Long, long ago, people lived in caves, wearing animal skins, without any rules. Later, intelligent individuals began weaving cloth from silk and hemp. Seeing the bright colors of bird feathers, they dyed the cloth in a variety of colors to create garments. They also observed the ornaments of birds and animals, inventing hats, headwear, and other accessories. The garments featured a variety of patterns, amounting to twelve. The I Ching says: "During the reign of Fu Xi, he observed the celestial phenomena, studied the laws of the earth, observed the patterns of birds and animals, as well as the various features of the earth, and sought inspiration from himself and all things, thus creating the Eight Trigrams to communicate with the spirits and understand the characteristics of all things."
Emperors Huang Di, Yao, and Shun dressed neatly, and the world was at peace. The designs on their garments were derived from the Qian Kun diagram. The Qian Kun diagram has specific patterns, so their upper garments were black, and lower garments were yellow. The clothes were embroidered with patterns of the sun, moon, stars, mountain dragons, and various other designs, as well as patterns of algae, fire, powdered rice, fur, and embroidery, using five colors. The patterns on the Emperor's clothes were the most complete, followed by dukes, marquises, sons, ministers, and officials, with the designs decreasing in complexity. During the Zhou Dynasty, three stars were used as the pattern for flags. During imperial sacrifices to heaven, he donned a grand fur coat and a ceremonial crown; the patterns on the clothes of dukes, marquises, ministers, and officials were even fewer.
After the Qin Dynasty unified the six states, many ceremonial systems were abolished, and the garments designated for sacrifices were changed to black. The Han Dynasty followed the practices of the Qin Dynasty. It was not until Emperor Guangwu of Han ascended the throne and moved the capital to Luoyang that sacrificial sites were rebuilt and sacrificial activities were restored. During the prosperous reign of Emperor Ming of Han, the country was strong, and they began wearing crowns and magnificent clothes, as well as red shoes, to offer sacrifices to heaven and earth, while providing for the elderly and the younger generations. At that time, the world was at peace.
During the sacrificial ceremonies to the heavens, earth, and ancestral temple, the emperor, three grand ministers, nine ministers, marquis of merit, and marquis serving in the temple must wear crowns, black tops, and red bottoms. The emperor's chariot is decorated with twelve patterns including the sun, moon, and stars, while the three grand ministers and marquises use nine dragon motifs, and the nine ministers and those below them use seven patterns of floral insects. The garments are made of five colors, with a large jade pendant, and red shoes. Other officials participating in the sacrifices wear long caps and prescribed clothing. Sacrifices to the Five Sacred Mountains, Four Rivers, mountains, rivers, ancestral temples, and altars are all done in black clothing with long caps, while the color for sacrifices in the Five Suburbs is determined by direction. If officials do not participate in the sacrifices, they wear everyday clothes and regular hats.
In the second year of Yongping, the emperor ordered the relevant departments to consult the "Rites of Zhou," "Records of Rites," and "Book of Documents: Gao Tao" to establish the style of the crowns. The imperial crowns were crafted following the Ouyang family's guidelines, while the crowns for officials below the rank of duke were made according to the Xiahou family's method. The crown measures seven inches wide and twelve inches long, round in the front and square in the back, with red and green on the inside and black on the outside, with four inches hanging in the front and three inches in the back, featuring twelve tassels of white jade beads, and a tassel made of the same color as the crown's ribbon. The crowns of the three grand ministers and marquises have seven tassels made of blue jade beads, while those of the ministers have five tassels made of black jade beads. These crowns feature tassels in the front but none in the back, with the tassels made of the same color as the ribbon and red silk hanging down on the sides. These crowns are worn during sacrifices to the heavens, earth, and ancestral temple. The clothing and jade ornaments are quite luxurious, with the imperial ceremonial attire embroidered with patterns, and the clothing of officials below the rank of duke is also intricately woven. People from Chenliu and Xiangyi have even contributed such garments.
