi, governing the whole Sanhan region. The kings of these smaller countries are all descendants of Mahan.
The Mahan people understand farming and sericulture, and they can also weave cloth and make cotton clothes. The chestnuts they produce are as big as pears. They also raise long-tailed chickens, with tails that can reach lengths of five feet! Their villages are scattered haphazardly, without any city walls or gates. The houses they live in are made of earth, shaped like graves, with doors on top. They are unfamiliar with kneeling and bowing, and they lack concepts of seniority, gender roles, and hierarchy. They do not place value on gold, silver, treasures, or silk, and they do not ride oxen or horses. They only like beads and pearls for decorating their clothes, or for hanging around their necks and wearing in their ears. Most people have unkempt hair, wear rough cloth garments, and wear straw sandals. Their people are strong and brave, and when young people gather to help build houses, they thread ropes through the skin on their backs to lift heavy logs, cheering and proudly displaying their strength. After finishing work in the fields in May each year, they hold ceremonies to honor spirits and deities, drinking and celebrating day and night, singing and dancing together, with dozens joining in each time, stomping their feet in rhythm. A similar ceremony is held when the harvest is complete in October. Each country and village sends a representative to honor the gods, referred to as the "Heavenly Lord." They also erect wooden pillars for worship, hanging bells and drums for honoring spirits and deities. The southern border of Mahan is close to Wa country, so some people there also have tattoos.
The Chenhan people, their elders claim, were refugees who escaped after the fall of the Qin Dynasty to escape heavy labor and made their way to Korea. Later, Mahan granted them land in the east. They referred to their country as "Bang," bows "Hu," thieves "Kou," and drinking wine "Xingshang." They called each other "Tu," and these terms closely resembled those of the Qin Dynasty, so some people called them "Qinhan." They had city walls, fences, and houses. Small villages had their own leaders, with the prominent leaders being Chenzhi, Jianze, Fanzhi, Shaxi, and Yijie. The land there was fertile and suitable for growing various crops. They were skilled in raising silkworms and cultivating mulberry trees, weaving silk and linen, and riding cows and horses. Their marriages were quite ceremonious, and people on the road would often yield to one another. Chenhan was known for its iron production, and the Mohe, Wa, and Mahan tribes all came here to buy iron. They conducted all their trade using iron. They loved to sing, dance, drink, and play the se. When they had children, they would use stones to shape their children's heads.
The Bianchen people and the Chenhan people lived together, with similar city walls, houses, and clothing, but their languages and customs were different. The Bianchen people were tall, had beautiful hair, and wore clean clothes. However, they had very strict laws, resulting in many residents having tattoos.
Initially, King Wiman of Korea was defeated and fled with a few thousand people to the sea; then he attacked and defeated Mahan and became the king of Korea. Later, after King Wiman died, the Mahan people reestablished their rule, proclaiming themselves kings and naming their leader Chenwang.
In the twentieth year of Jianwu (44 AD), the Liansi people from Mahan came to Le Lang commandery to pay tribute. Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han Dynasty appointed Su Mashe as the ruler of Han Liansi and placed him under the authority of Le Lang commandery, and required him to pay tribute annually. As Emperor Ling of the Han Dynasty neared death, Mahan and the nation of Hui became powerful, and the officials of Le Lang commandery struggled to maintain control over them, leading the common people to endure great suffering. Many people fled to Mahan. West of Mahan, on the islands in the sea, there is a nation known as Zhouhu. The inhabitants are short and have shaved heads, wearing animal skin garments, with tops but no bottoms. They are fond of raising cattle and pigs. They frequently sail to Mahan for trade.
