The practice of sacrifice has existed since the dawn of humanity. Even jackals, wolves, tigers, and leopards understand the concept of sacrifice, let alone humans! Thus, human sacrifices are quite similar to the instincts of these animals, but humans are more meticulous, and their rituals are far more complex. From ancient times to the present, the large-scale sacrificial activities organized by emperors and generals have been clearly recorded in the "Book of Han: Sacrificial Rites," including during the Wang Mang period. This article focuses solely on the sacrificial practices following the revival of the Eastern Han Dynasty, serving as a supplement to the "Sacrificial Rites."
In the first year of Jianwu, Emperor Guangwu Liu Xiu ascended the throne in Hao, and he built an altar to offer sacrifices to heaven and earth to the north of the city. During the ceremony, the traditional customs from the Yuan Shi period's suburban sacrifices were observed. The six sacrificial clans and various deities participated, but ancestors had not yet been included among the deities to whom sacrifices were made. A small calf was offered to both heaven and earth, and the remaining offerings were quite modest. The sacrificial text was as follows: "Emperor of Heaven, Earth God, please bestow your gaze upon us, grant me a mission, let me be the father and mother of the people; I truly do not feel worthy! All the officials unanimously believe that Wang Mang usurped the throne and killed the emperor. I, Liu Xiu, rose up in rebellion, defeated Wang Mang's million-strong army at Kunyang, killed the rebels Wang Lang, Tong Ma, Red Eyebrows, and Qing Du, pacified the world, and all the people in the country received my grace. This has been recognized by heaven and embraced by the people. The prophecy says: 'Liu Xiu rises up to punish the unjust; in the year of the Rabbit, he cultivates virtue and becomes the emperor.' I declined several times, hesitated repeatedly, but ultimately refused three times. All the officials insisted, 'This is a divine mandate; we cannot afford to delay!' How could I not accept it with the utmost respect!"
In the first month of 108 BC, we began to build the suburban sacrificial altar seven li south of Luoyang City, near the Haodi area. This design was modeled after practices from the Yuan Shi period. The altar is circular, with eight tiers of steps, and in the middle, there is a higher altar where offerings to heaven and earth are made, all facing south, slightly higher on the west side. The outer altar features the sacrificial positions of the Five Emperors: the Azure Emperor in the east, the Vermilion Emperor in the south, the Yellow Emperor in the west, the White Emperor in the north, and the Black Emperor in the northwest. The altar is surrounded by walls, both inner and outer walls painted purple, symbolizing the Purple Palace; there are four entrances as passages to the altar. The sun and moon are honored in the southern passage of the inner altar, with the sun in the east and the moon in the west; the Big Dipper is located in the western passage of the northern wall, all placed separately from other deities. There are 58 steps on each of the eight tiers, totaling 464 steps. Each tier wall dedicated to the Five Emperors has 72 steps, totaling 365 steps. There are four gates in the inner wall, each with 54 divine positions, totaling 216 divine positions; and four gates in the outer wall, each with 108 divine positions, totaling 432 divine positions. All divine positions face away from the inner altar, facing outward. Each of the four inner gates also has four divine positions for sealing the altar with soil, as do the four outer gates, totaling 32 divine positions. In total, the entire altar is dedicated to a total of 1514 divine positions. Here, "营" refers to the wall, and "封" refers to sealing the altar with soil. The inner altar is dedicated to the Five Stars, the Five Officials, and the Five Mountains, among others; the outer altar is dedicated to the Twenty-Eight Mansions, the External Officials, as well as the God of Thunder, the God of Agriculture, the Wind God, the Rain God, the Four Seas, the Four Rivers, Famous Mountains, Great Rivers, and others.
In May of 105 BC, the emperor issued a decree to the Three Officials, stating, "The Han Dynasty should emulate Emperor Yao in holding a grand ceremony of offering sacrifices. You should discuss this matter with the ministers, scholars, and officials." At that time, the imperial censor Du Lin submitted a memorial, stating, "The founding of the Han Dynasty is not directly connected to Emperor Yao, and the circumstances differ from those of the Yin and Zhou Dynasties. According to tradition, Emperor Gaozu should also be honored in the sacrifices. Since the army is still fighting outside, it is better to follow the ritual of the first year's sacrificial offerings." The emperor accepted his suggestion. This event is recorded in the "Biography of Du Lin."