The Changguan (长冠), also called Zaiguan (斋冠), is seven inches tall and three inches wide, made of lacquered silk threads woven together and shaped like a flat board, with bamboo as its core. Originally, when Emperor Gaozu was young, he wore a hat made of bamboo bark, called the Liushi crown, which originated from the Chu Kingdom. Common people referred to it as the Magpie Tail Crown, though this is technically incorrect. This hat is required to be worn during ancestral sacrifices. Wearing a black upper garment with a crimson collar and sleeves, a crimson inner garment, and crimson pants and socks symbolizes sincerity in honoring the deities. During suburban sacrifices, the colors of the hat, headband, pants, and socks are based on the deity being honored. This hat was designed by Emperor Gaozu, so it is used as sacrificial attire to express the highest respect.
The Weimao crown and the Pibian crown are styled similarly, seven inches long and four inches tall, shaped like an upside-down cup, high and wide in the front and low and pointed in the back, reminiscent of the "Wuzhui" from the Xia Dynasty and the "Zhangfu" from the Shang Dynasty. The Weimao crown is made of black silk, while the Pibian crown is made of deerskin. During the Great Archery Ceremony in Biyong, officials and nobles wear the Weimao crown with a black upper garment and white lower garment, while attendants wear the Pibian crown with a black linen garment, black collar and sleeves, and white lower garment, known as the "Pibian Suji."
The Juebian (爵弁), also referred to as the Mian (冕), is eight inches wide and twelve inches long, shaped like a Jue bird, smaller in the front and larger in the back, featuring a hairpin to secure it, similar to the "Shou" from the Xia Dynasty and the "Xu" from the Shang Dynasty. During sacrifices to heaven, earth, the suburbs, and the ancestral hall, musicians performing the "Yunqiao Dance" are required to wear this hat. The "Book of Rites" states, "With vermilion caps and jade pendants, they don the Mian while performing the 'Daxia'," referring to this hat.
The Tongtian Crown stands nine inches tall and is worn upright, featuring a slightly crooked top. It has an iron scroll beam at the bottom and a mountain-shaped decoration at the front called "Zhan Yong," which is the hat worn by the emperor in daily life. The clothing follows a deep style, featuring a robe, and the color varies according to the season. Some say that this robe was worn by Zhou Gong when he held King Cheng, which is how the robe came to be. The "Book of Rites" states, "Confucius wore a Fengye robe," which refers to sewing the sleeves together and enlarging the stitched area, similar to modern robes. Even the lowest-ranking officials now don this robe, with black-bordered collars and sleeves, known as court dress.
The Yuan You Crown, which resembles the Tongtian Crown, also has a horizontal mountain-shaped decoration at the front but does not have the mountain-shaped decoration, and it is worn by feudal lords and kings.
The Gaoshan Crown, also referred to as the Cezhu Crown, resembles the Tongtian Crown in style, worn upright with a straight top and lacking the mountain-shaped decoration. It is worn by officials, envoys, and archers. According to Grand Tutor Hu Guang, "The Gaoshan Crown is actually the hat of the King of Qi. After the Qin state conquered Qi, they bestowed the Qi King's hat upon their close attendants and envoys."
The Jinxian Crown, historically made of black cloth, was worn by scholars. It measures seven inches high at the front, three inches high at the back, and eight inches long. Dukes wear three beams, officials below the rank of two thousand stones wear two beams, and scholars below that wear one beam. The Liu clan also dons a two-beam crown, signifying their elevated status.
The Faguan, also known as the Zhuhou Crown, stands five inches tall, featuring a mountain-shaped silk ribbon and an iron scroll beam, worn by law enforcement officials like the Imperial Censor and the Court Judge. It is also referred to as the Xiezhi Crown. Xiezhi is a mythical creature known for its ability to discern right from wrong, which is why its image was used for the crown. Hu Guang stated, "The 'Spring and Autumn Annals of Zuo' mentions, 'wearing a Nan crown and a chin strap,' which refers to the hat of the Chu state. After the Qin state conquered Chu, they rewarded the Chu King's hat to law enforcement officials, including the Imperial Censor."