The country of Wa is located in the southeastern sea off Korea, inhabiting the mountainous islands and comprising hundreds of small states. After Emperor Wu of Han conquered Korea, over thirty countries maintained contact with the Han Dynasty via courier stations, all calling themselves kings, and this royal tradition has been passed down through generations. The most powerful of these kings resided in Yamatai-koku. The Lelang Commandery lies 12,000 li from Yamatai-koku and over 7,000 li from the northwest border of Juxian Han. Wa is roughly located to the east of Kuaiji Dongye, similar to Zhuyai and Dan'er, which results in many shared customs. The land there is suitable for growing rice, hemp, and ramie, and for sericulture. They are skilled weavers, producing fine silk and linen. Wa is known for its white pearls and blue jade, and red clay found in the mountains. The climate is warm, and vegetables can be eaten in both winter and summer. Cows, horses, tigers, leopards, sheep, and magpies are absent. Their weapons include spears, shields, wooden bows, bamboo arrows, and some arrows are made of bone. Men have tattoos on their faces and bodies, with tattoos of varying sizes that indicate social status. Men wear garments that are wrapped horizontally and connect at the front and back. Women either wear their hair loose or styled in buns, and their clothing resembles thin quilts that are pulled over the head; they also adorn their bodies with cinnabar, much like how people in China use powder. They construct city walls, fences, and houses. Parents and siblings live in different places, only gathering during mixed events, without distinction between genders. They eat with their hands, using baskets and bowls for their food. They go barefoot, and squatting is regarded as a respectful posture. They enjoy drinking. The people of Wa enjoy long lifespans, with many reaching over a hundred years. Wa has a high population of women, with officials and nobles often having four or five wives, while others have two or three. Women are neither promiscuous nor jealous. Furthermore, theft is rare, and disputes are few. Lawbreakers face confiscation of their wives and children, and those guilty of heinous crimes risk extermination of their entire clan. When someone passes away, they observe a mourning period of over ten days, during which family members weep and abstain from food and drink, while other clan members partake in singing and dancing. They practice bone-burning divination to determine fortune or misfortune. When traveling to the Han Dynasty, they must cross the sea, designating an individual who refrains from combing their hair, bathing, eating meat, or approaching women, referred to as the "bearer of misfortune." If the voyage is successful, they are rewarded with great riches; if they fall ill or face disasters along the way, it is believed that the "bearer of misfortune" acted carelessly, and they risk being killed.
In the second year of the Jianwu Zhongyuan era, the Wa Kingdom brought tribute and greetings, sending people claiming to be officials and stating they were from the southernmost region of Wa. Emperor Guangwu bestowed seals and ribbons upon them. In the first year of the Yongchu era of Emperor An, the king of Wa, Shuai Sheng, along with others, presented one hundred sixty captives and requested an audience.
During the reigns of Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Wa was in chaos, lacking proper leadership for several years. At this time, a woman named Himiko appeared. She was old and unmarried, practiced spirituality and sorcery, and was especially skilled at using her magic to enchant people. As a result, she was chosen as queen. She was accompanied by thousands of attendants, and few were allowed to see her. Only one man was tasked with delivering her food and messages. Her residence, including palaces, towers, and city walls, was heavily guarded.
To the east of the queen's country, across the sea over a thousand miles away, there was a kingdom called Ju Nu, who were also Wa people but not under her rule. To the south of the queen's country, over four thousand miles away, there was a kingdom of Zhu Ru, where the inhabitants were notably short, standing only three to four feet tall. A year’s boat journey southeast from Zhu Ru would reach the lands of the Naked and Black Teeth. This is where the messenger's account concludes.
Across the sea in Kuaiji (modern-day Shaoxing, Zhejiang), the Dongyi people lived in over twenty kingdoms, along with Yi Zhou and Chan Zhou. Legend has it that Qin Shi Huang sent the alchemist Xu Fu with thousands of boys and girls to the sea in search of the legendary Penglai Island. Xu Fu didn't find it and, fearing execution, chose to stay on these islands, establishing a lineage that grew to tens of thousands of households. Occasionally, these people would travel to Kuaiji for gatherings. In Dongye County, Kuaiji, there was a fellow villager who faced a storm at sea and drifted to Chan Zhou. These places were simply too distant for regular contact.
Some people commented: "In the past, Ji Zi escaped to Korea because of the decline of the Shang Dynasty. At first, the customs of Korea were not particularly notable. Later, Ji Zi implemented the 'Eight Articles of Agreement', which educated the people about the importance of following the law. As a result, the city was free of bandits, and every household did not need to close their doors at night. The coarse and barbaric customs were replaced, and more lenient laws were introduced. These rules were maintained for hundreds of years, so the Eastern regions all adopted gentleness and caution as their style, unlike other places. When laws are clear, morality will naturally follow. Confucius expressed regret, thinking that the land of the Eastern regions was habitable. Some people thought those places were very backward, but Confucius said: 'If a nobleman lives there, what is backward?' This is merely a saying. Later, Korea started trading with the Central Plains and gradually caught up with international relations. However, the Yan people disrupted their customs, so Korea became more coarse and unruly. 'Laozi' said: 'The more laws there are, the more thieves there will be.' If you simplify the laws like Ji Zi did, and base them on honesty, you can achieve the essence of sage governance!"
In conclusion: Wa country is located in the Eastern region, also referred to as Yanggu. It is nestled between mountains and the sea, with nine tribes. In the late Qin Dynasty, Wa country was in chaos, and the Yan people exacerbated the chaos. Wa country's culture was shaped by the influences of Central Plains culture and eventually had connections with the Han Dynasty. Records about Wa country are sparse and fragmented, some were submissive, while others were rebellious.