After pacifying Long and Shu, Emperor Guangwu of Han expanded the scale of the sacrifices, including Emperor Gaozu in the list of sacrificial offerings. Emperor Gaozu was positioned slightly above the center of the altar, facing west. Sacrifices were offered to Heaven, Earth, Emperor Gaozu, and the Yellow Emperor, each with a calf; the Green Emperor and the Red Emperor shared one calf, while the White Emperor and the Black Emperor also shared one calf, totaling six calves. The Sun, Moon, and North Star shared one calf, while the deities from the various directions shared four calves, totaling five. During the sacrifices, music pieces like "Green Yang," "Vermilion Brightness," "Western Radiance," and "Profound Darkness" were played, along with dance performances such as "Cloud Dance" and "Life Cultivation." Each of the four gates in the inner courtyard of the altar had eighteen mats, while each of the four gates in the outer camp had thirty-six mats, totaling two hundred and sixteen mats crafted from rushes and bamboo, with an average of three deities honored on each mat. The Sun, Moon, and North Star did not require mats. After the sacrifices were completed, the sacrificial offerings were burned, and the remains were disposed of at the southern side of the altar.
In the second month of the thirtieth year of Jianwu, the ministers submitted a memorial saying that Your Majesty had been on the throne for thirty years and should go to Mount Tai for the *Fengshan* ceremony. Emperor Guangwu issued a decree saying, "I have been on the throne for thirty years. The common people are voicing their grievances. Who can I deceive? Can I fool the heavens? I once said that Mount Tai is less important than Linfang (a place name). Why should I taint the legacy of seventy-two generations of emperors for this matter? Duke Huan wanted to perform the *Fengshan* ceremony, but Guan Zhong opposed it!" He then said, "If officials from distant counties come to congratulate me and praise me excessively, I will shave their heads and send them to cultivate fields." From then on, the ministers dared not mention the *Fengshan* matter again. In the third month, the Emperor went to the state of Lu, passing by Mount Tai. The officials of Mount Tai were sent to welcome him, and according to the decree, sacrifices were made to Mount Tai and Liangfu Mountain. At this time, the generals and officials remarked, "The Book of Documents states: 'When the state of Qi wants to sacrifice to Mount Tai, it must first sacrifice to Pei Lin.' This is the customs of the vassal states. The rivers and mountains are for the Emperor's sacrifices. When the Emperor sacrifices to Mount Tai, he should not follow the vassals' etiquette and not sacrifice to Pei Lin." In the first month of the thirty-second year, the Emperor observed a fast and, while reading the "He Tu Hui Chang Fu" at night, came across the words: "The nine of Chi Liu, the meeting of the mandate of Mount Tai. If not used carefully, what benefit is there in inheriting! Truly use it well, and deceit will not arise." The Emperor was deeply moved by this passage and issued a decree for Liang Song and others to search once more for records regarding the *Fengshan* ceremony in the "He Tu," "Luo Shu," and other prophecy texts. After Liang Song and others compiled their reports, the Emperor finally agreed to the *Fengshan* ceremony. Initially, Emperor Wu of Han particularly wanted to seek immortality and eternal life. Because he believed the words of those diviners, who said that the Yellow Emperor became immortal through the *Fengshan* ceremony, he also wanted to hold a *Fengshan* ceremony. This *Fengshan* ceremony was not something to be taken lightly, and few people at that time truly understood this practice.
In the first year of Yuanfeng, the emperor heeded the diviners' advice and crafted numerous sacrificial vessels for the Fengshan ritual, presenting them to a group of Confucian scholars to gather their opinions. Most of the scholars felt that these items did not align with ancient traditions. Upon hearing this, the emperor dismissed the scholars and deemed their input unnecessary. In March, the emperor traveled east to Mount Tai, where he erected a stone stele atop Mount Tai. He then continued his eastern journey to the coast in search of immortals, but returned empty-handed to the palace. In April, he conducted the Fengshan ceremony on Mount Tai. Because he was somewhat uncertain about the correctness of his actions, this ceremony was conducted discreetly, without much fanfare. All these accounts can be found in the "Book of Han: Records of Suburban Sacrifices."
Xu Liangsong and the others submitted a petition, seeking to replicate the Fengshan ceremony ritual from the Yuanfeng era, to discuss the materials to be used in the Fengshan ceremony. The relevant authorities reported that a square stone altar should be constructed, with each stone measuring one foot on each side and one foot thick, and then the jade tablets inscribed with text should be concealed within the stones. The jade tablets measure five inches in thickness, one foot three inches in length, and five inches in width, and are stored in jade containers. In addition, ten stone steles should be employed, positioned with three on the east and west sides, and two on the north and south sides, each measuring three feet in length, one foot in width, and seven inches in thickness. Inside the stone steles are three grooves, each four inches deep and five inches wide, with covers. The stone steles are wrapped in gold thread five times and sealed with a mixture of mercury and gold dust. One jade seal measures one inch and two fen on each side, with a total of one five-inch square jade seal. The four corners of the square stones are supported by stones stacked in two layers. Each support stone measures one zhang in length, one foot in thickness, and two feet in width, all positioned atop the circular altar. Eighteen support stones are situated below the altar, each three feet high, one foot thick, and two feet wide, resembling small steles, arranged in a circle around the altar, three steps away. Each support stone rests on a stone base that extends four feet into the ground. Additionally, a stone stele measuring nine feet in height, three feet five inches in width, and one foot two inches in thickness is required, to be erected in the third position of the altar, more than three zhang distant from the altar, for inscribing the sacrificial text.