Wuguan, also known as Wubian Crown, is the hat worn by military officials. The Wuguan worn by the Shizhong and Zhongchangshi officials also features a gold ring on top, along with cicada patterns and sable tails as decorations, known as the "Zhao Hui Wen Guan." Hu Guang said: "King Wuling of Zhao imitated the clothing of the Hu people, using a gold ring to decorate the hat and inserting a sable tail in the front, which serves as a symbol of high-ranking officials. After the Qin dynasty destroyed the Zhao kingdom, the Zhao king's hat was awarded to his close aides." During the Jianwu period, the Xiongnu surrendered to the Han dynasty, and the emperor rewarded the Southern Chanyu with clothes, as well as the same type of hat worn by the Zhongchangshi officials, and a sword for the Zhonghuangmen boys.
Jianhua Guan, made of an iron frame with nine large copper beads strung on top, woven with deer hide. Ancient books record: "People who understand the heavens wear this crown, and those who understand the earth wear these shoes." The "Spring and Autumn Annals" also says: "Zang, the son of Zheng, likes to wear the egret crown." This crown is round in the front, which I think is the appearance of the Jianhua Guan. During the ceremonies of offering sacrifices to heaven and earth, the Five Suburbs, and the Mingtang, the musicians performing the "Yuming Dance" all wear this crown.
Fangshan Guan, similar in shape to the Jinxian Crown, is made of colorful silk fabric. During ancestral temple sacrifices, musicians performing "Dayu," "Bayi," "Four Seasons," and "Five Elements" wear this crown, with their crown colors corresponding to the music they perform.
Qiaoshi Guan, seven inches high in the front, connected on both sides at the back, standing upright. It is worn exclusively during the heavenly sacrifice ceremony, where four officials from the Huangmen office place this crown on the emperor, walking in front of the emperor's carriage in the procession, symbolizing the emperor's four important eunuchs.
Quefei Guan, similar in style to the Chang Guan but with a shorter bottom part. This crown is worn by palace gatekeepers and Pushe officials. A red flag and a blue swallowtail flag are attached at the back of the crown, with all Pushe officials carrying identical flags.
Quedi Guan, four inches high in the front, four inches in total length, three inches high at the back, similar in style to the Jinxian Crown, worn by the guards.
Fan Kuai's crown, the hastily donned hat of Fan Kuai, a Han general, was the one he wore when entering Xiang Yu's military camp. It was nine inches wide, seven inches high, with a four-inch protrusion at both the front and back, resembling a ceremonial crown. When a major event occurred at the Sima Gate of the Han Dynasty, the guards also wore this type of crown. It is said that Fan Kuai usually carried an iron shield. When he heard that Xiang Yu wanted to kill the Han king, he tore his clothes to wrap around the shield, put on the hat, and charged into the military camp, standing next to the Han king and staring at Xiang Yu.
Shu Shi's crown, featuring a rounded front, was in the style of the Wu Kingdom, consisting of four layers. King Zhao Wuling liked to wear this type of crown. While it is no longer in use, the government still preserves its design and description.
All crowns have hat bands and decorations. Officials and military officers gather the hat bands, which hang down a mere five inches.
The military crown, commonly referred to as the grand crown, has a round hat band lacking any decorations. The hat band is made of blue silk thread, with two tails of the sparrowhawk standing on the left and right sides, hence also known as the sparrowhawk crown. The Wuguan, Left and Right Tiger Elite, Imperial Guards, Five Commanders, Left and Right Supervisors of the Imperial Guards all don the sparrowhawk crown, along with a silk or gauze tunic. The leaders of the Tiger Elite wear tiger-patterned trousers and carry swords and knives with white tiger patterns. The cavalry of the Tiger Elite don the sparrowhawk crown and tiger-patterned tunics. Xiangyi presents tribute in the form of well-woven tiger-patterned fabrics every year. The sparrowhawk is a fierce wild bird that fights until one side is defeated, which is why King Zhao Wuling used it to symbolize warriors, a practice also adopted by the Qin Kingdom.
