During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, there were many countries in the Western Regions, a total of thirty-six countries, all under Han Dynasty control. The Han Dynasty sent envoys and military officers to oversee them. Later, Emperor Xuan renamed the titles of envoys and captains to "Duhu." Emperor Yuan then established two additional military officers stationed in the court of the former King of Cheshir to cultivate the land there. During the reigns of Emperor Ai and Emperor Ping, the countries in the Western Regions began to fragment once more, becoming fifty-five countries. After Wang Mang usurped power, he demoted the lords and kings of the Western Regions, which caused resentment among these countries, leading to rebellions, severing ties with the Han Dynasty, and re-aligning with the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu imposed heavy taxes on the countries in the Western Regions, leading to severe oppression that these countries could no longer endure. During the Jianwu era, the countries in the Western Regions sent envoys requesting to rejoin the Han Dynasty, hoping that the Han Dynasty would once again send a Duhu to govern them. However, Emperor Guangwu believed that the realm had only just stabilized and did not have the capacity to address these external affairs, and thus he declined their request.
Later, the Xiongnu weakened, and King Xian of Shache conquered all other states. After King Xian of Shache died, the Western Region states began attacking each other again. Xiaowan, Jingjue, Ronglu, and Qiemo were all absorbed by Shanshan; Qule and Pishan came under Yutian's control; Yuli, Danhuan, Guhu, and Wutanzili were all destroyed by Cheshi, but these states were later reestablished. During the Yongping period, the Northern Xiongnu threatened the Western Region states again, attacking the counties in Hexi, where the city gates remained shut during the day for fear of opening them. In the sixteenth year of Yongping, Emperor Ming sent troops to the north to attack the Xiongnu, captured the Yiwulu area, and established the Yiheduwei there to station troops for agricultural purposes, thus reestablishing contact with the Western Regions. Yutian and other countries sent their princes to the Han Dynasty as hostages. The Western Regions had been cut off from the Han Dynasty for sixty-five years, finally reestablishing contact. The following year, the Han Dynasty reestablished the Protectorate and the Wujixiaowei positions. However, after Emperor Ming's death, Yanqi and Kucha attacked and killed Protector Chen Mu, and Chen Mu's army was completely defeated; the Xiongnu and Cheshi surrounded the Wujixiaowei. In the spring of the first year of Jianchu, the Commandant of Jiuquan, Duan Peng, defeated Cheshi in Jiaohe City. Emperor Zhang of Han didn't want to overextend the country's resources dealing with these barbarians, so he recalled the Wujixiaowei and no longer sent out the Protectorate. The following year, he also canceled the agricultural policy in Yiwu. The Xiongnu took the opportunity to station troops in Yiwu. At that time, the military commander Ban Chao remained in the Yutian region, pacifying and uniting the various tribal states.
In the first year of the Yongyuan era under Emperor Hedi, General Dou Xian defeated the Xiongnu. The following year, Dou Xian sent Deputy Colonel Yan Pan to lead over two thousand cavalry to ambush Yiwu, defeating the Xiongnu troops. In the third year, Ban Chao finally pacified the Western Regions, and the court appointed him as Protector-General, stationed in Guizi. The court also reestablished the Wujixiaowei, commanding five hundred soldiers stationed in the front line of Cheshi at Gaochangbi. They also established Wubuhou, which was stationed in the rear of Cheshi at Houcheng, located five hundred li apart. In the sixth year, Ban Chao defeated Yanqi, causing over fifty countries in the Western Regions to come and pay tribute. Even countries as far away as Tiaozhi and Anxi, located near the sea, sent envoys from thousands of miles away to pay tribute. In the ninth year, Ban Chao sent his subordinate Gan Ying to explore the Western Sea and return. Gan Ying reached places that had never been visited before, which were not even recorded in the "Classic of Mountains," and meticulously documented the local customs, rare treasures, and exotic animals. As a result, even distant lands such as Monki and Dule submitted, sending envoys to pay tribute.
