In the first month of the 26th year of the reign of Emperor Guangwu, he built the High Temple in Luoyang. Sacrifices were conducted throughout the year, with Founding Ancestor Liu Bang as the Founding Ancestor, Worthy Ancestor Liu Heng as the Worthy Ancestor, and Current Ancestor Liu Xiu as the Current Ancestor, and so on. Other emperors were to be sacrificed to in the spring of the first month, summer of the fourth month, autumn of the seventh month, winter of the tenth month, and in the twelfth month, totaling five sacrifices per year.
In the third month of the third year, Emperor Guangwu also built a temple in Luoyang to sacrifice to his father, Lord Nandun, and his ancestors up to the Marquis of Chongling. At that time, the realm was unstable, plagued by bandits and ongoing conflicts, so the formal establishment of sacrificial rituals was not yet in place.
It wasn't until nineteen years later, after the bandits had been subdued and the wars mostly ended, that Zhang Chun and Zhu Fu suggested that according to ritual, one should sacrifice to one's ancestors before one's parents. The sacrificial ceremonies should not be different just because they are one's own relatives. The number of sacrificial offerings in the current temple should be reduced to four. Emperor Xiaoxuan, as a grandson, established the Ancestral Temple for his father in the Fengming Palace, where only ministers would sacrifice. It was proposed to use the four temples of the late emperors to replace the current temple, and to establish an Ancestral Temple for Lord Nandun, sacrificing to the Marquis of Chongling, for ministers to sacrifice.
This issue was deliberated among court officials, scholars, and councilors. The Minister of Works and others suggested that the temples of the late emperors should be used to replace the existing temple, with temples for Emperor Ping, Emperor Ai, Emperor Cheng, and Emperor Yuan being established. Officials would conduct sacrifices for relatives beyond siblings. An Ancestral Temple should be established for Lord Nandun, sacrificing to the Marquis of Chongling, for ministers to sacrifice. At that time, opinions were divided, and no consensus was achieved.
The emperor decreed: Since the location of the Gaomiao has not been finalized, and sacrifices are to be made simultaneously at the Gaomiao, Emperor Cheng, Emperor Ai, and Emperor Ping will first be worshipped at the original Gaomiao in Chang'an. For those in Chongling, they will utilize the original temple for worship. If the temple is too far from the magistrate's office, the local county magistrate will perform the duties of the magistrate and accompany the worship. Emperor Xiaoxuan is honored posthumously as Emperor Zhongzong for his significant contributions.
Therefore, the Gaomiao in Luoyang will hold worship for Emperor Xiaoxuan and Emperor Xiaoyuan throughout the year, a total of five emperors. The temples in the west will worship Emperor Cheng, Emperor Ai, and Emperor Ping, and worship will be held in the original Gaomiao year-round. The temples in the east will be responsible for worship by the Jingzhao magistrate, following the same rituals, attire, and chariots as those used in the imperial tomb sacrifices. The temples of Lord Nandun and Chongling Jiehou will be worshipped in their respective garden temples. The temple of Lord Nandun is called the Temple of the Emperor's Ancestor, the temple of the Julu Commandant is called the Temple of the Emperor's Patriarch, the temple of the Yulin Prefect is called the Temple of the Emperor's Great Patriarch, and the temple of Chongling Jiehou is called the Temple of the Emperor's Grand Patriarch, with local officials overseeing the worship.
In the 26th year of the emperor's reign, the emperor issued a decree to ask Zhang Chun about the intervals for the ancestral worship rites of the Di and He sacrifices. Zhang Chun replied, "According to the ritual system, there is a grand Di sacrifice every three years and a grand He sacrifice every five years. For ancestors whose temples have been destroyed, their tablets are placed in the ancestral temple; for ancestors whose temples still exist, their tablets are placed in the high temple to be worshipped alongside the high ancestor. Within five years, there should be two Yin sacrifices to carefully oversee the sacrificial rites. Previously, it was stipulated that there should be three grand Di sacrifices every three years, where ancestors whose temples had been destroyed were worshipped alongside the high ancestor, while ancestors with existing temples were never worshipped together. The He sacrifice was officially held for the first time in the fifth year of the Yuan Shi era. The father is the 'Zhao' in the Zhao-Mu hierarchy, facing south; the son is the 'Mu' in the Zhao-Mu hierarchy, facing north. The father and son cannot sit side by side, and the grandson must worship with the grandfather. The term 'He' means 'to investigate', and the He sacrifice emphasizes the hierarchical order of Zhao and Mu, reflecting the etiquette of respect and deference. Because this is the time when the five grains are abundant, it is in accordance with the etiquette of respect and humility. The He sacrifice is held in the tenth month of winter, symbolizing family members coming together to share food. Before the ancestral temple is fully established, we should begin with the He sacrifice. We should now determine the timing of the sacrifices based on the seasons." These words are recorded in the "Biography of Zhang Chun." The emperor found rebuilding the temples to be too cumbersome, so he decided to continue worshipping at the high temple using the He sacrifice method moving forward.