Emperor Han'an appointed a Crown Prince, who went to pay respects at the temple of the High Ancestors and the temple of the Dynasty Ancestors. The gate attendants followed along, wearing two-beamed hats as part of their ceremonial attire; the stable attendants wore high-crowned hats. After the worship was completed, the attendant imperial censor Ren Fang reported that on ordinary days when not worshipping, everyone should wear hats with a single beam and not treat these two-beamed hats as regular clothing. This matter was referred to the appropriate department. Minister Chen Zhong submitted a statement stating, "The duties of gate attendants are equivalent to that of censors, and the duties of stable attendants are equivalent to that of visitors, so they each wear their respective hats, following the old customs established by the previous emperor. This matter can be disregarded." The emperor approved the statement. Interestingly, in ancient times, visitors were also referred to as stable attendants.
In ancient times, hats as we know them did not exist. When wearing a hat, a loop known as "kui" was used to secure the hat to the head. So in the Book of Songs, it says: "With a loop, one wears a cap," referring to this. Starting from the Three Dynasties period, the ritual system became increasingly refined, and during the Warring States period, civil and military achievements were parallel. After the Qin Dynasty unified the six states, a dark red tassel was added to the military generals' hats to distinguish between ranks. Later, brims were gradually added. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, the Qin Dynasty brims were retained but turned upside down, with a cloth connecting the brim and the hat, and then covering it with another cloth. This style is characteristic of mourning hats, known as "ze." Ze means neat and tidy when worn on the head, appearing solemn and clean. During the reign of Emperor Xiaowen, the brims were made higher, resembling ears, and the cloth on the hat was shaped like a roof. The cloth at the back was gathered up, and both high and low-ranking officials wore this type of hat. Civil officials had long ear-like brims, while military officials had short ear-like brims, based on their official positions. The brims of the officials of the Ministry of Personnel were three inches wide, called "nayan," symbolizing loyalty and integrity, emphasizing their important positions. During sacrifices to the Five Suburbs, the hat color had to correspond with the season, in accordance with ritual practices. Officials wearing dark clothing would wear green hats in spring, and stop wearing them after the start of summer, following the natural changes and respecting the seasonal rules. Military officials wore red hats daily to show their authority. Children who did not wear hats had no roof on their hats, indicating they were not yet adults. Children attending school wore hats with folded brims, indicating their youth and that they did not require elaborate hats. Mourning hats had inverted brims as part of the funeral ritual, with the number of layers corresponding to the hat. During the mourning period, the ear sections of the hat would be gathered, and white mourning hats followed the same custom. The significance of rituals came with varying rules, with changes and abolitions being gradual and following a specific order, all part of the ritual system.
In the past, both the king and the ministers wore jade accessories, which clearly distinguished ranks, with those of higher status wearing jade pendants known as "yáo" to signify virtue and inner cultivation, and wore "wèi" to manage political affairs, symbolizing etiquette. Thus, the ancient ritual systems and appearances across the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were consistent.
Later, during the Spring and Autumn Period, the five overlords alternated in power, and wars became frequent, and neither jade accessories nor "wèi" served as weapons. Consequently, people discarded their "wèi" and jade accessories, leaving only the jade pendant cord known as "guī" to symbolize identity. This is mentioned in the Book of Songs.
Once the "wèi" and jade pendants fell out of use, the Qin Dynasty used colored silk ribbons to tie up the jade pendant cord, making it more vibrant and visually appealing, and easier to carry, so it was called "shòu." The Han Dynasty maintained the Qin system, adding embellishments like double seals and jade-handled swords to the silk ribbons. During the reign of Emperor Xiaoming of the Han Dynasty, large jade pendants featuring ivory, double jade, and white jade were crafted. The emperor's jade pendants were also adorned with white beads, while officials and nobles used colored silk threads. These jade accessories were as significant as the decorations on ceremonial attire, including the emperor's ceremonial headdress.
The Emperor's sword is made of solid gold, inlaid with sable fur and fish scales, as well as decorations of gold lacquer, orpiment, and colorful silk. The sword of the princes and kings is inlaid with gold, with half a scale of the fish on the hilt, and the scabbard is black. The officials and ministers' swords are all pure black, without fish scales. The scabbard of the Imperial Guards is yellowish, the Central Guards' scabbard is vermilion, the young attendants' scabbard features tiger claw patterns, and the Tiger Guard wields swords with yellow tiger patterns. The Tiger Guard leaders wield swords with white tiger patterns, and all these swords have white beads and fish scales on the hilt. The Emperor's sword is also decorated with jade mountain shapes and ribbons wrapped around the hilt.