After the Emperor's death, the various states in the Western Regions began to rebel once more. In the first year of Emperor An's Yongchu era, the Western Regions repeatedly surrounded and attacked Protector-General Ren Shang and Duan Xi, among others. The court believed the Western Regions were too distant and difficult to aid, so they ordered the abolition of the Protectorate. From then on, the court effectively abandoned the Western Regions. The Northern Xiongnu once again controlled the various states in the Western Regions and raided the border for over a decade. The Prefect of Dunhuang, Cao Zong, was deeply troubled by the Xiongnu's incursions. In the sixth year of the Yuan Chu era, he submitted a memorial to the court, and the court sent Chief Clerk Suo Ban to lead more than a thousand people to station in Yiwu to pacify the various states in the Western Regions. The kings of Kucha and Shanshan surrendered. Several months later, the Northern Xiongnu, alongside the former king of Kucha, attacked Suo Ban and his men, defeated the former king of Kucha, and forced the king of Shanshan to urgently seek help from Cao Zong. Therefore, Cao Zong requested the court to send troops to attack the Xiongnu, to avenge Suo Ban and seize the opportunity to reclaim the Western Regions. Empress Dowager Deng did not agree, only consenting to appoint a Deputy Protector of the Western Regions to station in Dunhuang with three hundred soldiers, merely a symbolic gesture. Later, the Northern Xiongnu and Kucha repeatedly invaded the Hexi Corridor together, and the court found itself powerless to stop them. Some recommended closing the Yumen Pass and Yang Pass to avert future troubles.
In the second year of the Yanguang era, the Prefect of Dunhuang, Zhang Dang, wrote a letter to the court, proposing three strategies. He stated, "The Northern Xiongnu's Huyan Wang constantly roams the Pulei and Qin Hai regions, dominating the Western Regions, burning, killing, and plundering everywhere. Now we can gather more than two thousand officials and soldiers from Jiuquan at the Kunlun Pass, first attack Huyan Wang, cut off his foundation, and then mobilize five thousand soldiers and horses from Shanshan to threaten the rear of the Kucha; this would be the most effective strategy." The court deliberated on Zhang Dang's proposal. Minister Chen Zhong also submitted his opinion in a memorial, stating:
I heard that various tribes invaded, and there was no one more formidable than the Xiongnu in the north. Since the establishment of the Han Dynasty, Emperor Gaozu was besieged in Pingcheng, and Emperor Taizong also suffered humiliation at the hands of the Xiongnu. So Emperor Xiaowu was very angry, seriously considering long-term strategies, and sent out elite troops to cross the Yellow River, traverse the desert, and fiercely attack the Xiongnu.
In this war, common people died north of Langshan, money was lost to the gullies of Lushan, the national treasury was empty, the people were left destitute, and even cattle, horses, and livestock were requisitioned. This isn’t just alarmist rhetoric on my part, but for long-term considerations! So four counties were established in Hexi to isolate the Southern Qiang, and thirty-six small countries were subdued, which effectively crippled the Xiongnu's power. As a result, the Xiongnu Chanyu was left isolated, only able to flee and hide. By the time of Emperor Xuan and Emperor Yuan, the countries of the Western Regions all became vassals of the Han Dynasty, the borders required no defense, and there were almost no reports of battles.
From these historical perspectives, tribes can be conquered by force, but it is difficult to completely assimilate them. The countries of the Western Regions have been under the Han Dynasty for a long time, and now some nations are secretly probing for information on our side, suggesting they have grown disillusioned with the Xiongnu and envy the strength of the Han Dynasty. Now that the Xiongnu have breached Cheshi, the next move will likely be a southward advance to attack Shanshan. If we sit idly by, other nations will likely follow suit and surrender to the Xiongnu. If that happens, the Xiongnu's wealth and power will surge, their courage will also grow, and they could pose a threat to the Southern Qiang, potentially allying with them.
As a result, the four counties of Hexi are at risk. If Hexi is in danger, we would demand an enormous increase in troops and a significant financial burden. Some people focus solely on how distant the Western Regions are, claiming the rescue effort is too complicated, costly, and labor-intensive, without recognizing the hardships our ancestors faced to maintain border stability! Now the border defense forces are weak, the inland forces are equally unprepared, and Dunhuang City stands alone; the situation is critical, and we need to appeal for assistance from the court. If we fail to provide support, we won't be able to calm the people internally or deter the barbarians externally. The country has a painful history of territorial loss. I propose that a commandant be appointed in Dunhuang, and the garrison across the four counties should be reinforced according to the previous system to reassure the various states in the Western Regions. Only by doing this can we effectively resist external threats and deter the Xiongnu.
The emperor agreed and appointed Ban Yong as the Governor of the Western Regions, leading five hundred elite soldiers to garrison at Liuzhong. Ban Yong indeed defeated the Cheshi. From the Jianwu period to the Yangguang period, the Western Regions experienced three periods of isolation and three restorations of communication. In the second year of Emperor Shun's Yongjian era, Ban Yong defeated Yanqi again. As a result, seventeen countries including Kucha, Shule, Yutian, and Shache all submitted, while the area west of Wusun and Congling was completely cut off. Six years later, the emperor recognized that the Yiwu region was fertile, close to the Western Regions, and the Xiongnu often used it to harass, so he ordered cultivation and settlement there again, similar to the Yongyuan period, and also appointed a Yiwu Sima. Since the Yangjia period, the court's prestige gradually declined, various countries became arrogant and attacked each other. In the second year of Yuanjia, Governor Wang Jing was killed by the Yedian people. In the first year of Yongxing, the King of Cheshi launched a counterattack on the Han camps. Although some surrendered, the court did not learn from it, and from then on, the administration of the Western Regions became increasingly lax. Ban Gu detailed the customs, geography, and cultural practices of various countries in the Western Regions in his works, which are also detailed in the "Book of Former Han." Now I am writing about the situation in the Western Regions after the Jianwu period, which is different from before, and I am writing "The Western Regions Biography," mainly based on the records of Ban Yong during the reign of Emperor An.