Later, during the winter sacrificial ceremony every three years and the summer great ritual sacrifice every five years, only the tablets of the ancestors whose temples had been destroyed were placed in the High Temple for veneration, known as the Yin Sacrifice. In the Taizu Temple, Emperor Taizu faced east, with Emperor Hui, Emperor Wen, Emperor Wu, and Emperor Yuan as the honored, and Emperor Jing and Emperor Xuan as the reverent. Emperor Hui, Emperor Jing, and Emperor Zhao were only worshipped individually during the Yin Sacrifice. After Emperor Guangwu passed away, Emperor Ming succeeded to the throne and built a separate temple for him, known as the Shizu Temple, due to his role in restoring the Han dynasty. Because Emperor Yuan was revered by Emperor Guangwu, despite not being a direct ancestor, his temple was not dismantled. This practice eventually became a longstanding tradition.
Before Emperor Ming passed away, he left a decree stating that he wanted simplicity and did not want a mortuary temple built for him, so he was enshrined in the antechamber of the Shizu Temple. Emperor Xiaozhang succeeded to the throne and, respecting the decree, did not build a mortuary temple for Emperor Ming but felt it was inappropriate to confine his enshrinement to the antechamber. Therefore, he honored Emperor Ming as Xianzong and set up a separate shrine in the antechamber to venerate him, while also holding rituals for him at the Shizu Temple in all four seasons. This is documented in the "Zhangji."
When Emperor Zhang passed away, he also left a decree stating not to build a mortuary temple for him, in accordance with his predecessor's wishes. After Emperor He succeeded to the throne, he also did not dare to disobey the decree and honored Emperor Zhang as Suzong. Subsequent emperors also venerated their ancestors in the Shizu Temple. As time passed and more people were venerated, the distinctions became less pronounced, so Xianzong later became just a title for the mausoleum. During the Yongyuan period, Emperor He posthumously honored his mother, Lady Liang, as Empress Gonghuai, and her tomb was called Xiling. Empress Dou and Emperor Zhang were venerated together, while Empress Gonghuai had a separate tomb for separate veneration. After Emperor He passed away, he was honored as Muzong.
Emperor Shang lived for over three hundred days before passing away. Empress Dowager Deng served as regent because the emperor was still an infant, so he was not included in the ancestral sacrifices, only received sacrifices at his tomb. Emperor An was the son of the Prince of Qinghe, Xiaowang. After ascending the throne, he posthumously honored his grandmother, Lady Song, with the title of Empress Jingyin, and his tomb was named Jingbei Tomb. Sacrifices were also made at his tomb, following the same rituals as those at Xiling. He also posthumously honored his father, Prince Xiaowang of Qinghe, as Emperor Xiaode, and his mother as Empress Xiaode, with the Prince of Qinghe responsible for conducting the sacrifices. Emperor An was schemed against by treacherous officials, executed ministers, deposed the crown prince, and was not posthumously honored in the ancestral sacrifices. However, since its construction, his tomb has never been desecrated, so sacrifices have continued to be made to him, and he is reverently referred to as Emperor Gong after the name of his tomb. After Emperor Shun took the throne, he posthumously honored his mother as Empress Gongmin, with her tomb named Gongbei Tomb and the sacrifices following the same rituals as those at Jingbei Tomb. After Emperor Shun's death, he was honored as Emperor Jing. Emperor Chongzhi died at a very young age, with Empress Dowager Liang acting as regent, and following the precedent set by Emperor Shang, sacrifices were only made at their tombs. After all the sacrificial activities were completed, the three dukes would share the sacrifices. Emperor Huan, the grandson of Prince Xiaowang of Hejian, posthumously honored his ancestors upon ascending the throne, with the kingdom responsible for the sacrifices, as documented in the "Zhanghe Eight Princes' Chronicles." After Emperor Huan's death, he was posthumously honored as Emperor Weizong, having no sons. Emperor Ling, the grandson of Prince Xiaowang of Hejian, also posthumously honored his ancestors, with further details found in the "Zhanghe Eight Princes' Chronicles."