The emperor felt that the use of stone for the project was too large in scale, and he wanted to conduct the Fengshan sacrifice in February, so he decreed that Xu Liangsong should use the existing Fengshan stones and the empty stone inspections, with a few additions. Xu Liangsong submitted a formal objection, saying, "The Fengshan ceremony is to report achievements to the Heavenly Emperor, and the merits and virtues will benefit future generations and bring blessings to the people. Respecting the heavens should be done with solemnity and dignity; presenting precious books should be prominent. Now, using the old Fengshan stones and hiding the jade slips under the old stones may not align with the profound significance of the divine command. We are now entrusted by heaven with the mission to restore the Han dynasty, so we should be distinctive to manifest the will of heaven." Therefore, Taishan County and Lu Prefecture were quickly instructed to find stonemasons to select complete and smooth bluestones, not necessarily colorful. At that time, because craftsmen who could engrave the jade slips could not be found, cinnabar and lacquer were considered for writing; later, craftsmen who could engrave jade were found, and the jade slips were ultimately engraved. After the jade slips were engraved, they were secretly hidden in the square stone block and carefully placed. In February, the emperor arrived at Fenggao and sent imperial historians and Lan Tai officials with craftsmen to carve stones on the mountain. The inscription on the stone monument read: In the second month of the 27th year of his reign, the emperor went on an eastern tour and arrived at Mount Tai, where he conducted a sacrifice, reporting to the mountains, rivers, and deities, and then went to worship the Eastern Peak Great Emperor. Accompanying the emperor were Grand Commandant Liang Shang, acting Minister of State Gao Mi Marquis Deng Yu, and others. The descendants of the two Han dynasty guest kings held positions of power. Bao Chenghou, a descendant of Confucius, also participated in the worship of the Eastern Peak Great Emperor, with twelve vassal kings assisting in the ritual.
The "He Tu Chifu Fu" states: "Liu Xiu mobilized his forces to combat lawless individuals, and the four tribes gathered at Long Dou Ye. In the twenty-eighth year, fire served as the primary omen." The "He Tu Huichang Fu" states: "The Red Emperor, of the ninth generation, traveled the realm and governed with peace and prosperity. If one genuinely follows the principles of the Emperor's Way and Confucian teachings, then celestial phenomena will manifest, and the earth deities will show auspicious signs. The ninth emperor of the Liu family performed sacrifices at Mount Tai; if he seizes this opportunity, evil will not flourish. The Red Han Dynasty flourished, the ninth generation thrived, and inspecting Mount Tai is necessary. Heaven and earth support the ninth generation of the Liu clan, as commonly mentioned in the scriptures. The Han Dynasty flourished greatly, with the reason lying in the ninth king. The sealing ceremony at Mount Tai, along with the stone inscriptions, the abdication at Liangfu Mountain, followed by reflection and summary." The "He Tu He Gu Pian" states: "Liu Xiu is the emperor, the ninth-generation emperor, implementing virtuous policies, sealing the mountain, recording achievements on stone." The "He Tu Ti Liu Yu" states: "The ninth-generation emperor will showcase sacred wisdom, hold the balance of power, defend against external enemies, bring peace across the nine provinces and unify the realm." The "Luoshu Zhenyaodu" states: "Red symbolizes the three virtues and flourishes for nine generations, holding sacrifices, fitting for the emperor, striving to record the sealing ceremony on stone." The "Xiaojing Gouming Jue" states: "Who will carry it out? The red Liu clan is on the verge of ascending the throne; three generations have achieved great deeds, and nine generations have conducted sacrifices, committed to completing the grand sealing ceremony." The prophecies of the "He Tu" and "Luoshu," along with the records in scriptures and divinations, have all come to pass.