The various countries within the Western Regions span over six thousand li from east to west and more than a thousand li from north to south, with Yumen Pass and Yangguan marking the eastern boundary and Congling marking the western boundary. The northeastern part of the Western Regions borders the Xiongnu and Wusun. There are majestic mountains in the north and south of the Western Regions, with rivers in between. The southern mountain ranges stretch eastward to Jincheng and connect with the mountains in the southern part of the Han Dynasty. Two major rivers originate in the Western Regions, one flowing east from Congling, and one flowing north from the foot of the mountains south of Yedian, where they merge with the river from Congling, and then flow east into Lake Puchang. Lake Puchang, referred to as Yanzhe, lies over three hundred li from Yumen Pass.
From Dunhuang to the west, passing through Yumen Pass and then Yang Pass, and then through Shanshan, heading north will lead you to Yiwu, which is over a thousand li away; from Yiwu, heading north will take you to the military stronghold of Gaochang Wall at the front of the Cheshi, a distance of twelve hundred li; from Gaochang Wall, heading north will bring you to Jinman City at the rear of the Cheshi, a distance of five hundred li. This area serves as the gateway to the Western Regions, so the Han Dynasty's Wujijiaowei were stationed here in rotation. The Yiwu region is well-suited for growing grains, mulberries, hemp, and grapes. To the north of Yiwu lies Liuzhong, which is also fertile land. Therefore, the Han Dynasty frequently clashed with the Xiongnu over control of Cheshi and Yiwu to maintain dominance in the Western Regions.
Starting from Shanshan, you can reach various countries in the Western Regions by crossing the Congling Mountains, primarily via two routes. Along the north side of the Nan Mountains, walking along the Hexi River, you can reach Shache; this is known as the southern route. Taking the southern route and crossing the Congling Mountains will lead you to Dayuezhi and Anxi. Starting from the royal court of Cheshi at the front, following the Beishan and the Hexi River, you can reach Shule, which is the northern route. Taking the northern route and crossing the Congling Mountains will lead you to Dawan, Kangju, and Yanchai.
From Yumen Pass, by passing through Shanshan, Qiemo, and Jingjue, you can reach Kucha in approximately three thousand li.
The Kingdom of Jumi is located in Ningmi City, 4,900 li from the residence of the Chief of Chang'an, and 12,800 li from Luoyang. It has 2,173 households, a population of 7,251, and 1,760 elite soldiers. In the fourth year of Yongjian, King Yu Dian executed Jumi King Xing in the presence of King Yu, installed Xing's son as the new King of Jumi, and sent envoys to offer tribute to the Han Dynasty. The Dunhuang Prefect memorialized the court to request the punishment of Yu Dian; the Emperor pardoned Yu Dian for his crimes, permitting him to return to the Kingdom of Jumi, but Yu Dian refused to return. In the first year of Yangjia, Xu You sent the Shule king Chen to lead 20,000 troops to attack Yu Dian, defeated him, executed hundreds of his troops, and plundered Yu Dian's forces. Later, Xing's relative was appointed as the King of Jumi. By this time, the population of Jumi had dwindled to around 1,000. Jumi borders the Kingdom of Yu, 390 li away.
The Kingdom of Yu is situated in Xicheng, 5,300 li from the residence of the Chief of Chang'an, and 11,700 li from Luoyang. It has 32,000 households, a population of 83,000, and over 30,000 elite soldiers. In the later period of the Jianwu era, King Xian of Shache was quite powerful, attacking and annexing Yu, relocating King Yu Lin to Ligu, and appointing him as the King of Ligu. During the Yongping period of Emperor Ming, the Yu general Xiumoba rebelled against Shache, declaring himself the King of Yu. After Xiumoba's death, his nephew Guangde succeeded him and later completely eliminated Shache, strengthening the Kingdom of Yu further. From Jingjue to the northwest to Shule, the thirteen countries along the route all submitted to its authority. The Kingdom of Shanshan also started to gain strength. From then on, on the southern route, from Congling to the east, only the Kingdoms of Yu and Shache were the most powerful.