During the reign of Emperor Ling, there were five emperors worshipped in the capital each spring, autumn, winter, and summer. The Temple of the Founding Emperor honored seven emperors, the Temple of the Young Emperor contained three tombs, and there were three tombs for revered empresses as well. A total of eighteen sacrificial animals were used, along with additional and accompanying sacrifices. After the tombs of the three emperors in the Temple were destroyed, sacrifices continued to be made each spring, autumn, winter, and summer. After the death of Emperor Ling, Emperor Xian succeeded to the throne. During the Chuping era, the Prime Minister Dong Zhuo, General Cai Yong, and others believed there was little significant difference in merit among the emperors from Emperor He onward, and therefore, they should not be honored in ancestral temples. They also requested the destruction of the tombs of the three empresses who were not subjects of ancestral worship. Therefore, the only emperors honored each spring, autumn, winter, and summer were one ancestor from the Temple and two from the ancestral temples, along with the four most recent emperors, making a total of seven emperors.
In ancient times, there was no custom of tomb sacrifices. The various mausoleums of the Han Dynasty all had sacred chambers, following the practice of the Qin Dynasty. Some say that in ancient times, temples were built in front and chambers behind, symbolizing the front representing the court and the back representing the family's private quarters. The "Yueling" mentions "offering to the chamber before the temple," and the "Book of Songs" also refers to "chambers and temples," suggesting a connection between the two. Temples are used to place ancestral tablets for seasonal sacrifices, while chambers contain clothing and other items symbolizing the living, used to display sacrificial offerings. The Qin Dynasty initiated the establishment of chambers, built next to tombs, and the Han Dynasty continued this practice; thus, the chambers adjacent to tombs are referred to as sacred chambers, containing clothing and other items symbolizing the living, representing the meaning of ancient sacred chambers. After the Jianwu period, the age of the tombs in the Guanzhong area meant that only spring and autumn sacrifices were performed; the emperor would only perform grand sacrifices when visiting the various mausoleums in Chang'an. From the various mausoleums in Luoyang to the Ling Emperor period, sacrifices were held in accordance with the lunar calendar, the twenty-four solar terms, the winter solstice, and the four seasons. On the day of the sacrifice, food offerings were presented in the morning, the Grand Secretariat supplied the sacrificial offerings, the Garden Superintendent and the Food Supervisor oversaw the arrangements, and the palace attendants adjusted the bedding and pillows in accordance with the time, prepared washing water, and arranged the sacrificial items.
In the second year of Jianwu, the Altar of Land and Grain was established in Luoyang, located on the right side of the ancestral shrine. It was a square altar without a roof, only with walls and a gate. Sacrifices were conducted three times a year in February, August, and December, using offerings of specially chosen animals, presided over by relevant officials. The "Xiaojing Yuanshenqi" says, "She is the god of the land, Ji is the god of the five grains." The "Book of Rites" and the "Guoyu" record that Gulong, the son of Gonggong, served as the official of the earth, who could pacify the lands of the nine regions, so he was worshipped as the god of the earth; the son of Lishan, Zhu, was able to plant all kinds of grains and dredge waterways, and has been revered as the god of Ji since the Xia Dynasty. During the Yin Dynasty, due to Zhu's long history, he was replaced by Houji during the reign of Emperor Yao, who also planted all kinds of grains, so the worship of Zhu was discontinued in favor of Houji. The Grand Minister of Agriculture, Zheng Xuan, explained that ancient officials who had great achievements would be granted the honor of corresponding divine roles. Therefore, Gulong was granted the position of the god of She, and Hou was granted the position of the god of Ji. Every county had a Sheji altar, and the governor, county magistrate, and county chief all had to participate in the sacrifices, with sheep and pigs as offerings. Only the provincial capital had the altar of She but not Ji, because the provincial capital was the administrative center. In ancient times, when armies marched into battle, they would bring items for the sacrifice to the god of She, but not for the god of Ji. The state also had five major sacrifices, overseen by relevant authorities, which were less elaborate than the Sheji rituals.