The seal worn on the body measures one inch and two fen in length and six fen in width. The Emperor, as well as the princes, dukes, and marquises, all use seals made of white jade; officials from the two-thousand-stone rank down to the four-hundred-stone rank use seals made of black rhinoceros horn; officials from two hundred stones to private school students use seals made of ivory. The seal is tied with ribbons, with the Emperor's ribbon threaded with white beads and adorned with red silk; those ranked below the princes use red ribbons, tied to match the material of their seals. The seal is engraved with sixty-six characters that read: "In the first month, when the sun is in Aries, the divine weapon is present in all directions, red, blue, white, yellow, the four colors are in place. The Emperor orders Zhurong to teach Kuilong, to ward off diseases and plagues; none dare to challenge. On a strict day in the second month, the Emperor orders the transformation of Kuilong, exercise caution and submission, and transform the divine weapon. Be upright, just, and square, to ward off diseases and plagues; no one dares to defy."
The emperor's sash features a combination of yellow and red in four colors: yellow, red, light blue, and dark blue. It is adorned with pure yellow jade, measuring 2 zhang, 9 chi, and 9 cun long, with five hundred decorative pearls. The sashes of princes and dukes are red, in four colors: red, yellow, light blue, and dark blue, adorned with pure red jade, measuring 2 zhang and 1 chi long, with three hundred decorative pearls. The sashes of the empress dowager, empress, and empress are the same as the emperor's. The sashes of princesses, imperial consorts, and princes are the same as those of princes and dukes, but with additional distinctive features. The sashes of nobles and prime ministers from various regions are green, in three colors: green, purple, and dark blue, adorned with pure green jade, measuring 2 zhang and 1 chi long, with two hundred and forty decorative pearls. The sashes of nobles, marquises, and generals are purple, in two colors: purple and white, adorned with pure purple jade, measuring 1 zhang and 7 chi long, with one hundred and eighty decorative pearls. Princesses and feudal lords also wear purple sashes. The sashes of officials of various ranks are blue, in three colors: blue, white, and red, adorned with pure blue jade, measuring 1 zhang and 7 chi long, with one hundred and twenty decorative pearls. Above the blue sashes, the decorative accessories measure 3 chi and 2 cun in length, matching the color of the sash, with half the number of pearls. These accessories, referred to as "kuai," are ancient ornaments that were worn in conjunction with sashes, hence the name "kuai." Above the purple sashes, jade rings and other decorations can be interspersed between the accessories and the sashes. The sashes for officials of one thousand and six hundred stones are black, in three colors: blue, red, and dark blue, adorned with pure blue jade, measuring 1 zhang and 6 chi long, with eighty decorative pearls. The sashes of officials of four hundred stones and three hundred stones are the same length as those described above.
Wow, all this talk is about the ancient official dress system; it sounds so complicated! Starting with the lower-ranking officials of Four Hundred Shi officials, Three Hundred Shi officials, and Two Hundred Shi officials, they wear yellow ribbons, all the same width but varying lengths. The ribbon for a Four Hundred Shi official is the longest at approximately five meters, with sixty knots; the lower the rank, the shorter the ribbon and the fewer the knots, with the shortest being three feet long.
Next are the Hundred Shi officials, who wear blue ribbons of the same width but twelve feet long, with a distinctive pattern of intricate weaving. The craftsmanship of these ribbons is exquisite, with silk threads woven into strands, four strands forming a tassel, five tassels a segment, five segments combined to form a complete ribbon. The number and thickness of knots on the ribbon are adjusted according to the official's rank, all with a width of one foot six inches.