In the year 146 AD, during the sixth year of Emperor Shun of Han, the King of Yutian sent envoys to the capital to present tribute.
In the year 420 AD, during the first year of the Han Yuanjia era, Zhang Ping, the chief historian of Yutian, died from a toxic sore. Zhang Ping's son went to retrieve his father's body and passed through the country of Jumi. King Chengguo of Jumi had a grudge against King Jian of Yutian, so he told Zhang Ping's son, "Your father was poisoned to death by the Hu doctor instigated by King Jian of Yutian!" Taking this at face value, Zhang Ping's son returned to the frontier and reported this to Ma Da, the prefect of Dunhuang.
The following year, Wang Jing took over as chief historian, and Ma Da secretly instructed Wang Jing to investigate the matter. Wang Jing first went to Jumi, where Chengguo told him, "The people of Yutian want me as their king. Now is the chance to kill King Jian of Yutian, and Yutian will surely submit!" Eager for recognition and swayed by Chengguo's words, Wang Jing went to Yutian, pretending to host a banquet for King Jian while secretly plotting his assassination. Someone informed King Jian of Wang Jing's plot, but Jian dismissed it, saying, "I have done nothing wrong. Why would Chief Historian Wang want to kill me?"
The next day, King Jian of Yutian brought dozens of officials to meet Wang Jing. After sitting down, Jian stood up to offer a toast, but Wang Jing ordered his men to seize Jian. However, the soldiers had no intention of harming Jian, and all of King Jian's subordinates fled. At that moment, Qin Mu, the registrar of Jumi, was with Wang Jing, and he drew his sword, saying, "The deed is done. What are we waiting for?" He then stepped forward and killed King Jian of Yutian.
The generals of Yutian, Shu Bo and others, joined forces to confront Wang Jing. Holding the head of King Jian of Yutian, Wang Jing rushed to the rooftop and announced, "The Emperor has sent me to execute King Jian of Yutian!" The Yutian generals torched the camp and set the soldiers ablaze, then stormed the building to kill Wang Jing, displaying his head in the city for all to see. Shu Bo tried to crown himself king but was slain by the Yutian people, who subsequently backed An Guo, the son of King Jian, as their new king.
Upon hearing about this, Mada wanted to lead troops out to attack Yutian, but Emperor Huan of Han did not consent and recalled Mada, sending Song Liang to replace him as the governor of Dunhuang. When Song Liang arrived, he openly recruited people from Yutian, asking them to cut off the head of the Su Bi themselves. By this time, Su Bi had been dead for several months. Song Liang then took the head of a dead person and presented it to Dunhuang, deliberately withholding the details. Later, Song Liang found out that it was a hoax, but ultimately was unable to send troops, allowing Yutian to become even more brazen and overbearing.
Yutian passed through Pishan to the west, reaching countries such as Xiye, Zihe, and Deruo. Xiye, also referred to as the Drifting Sand Kingdom, is 14,440 li from Luoyang. It has 2,500 households, more than 10,000 inhabitants, and 3,000 elite soldiers. There is a white grass that grows there, which is toxic. The locals cook it into medicine and apply it to arrowheads, resulting in instant death for those struck by the arrows. The "Book of Han" erroneously describes Xiye and Zihe as one country, but they each have their own kings.
Zihe is located in the Hujian Valley, over 1,000 li from Shule. It has 350 households, 4,000 people, and 1,000 elite soldiers. Deruo has over 100 households, 670 people, and 350 elite soldiers. It is 3,530 li from Changshifu, 12,150 li from Luoyang, and adjacent to Zihe. The customs of these two nations are quite alike.
Traveling southwest from Pishan, after a journey of over 60 days, you will reach Wuyi Mountain Ligu. This country covers a vast area and was later renamed Paichi. Continuing southwest, after riding for over 100 days, you will reach Tiaozhi Country.
The city of Tiaozhi is situated on a mountain, with a circumference of over 40 li. It is close to the Western Sea, surrounded by seawater on its south and northeast sides, with sheer cliffs on three sides, only accessible by land from the northwest corner. The climate there is hot and humid, producing lions, rhinoceroses, elephants, peacocks, and large fowl. The eggs of these large fowl are as big as water jars!