In the eight years of the Han Dynasty, some people attributed the prosperity of the Zhou Dynasty to the establishment of sacrifices to Hou Ji, which led Emperor Gaozu to order the construction of Lingxing Temples nationwide. The sacrifices to Hou Ji were referred to as Lingxing because Hou Ji was also deemed worthy of worship alongside the star gods. Historically, it was believed that the stars referred to the Tian Tian star. Some also claimed that the left horn of the dragon represented the Tian Tian official, who oversaw the abundance of the five grains. Sacrifices were to be made facing the Renchen direction, with Ren representing water and Chen representing the dragon, all based on the attributes of the five elements. The sacrificial animals included large livestock, and local officials were required to participate in the sacrifices. Sixteen boys were selected to perform a dance, and their dance simulated the process of farming, from clearing weeds to planting, weeding, driving away birds, harvesting, threshing, and winnowing, all depicted through dance. Each year, sacrifices were made to the God of Agriculture on Yiwei day, at the Yi position in the county; sacrifices were made to the God of Wind on Bingxu day, at the Xu position; sacrifices were made to the Rain Master on Jichou day, at the Chou position, with sheep and pigs as the sacrificial animals. On the first day of spring, everyone was required to wear green hats and headscarves to greet the arrival of spring. A boy dressed in a green headscarf and clothes would wait outside the east gate in the fields. When the procession welcoming spring arrived, the spring-welcoming crowd would bow to him, and then he would return without performing any sacrifices. This ritual took place three times a year, each time without any actual sacrifices.
It is said that someone commented: "Zang Wenzhong was performing sacrifices in Yuanju, but Confucius believed that he did not understand the significance of sacrifices. The "Annals of the Han Dynasty" records the circumstances from the Qin Dynasty through the Wang Mang period. Sometimes the sacrificial ceremonies were not conducted according to the rules, and there were many examples like Yuanju. When Emperor Guangwu came to power, he abolished those abnormal sacrifices and restored the previous sacrificial system, which marked a significant departure from previous practices. I heard that Confucian teachings state that there were no written characters during the era of the Three Emperors, and the world was governed with knotted cords, while written characters began to appear from the period of the Five Emperors. By the time of the Three Kings, social customs became more refined, and there was a gradual increase in deception and forgery, which led to the introduction of seals to curb the emergence of wrongdoing, but there were no gold, silver, or bronze objects at that time. Starting from the ancient emperors, Mount Tai was worshipped seventy-two times from the ancient emperors through the Zhou Dynasty. Worshiping Mount Tai means building an altar on the mountain to sacrifice to heaven and earth, to announce the completion of their accomplishments to heaven and earth. The "Book of Rites" says "ascending to heaven from the famous mountain," which means this. Changing dynasties means re-worshiping Mount Tai, marking the beginning of a new era and indicating a break from the past. Later emperors only repaired the worship of Mount Tai during their tours. Starting from Qin Shi Huang and Emperor Wu of Han, they worshipped Mount Tai because they believed in immortals and listened to the words of diviners, which led to the creation of those stone seals. This is what I have heard. Although the will of heaven is indeed difficult to predict, there are generally rules to follow. The way of heaven emphasizes simplicity and sincerity, being simple and not extravagant. Therefore, the sacrificial animals used are calves, and the sacrificial vessels are pottery and gourds, probably to avoid extravagant items in the worship ceremony and to accept simple sacrifices. Moreover, only when dynasties change is Mount Tai worshipped, hence it is called Daizong. Emperor Kang of the Xia Dynasty and King Xuan of the Zhou Dynasty both went from decline to prosperity, and there is no mention of changing the worship. Emperor Guangwu wanted to continue the worship of Mount Tai from before Emperor Wu of Han, which was essentially a continuation of ancestral practices. However, Liang Song strongly opposed this and believed that it must be changed. As a result, after Emperor Guangwu worshipped Mount Tai, there were no good omens, and Liang Song was eventually killed. Although Liang Song was to blame for his own actions, this can also be seen as a misfortune arising from disrespecting the divine. Furthermore, the reason emperors are remembered in later generations is because of their virtues benefiting the people, not because of the worship of Mount Tai. There is no authority on the saying of heaven and earth greater than the Book of Changes. The Book of Changes does not contain hexagrams related to the Six Ancestors. If emperors are revered by the four directions of heaven and earth, then that is supreme.
Comparing the Fengshan ritual to the Great Sacrifice misses the original meaning and cannot truly be seen as sincere!
It is said: Rituals honoring heaven and earth are performed in the outskirts, rituals are conducted in ancestral temples, all conducted with solemnity and simplicity, and the mountains and rivers are tranquil. Only moral decay can lead to chaos in the nation, and the laws and customs must adhere to the royal family's principles. It begins with profound respect; who can truly know its origins?