Now, let's talk about the attire of the royal women. The Empress Dowager and Empress wear dark robes for temple sacrifices, either dark blue with black or light green with pale colors, with decorative ribbon on the collar and cuffs. Their accessories are exquisite, with hairpins and earrings made from rhinoceros horn, adorned with pearls. The hairpins have a tortoiseshell handle, a foot long, with a stunning phoenix-shaped ornament at the top made of jade, with white pearls and gold clips hanging below. They wear one on each side, secured with a hair knot. Other hairpins and earrings are similar in style, with minor differences in craftsmanship and materials.
The clothes worn by the empress when she goes to the temple to worship are of the same color and style as those of the empress dowager and empress, also in deep garments, with the collar and cuffs decorated with ribbons. However, the empress's hair accessories are more elaborate, featuring a type of hair ornament called "buyao," which is a golden frame in the shape of a mountain, adorned with white pearls shaped like laurel branches, featuring nine layers of embellishments, as well as six mythical beasts including bears, tigers, red leopards, celestial deer, mythical beasts, and the auspicious fengda of the southern mountains. The feathers of these mythical beasts are also made of jade. There are also golden mountain motifs, pearl earrings, and jade cloud decorations on the buyao. Noble ladies participating in the worship ceremony of the silkworm god wear deep garments in pure pale color. Their hair accessories are comparatively simpler, featuring hairpins crafted from dark tortoiseshell and earrings. When the princess attends banquets, she wears buyao, and her hair accessories are the same as those of the noble ladies, with similar clothing styles. From princesses to female nobles above the rank of marquis, they all wear sashes made of colored silk threads that correspond to their ranks. Their belts also have golden mythical beasts as embellishments, with the mythical beast's head serving as the buckle, decorated with white pearls. Speaking of those high-ranking officials and nobles, from officials to marquis, as well as their wives, their jewelry is exquisite, all crafted from deep blue silk, inlaid with dragon heads made of gold, with white pearls in their mouths and fish-like embellishments cascading down, made into hairpins and earrings. When they go to the temple for worship, they wear deep garments made of black silk; those who assist in silkworm cultivation wear deep garments made of green silk, all in the style of deep garments, with added decorations on the edges. From the wife of a marquis to the empress, the court attire is made of silk.
Princesses, noblewomen, and higher-ranking consorts, when getting married, are allowed to wear garments made of brocade, gauze, silk gauze, and fine silk in twelve different colors, with elaborate decorations on the edges of their robes. Officials ranked Tejin and above, including Marquises, are permitted to wear brocade in twelve different colors. Officials ranked at 600 stones and above wear layered silk in nine colors, excluding red, purple, and deep blue. Officials ranked at 300 stones and above may choose from five colors for their garments: blue, crimson, yellow, red, and green. Officials ranked at 200 stones and above are limited to four colors: blue, yellow, red, and green. Merchants are restricted to wearing garments in yellow and blue.
Officials ranked below Duke and Marquis have simpler edge decorations on their attire. Garments worn during sacrifices feature embroidered patterns. Individuals ranked below Empress are prohibited from wearing luxurious garments made from precious materials and intricate craftsmanship. During the Jianwu and Yongping periods, such luxurious clothing was prohibited, but was reinstated during the Jianchu and Yongyuan periods, becoming even more elaborate. Eventually, the techniques for cutting and making these garments were lost, leading to their complete disappearance.
Various ceremonial garments, including liumian, changguan, weimaoguan, pibian, juebian, jianhuaguan, fangshanguan, and qiaoshiguan, along with embroidered patterns on garments, red shoes, silk ribbon shoes, and large ornaments, are all worn during sacrificial ceremonies. All other clothing is considered daily court attire. However, changguan is also worn by envoys from various vassal states during court attendance. For ancestral temple sacrifices and other ritual activities, changguan must be worn, along with a black silk robe, a crimson-bordered inner garment, and crimson trousers and socks, and the color of the garments is selected based on the color of the sacrificial site during suburban sacrifices.
It is said: Carriages and horses each have their own distinctions, and the styles of banners and flags vary. Their attire is exquisitely crafted, adorned with a dazzling array of accessories. Respectfully showing reverence, with a clear hierarchy where everyone knows their place. Who can truly boast of lavish attire? True luxury lies not in complexity or extravagance.