Then head north and east, riding for more than sixty days to reach Anxi. Later, Anxi was controlled by Tiaozhi, which appointed a general to oversee the surrounding small towns. Anxi is located near He Du, 25,000 li away from Luoyang. It borders Kangju to the north and Wuyishan to the south. Its territory spans several thousand li, boasting several hundred small towns and a substantial population and military. To the east of Anxi is Mulucheng, also known as Xiaoxi, 20,000 li from Luoyang. In the first year of Emperor Zhang's Yongyuan reign in the Han Dynasty, Anxi once sent envoys to present lions and unicorns. In the ninth year of Yongyuan, the protector Ban Chao dispatched Gan Ying to Daqin, reaching Tiaozhi. Gan Ying reached the seaside and planned to cross the sea, but the boatmen at Anxi's western border advised him: "The sea is vast; if you catch favorable winds, it will take three months to cross; if you encounter unfavorable winds, it may even take two years. Thus, anyone setting out to sea should bring enough provisions for three years. Moreover, the sea easily makes people homesick, and many have perished at sea." Gan Ying stopped upon hearing this. In the thirteenth year of Yongyuan, King Manqu of Anxi again sent lions and large birds from Tiaozhi, which people referred to as Anxi sparrows. Traveling west from Anxi for 3,400 li brings you to Aman; from Aman, heading west for 3,600 li leads to Spin; cross the river south from Spin and head southwest for 960 li to reach Luo, marking Anxi's western boundary. From there, heading south by boat along the sea route will take you to Daqin, where the land produces various rare and exotic items.
The Qin Dynasty, also known as Li Jian (or 'Plow and Carry'), is referred to as the Western Sea Kingdom because it is located on the west side of the sea. It covers an area of several thousand miles, with over four hundred cities and several dozen small vassal states. The city walls are built of stone, with post stations along the roads, all featuring freshly painted walls. There are pine trees, cypress trees, and a variety of plants growing there. The local people are diligent farmers, cultivating numerous trees, including mulberry trees and silkworms. They all shave their heads, wear beautiful silk clothes, and travel in small covered carts draped with white cloth, making a racket with gongs and drums while displaying various flags.
The cities they inhabit have a perimeter of over a hundred miles. There are five palaces in each city, located ten miles apart. The columns and utensils in the palaces are crafted from crystal. The king occupies a different palace each day, attending to state affairs in each palace for five days before moving to the next. A servant always follows his cart carrying a cloth bag, into which commoners can submit their petitions. Upon returning to the palace, the king reviews these petitions and resolves the issues. They have a well-organized system of officials and documentation. They have thirty-six generals who collaboratively discuss national matters. Their king is not hereditary, but chosen based on merit. In cases of disasters or unusual weather patterns, they will depose the king and install a new one. Deposed kings bear no resentment. The people of the Qin Dynasty are tall and robust, resembling the Chinese people, which is why they are referred to as the Qin Dynasty.
The land there is rich in gold, silver, and various treasures, such as night-glow jade, moon pearls, rhinoceros horns, coral, amber, glass, crystal, cinnabar, jade, and so on. They use gold and silk threads to embroider various exquisite textiles, such as gold-threaded jade burial garments and various colored silk fabrics. They also make gold paint and a type of fabric treated with fire. There are also soft fabrics, said to be made from water sheep's wool or the cocoons of wild silkworms. They also mix various spices together to create a spice blend known as Suhe incense. In short, all kinds of rare treasures come from there.
They use gold and silver as currency, with ten silver coins equivalent to one gold coin. They trade with countries such as Anxi and Tianzhu by sea, with profits reaching tenfold. Their people are honest and trustworthy, trade fairly, and never deceive. Food prices have consistently remained low, and the country is very wealthy. When envoys from neighboring countries reach the border of the Great Qin Empire, they can take a carriage from the relay station to the capital, where they will receive a monetary reward from the king. The King of the Great Qin Empire has long sought to establish diplomatic ties with the Han Dynasty, but Anxi wants to trade with the Great Qin Empire using silk and brocade, thereby hindering interactions between the Great Qin Empire and the Han Dynasty. It wasn't until the ninth year of the Yanxi era of Emperor Huan of Han that the King of the Great Qin Empire, Andun, sent envoys from beyond the border of Rina County, presenting ivory, rhinoceros horns, and tortoiseshell as tribute, officially opening up communication with the Han Dynasty. However, the tribute they offered was not as extraordinary as the legends suggested, suggesting that those rumors may have been exaggerated.
Some say that to the west of the Dayuan Kingdom there are the Weishui River and the shifting sands, close to the abode of the Queen Mother of the West, almost reaching the place where the sun sets. The "Book of Han" says, "From Tiaozhi heading west, it takes more than two hundred days to reach the place where the sun sets," which is different from what is recorded now. The envoys sent by the Han Dynasty only made it to Wuyi before returning, and no one reached Tiaozhi. Some also say, "Traveling by land from Anxi, bypassing the north of the sea, going west by sea can reach the Roman Empire, connecting with people of various countries along the way, with a relay station every ten miles and a checkpoint every thirty miles, with no bandits or conflicts along the way. But there are many ferocious tigers and lions along the way, often attacking passersby. If there are not more than a hundred people carrying weapons, they are easily eaten by them." It is also said that "there is a bridge several hundred miles long that can traverse the sea and reach the various countries in the north." As for the strange treasures such as jade and precious stones, there are too many claims to be credible, so they are not recorded.