In the past, Emperor Yao was wise and intelligent, and he passed the throne to Shun, whose descendants came to wield great power. Wang Mang, relying on his status as a relative of the emperor and the power of the Three Dukes, proclaimed himself emperor under the pretext of assisting the young ruler with the help of Duke Zhou and Huo Guang. As a result, the ancestral temples were ruined, and the state altars were desecrated; sacrifices were suspended for eighteen years. Yangzhou, Xuzhou, and Qingzhou were the first to rebel, and the flames of war spread, engulfing Jingzhou. Heroes rose up, armies were stationed within a hundred miles, and many people declared themselves kings. Minority tribes from the north invaded, and within a thousand miles, there was no smoke from cooking fires, and the sounds of roosters and dogs were nowhere to be heard.
The heavens favored the emperor, who rose from humble beginnings to restore the Han Dynasty. The emperor took up arms at the age of twenty-eight and, after more than a decade, finally quelled the rebellion. The people lived in peace and prosperity, with a unified script and standardized roads, and everyone adhered to etiquette and laws. All regions paid tribute to the court. The emperor built Mingtang, Biyong, Lingtai, and schools, standardized weights and measures, improved sacrificial rituals, ensured officials fulfilled their duties, and restored the old system. The emperor reigned for thirty-two years and passed away at the age of sixty-two. The emperor was diligent and conscientious, never daring to slack off, overcoming numerous hardships, personally inspecting the people, respectfully sacrificing to the spirits, caring for the common people, and governing the country with wisdom and benevolence, in accordance with ancient customs. The emperor attached great importance to the prophecies of the "He Tu" and "Luo Shu." On the day of Xinmao this month, the emperor held a sacrifice and ascended Mount Tai. On the day of Jiawu, he abdicated at Liangfu Mountain. In doing so, he received auspicious signs that benefited the people, ensuring the country's lasting unity and passing it down to future generations. All officials, including county magistrates and prefects, received blessings that were boundless.
Li Si, the Chancellor of the Qin Dynasty, burned "The Book of Songs" and "The Book of Documents," leading to the disintegration of music and rituals. Before the first year of Jianwu, many documents had been lost, and the old classics were incomplete, making it impossible to understand the meaning of the scriptures. Eighty-one scrolls were pieced together as evidence based on the incomplete chapters and verses, with ten scrolls that were not complete or clear. Zigong proposed to eliminate the use of sheep for sacrifices, but Confucius said, "Zigong, you feel sorry for the sheep; what I uphold is the ritual." In the future, there will be sages who will correct these errors and carve them into stone.
On the twenty-second day of the second month, I can't recall which day of the week it was, but that morning, the emperor conducted a grand heaven-worship ritual south of Mount Tai, akin to the Southern Suburb ritual. Many immortals came, and the music was lively. Several princes, members of the imperial family, and even descendants of Confucius came to assist in the sacrifice. After the sacrifice, preparations were made for the Enthronement Ceremony. Someone said, "Although Mount Tai has already accepted the fire sacrifice, since the emperor is personally coming to perform the Enthronement Ceremony, another grand sacrifice should be performed." So, an envoy was sent with a specially made offering to the place where Mount Tai is worshiped year-round, to perform another sacrifice to Mount Tai, just like the ancient emperors personally farming, patrolling, and sacrificing to ancestors, ancestors of agriculture, and ancestors of sericulture.
At mealtime, the emperor rode up the mountain in his royal carriage, changing clothes only after noon when he reached the mountaintop. In the evening, the emperor took his place facing north. The ministers stood in order and ascended the altar together. The Grand Secretary held the imperial decree, and the emperor personally performed the Enthronement Ceremony with the national seal. After the ceremony, the officials from the Ministry of Rites removed the stones from the altar; the Grand Secretary took back the imperial decree, covered the stones, and sealed them with a five-inch seal. After all the rituals were completed, the emperor performed two grand bows, and the ministers shouted "Long live the emperor" in unison. Then, the inscribed stone tablet was set up, and the emperor descended the mountain.
On the twenty-fifth day of the second month, the emperor went to Liangyin to perform a ritual to the earth, worshiping the earth god, and including the Empress Dowager in the sacrifice. The mountains, rivers, and deities all took part, making it as grand as the heaven-sacrificing ritual at the Northern Suburb during the Yuan Shi era.
On the sixth day of April, the emperor issued a general amnesty across the empire, renamed the thirty-second year of Jianwu as the first year of Jianwu Zhongyuan, and exempted the annual taxes and fodder for the regions of Bo, Fenggao, and Yingwu. On an auspicious day, these decisions were engraved on a jade tablet, placed in a box, stored in a golden chest, and sealed with the imperial seal. On the eighth day of April, the emperor sent the Grand Commandant to offer sacrifices at the Gaomiao Temple. The Grand Commandant carried the golden chest to the Gaomiao Temple and placed it beneath the ancestral shrine in the western chamber of the Gaomiao Temple.