The Dayuan Kingdom, situated in Lanshi City, borders Anxi to the west, a journey of forty-nine days; to the east, it is six thousand five hundred and thirty-seven li from the Han Dynasty's Chief Historian's residence, and sixteen thousand three hundred and seventy li from Luoyang. It has a population of one hundred thousand households, four hundred thousand people, and more than a hundred thousand elite troops.
Initially, the Dayuan Kingdom was destroyed by the Xiongnu, so they relocated to Daxia, dividing the nation into five regions: Xiumi, Shuangmi, Guishuang, Lidian, and Dumu, each governed by a Marquis. Over a hundred years later, the Marquis of Guishuang, Qiu, launched an attack and defeated the other four Marquises, proclaiming himself king and renaming the kingdom Guishuang. He then invaded Anxi, seizing the Gao Fu area. He also destroyed Puda and Jibin, occupying both countries. Qiu died at the age of over eighty, and his son Yan Gaozhen succeeded to the throne. He also conquered Tianzhu and stationed people to govern it. From that point forward, the Dayuan Kingdom grew immensely powerful and prosperous, and other countries called it the King of Guishuang. The Han Dynasty retained its original name, calling it the Dayuan Kingdom.
Gao Fu, located southwest of the Great Yue State, is also a significant nation. Their customs and habits are similar to those of Tianzhu, but it is relatively weak and easily subject to conquest. They are good at business and are internally wealthy. Gao Fu's allegiance often shifts; when Tianzhu, Jibin, and Anxi are strong, they can claim Gao Fu, but when they are weak, they lose it, and it has never belonged to the Great Yue State. The "Han Shu" states that Gao Fu was once ruled by five marquises, which is a misconception. Later, Gao Fu came under Anxi's control. It was only after the Great Yue State defeated Anxi that they obtained Gao Fu.
Tianzhu, also known as Shendu, is located thousands of miles southeast of the Yue State. The customs there are similar to those of the Yue State, but the climate is more humid and oppressive, and they are close to a large river. They fight mounted on elephants. The people of Tianzhu are somewhat weaker than the Yue people. They believe in Buddhism and do not engage in warfare and killing, which has gradually become their way of life. Extending all the way to the Western Sea and then east to the Panqi State, all territories are part of Tianzhu. Tianzhu has many cities, around a few hundred, each governed by a city leader; there are also dozens of small countries, each with a king. Although these places are slightly different, they are all called Tianzhu and were all subject to the Yue State at that time. The Yue people executed the king of Tianzhu and subsequently appointed generals to oversee them. Tianzhu is rich in elephants, rhinoceroses, tortoiseshell, gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, and tin. They also engage in trade with Daqin, acquiring many treasures from there. Additionally, Tianzhu is known for its fine cloth, high-quality woolen fabrics, a variety of spices, stone honey, pepper, ginger, black salt, and more.
During the reign of Emperor Huan of the Han Dynasty, Tianzhu sent envoys to offer tribute on several occasions. However, a rebellion in the Western Regions later interrupted the tribute. It wasn't until the second and fourth years of Emperor Huan's Yanxi era that Tianzhu once again sent numerous tributes from beyond the southern border.
Legend has it that Emperor Han Ming dreamed of a radiant deity and asked his ministers what it meant. Someone said, "There is a god in the West called Buddha, who is about six feet tall and shines with golden light." So Emperor Han Ming sent envoys to India to learn about the teachings of Buddhism, and then had Buddha statues created in China. King Ying of Chu was the first to embrace Buddhism, so many people in China began to follow it. Later, Emperor Huan of Han was fond of deities and Buddhas, often worshiping Buddha statues and Laozi, and the common folk gradually began to embrace Buddhism. Eventually, Buddhism became more and more prosperous.
Dongli Kingdom, located in the city of Shachi, on the southeast border of India, is over three thousand miles away and is a large country. The climate, products, and customs there are similar to those of India. Dongli Kingdom has dozens of cities, each ruled by a king. Later, they were defeated by the Great Yuezhi and became subjects. The people of Dongli Kingdom, both men and women, are said to be eight feet tall, but they are timid and weak. They ride elephants and camels to travel between neighboring countries. If they encounter enemy invasions, they ride elephants to fight.
Li Yi Kingdom belongs to the Kangju Kingdom. It produces good horses, cows, sheep, grapes, and other fruits. The soil and water there are very good, so the wine made from grapes is especially famous.
Yan Kingdom is located north of Yancai Kingdom and belongs to the Kangju Kingdom. They offer tribute to the Kangju Kingdom with rat skins.
Yancai Kingdom, later renamed Alanchao Kingdom, is located in the city and belongs to the Kangju Kingdom. The climate is mild, with many pine trees and white grasslands. The local people's clothing is similar to that of the Kangju people.
Shache Kingdom, traveling west through Puli and Wulei to reach the Great Yuezhi, and to the east to Luoyang, is 1950 miles away.
Legend has it that the Xiongnu threw the world into chaos after Wang Mang usurped the Han Dynasty, seizing the opportunity to occupy many territories in the Western Regions. However, the king of Shache, Wang Yan, was a formidable leader who refused to bow to the Xiongnu. During the reign of Emperor Yuan of the Han Dynasty, Wang Yan was once held as a hostage by the Han Dynasty and stayed in the capital for a period of time. He developed a deep admiration for Han culture and governance, and diligently studied Han laws and regulations. He frequently urged his sons to serve the Han Dynasty loyally and to never betray it! In the fifth year of the Tianfeng era, Wang Yan passed away, and the Han Dynasty posthumously granted him the title "King of Loyalty and Martial Valor," and his son Kang inherited the throne.
When Emperor Guangwu, Liu Xiu, had just taken the throne, King Kang of Shache united neighboring states to resist the Xiongnu and also safeguarded the officials and families of the former Han Protectorate, amounting to over a thousand individuals. He sent letters to the Hexi region to inquire about the state of the Han Dynasty, conveying his deep longing and unwavering loyalty to the Han Dynasty. In the fifth year of Jianwu, Dou Rong, the Grand General of Hexi, acting on behalf of the emperor, bestowed the title of "King of Han Shache, Meritorious and Virtuous" upon King Kang of Shache and concurrently appointed him as the "Grand Commandant of the Western Regions." As a result, all fifty-five countries in the Western Regions pledged their allegiance to the Han Dynasty.
In the ninth year of Jianwu, King Kang of Shache passed away, and the Han Dynasty posthumously bestowed upon him the title "King Xuancheng." His brother Xian inherited the throne, led his troops to conquer the kingdoms of Jumi and Xiye, killed the kings of these two kingdoms, and then appointed his brother Kang's two sons as the kings of Jumi and Xiye respectively. In the fourteenth year of Jianwu, King Xian of Shache and King An of Shanshan sent envoys to the capital to pay tribute, and from that point on, the Western Regions genuinely reestablished contact with the Han Dynasty. Various kingdoms east of the Congling Mountains also submitted to King Xian of Shache. In the seventeenth year of Jianwu, King Xian of Shache sent envoys again to pay tribute and requested the Han Dynasty to establish a protectorate to manage the Western Regions. Emperor Guangwu of Han sought the advice of the Grand Minister Dou Rong, who believed that King Xian of Shache and his sons were loyal to the Han Dynasty and should be granted higher positions to stabilize the Western Regions. Therefore, the emperor conferred upon King Xian of Shache the title of "Protector of the Western Regions," along with chariots, flags, gold, and silk. However, Pei Zun, the Prefect of Dunhuang, opposed this decision, arguing, "We cannot grant these barbarians too much power, as it will disappoint other states!" The emperor subsequently ordered the return of the protectorate seal and instead granted King Xian of Shache the seal of "Han General." However, King Xian's envoys refused to accept the change of the seal, so Pei Zun forcibly took it back. Consequently, King Xian of Shache began to harbor resentment towards the Han Dynasty. But he pretended to be the Protector of the Western Regions outwardly, writing letters to other kingdoms, which continued to submit to him and honored him as "Chanyu." King Xian of Shache grew increasingly arrogant, imposing heavier taxes and frequently attacking kingdoms like Kucha, instilling fear and concern among the various kingdoms in the Western Regions.
In the winter of the twenty-first year of the Han Dynasty, the kings of the Qiang states, including the territories of Shanshan and Yanqi, along with eighteen other nations, sent their princes to Chang'an as hostages in exchange for protection, presenting many precious treasures. These princes, upon meeting the emperor, all wept and bowed deeply, hoping that the Han Dynasty would send a protector to safeguard them. However, at that time, the Han Dynasty had only recently quelled internal strife, and the northern borders were still unstable, so the emperor returned these princes, bestowing upon them many gifts. The Xiongnu Chanyu Huhanye, feeling emboldened, sought to annex the various countries of the Western Regions, and the intensity of their attacks on the Western Regions escalated. Upon hearing that the Han Dynasty's protector did not come and that the princes sent as hostages had all returned, the countries of the Western Regions were filled with fear and anxiety. They then wrote a letter together with the Dunhuang Commandery Magistrate, requesting to retain these princes as a show of strength to the Shache Kingdom, suggesting that by holding the princes, they could expect the protector's arrival soon. Pei Zun conveyed this to the emperor, who consented.
In the 22nd year of Emperor Guangwu's reign, the Xiongnu Chanyu, seeing that the Protector-General of the Western Regions had not come, sent a letter to King An of Shanshan, asking him to sever ties with the Han Dynasty. King An of Shanshan did not agree and even killed the Chanyu's envoy. Enraged, the Chanyu led his troops to attack Shanshan. King An of Shanshan fought back but was defeated and fled into the hills. After slaughtering thousands, the Chanyu withdrew his forces. In the winter of that year, the Chanyu attacked and killed the King of Kucha, seizing control of Kucha. The princes of Shanshan, Yutian, and other states left behind in Dunhuang, feeling homesick and fearful, secretly returned to their homelands. King An of Shanshan once again petitioned the Han Dynasty to send princes to Chang'an as hostages and requested that the Protector-General send them aid. However, due to the strength of the Xiongnu, the Emperor replied that they should manage their own affairs and could go wherever they liked. As a result, Shanshan and Cheshi once again allied with the Xiongnu, which only made the Chanyu more arrogant and overbearing.
The King of Kroraina, who was far from the Xiongnu, killed the Chanyu's envoy. The Chanyu then destroyed Kroraina and appointed a nobleman named Sijian as the new King of Kroraina. The Chanyu also appointed his son Zeluo as the King of Kucha. Because Zeluo was young, the Chanyu divided Kucha into the Wulei Kingdom, appointing Sijian as the King of Wulei, and another nobleman as the King of Kroraina. After a few years, the people of Kucha united to kill Zeluo and Sijian, and then sent envoys to the Xiongnu, asking for a new king. The Xiongnu then appointed a nobleman, Shendu, as the King of Kucha, and from that point on, Kucha was under Xiongnu control.
It is said that due to the decrease in tribute from Dawan, Ban Chao personally led tens of thousands of soldiers from various countries to attack Dawan. The King of Dawan quickly came out to greet him and expressed his willingness to surrender. Ban Chao then returned home with his army and installed Qiaoseti, the king of Jumi, as the new king of Dawan. However, the Kangju kingdom continued to attack Dawan. After more than a year, Qiaoseti fled back to Jumi, and Ban Chao made him king of Jumi once more, while sending the former king of Dawan back to continue the tribute as before. Ban Chao also appointed Yu Lin, the king of Yutian, as the king of Ligu, and made his brother serve as the king of Yutian.
After more than a year, Ban Chao suspected that these small countries were planning a rebellion, so he summoned Qiaoseti's brother, as well as the kings of Gumo and Zihe, and had them executed. From then on, they were no longer recognized as kings, but generals were sent to guard these countries. The son of Qiaoseti's brother, Rong, escaped and surrendered to the Han dynasty, and was granted the title of Marquis Who Upholds Righteousness.
During the reign of King Junde of Shache, he was especially cruel, and the people could no longer tolerate him. In the third year of Emperor Ming of Han's Yongping reign, the ministers of Shache went outside the city to hunt, and when they saw a wild boar, they aimed to shoot it. Unexpectedly, the wild boar suddenly spoke: "Don't shoot me, I will help you kill Junde!" Upon hearing this, the ministers killed Junde without hesitation. As a result, another minister, Xiumo Ba, along with Han Rong and others from the Han dynasty, killed the ministers' brothers, and Xiumo Ba became the king of Yutian. They also killed the army stationed in the Pishan area by Shache, and then returned to their homeland with their troops.
Ban Chao sent his prince and prime minister with twenty thousand troops from various countries to attack Xiumoba. Xiumoba fought back, resulting in over ten thousand deaths among the army of Shache. Ban Chao then assembled tens of thousands of soldiers from various countries and personally led them to attack Xiumoba. However, they were defeated again by Xiumoba, with many soldiers killed, and Ban Chao himself barely escaped. Xiumoba took advantage of his victory to surround Shache, but was shot and killed, prompting his army to retreat.
The prime minister of Yutian, Su Yule, and others united to support Xiumoba's son Guangde as the new king. The Xiongnu and Kucha, along with other countries, launched a joint attack on Shache but failed to capture it. Guangde capitalized on Shache's vulnerability and sent his brother, Fuguo Hou Ren, to confront the wise king of Shache. The wise king, after enduring multiple defeats, sent envoys to negotiate a peace settlement with Guangde. Thus, the wise king returned Guangde's father and gave his daughter in marriage to Guangde's father, establishing a brotherly relationship. Guangde finally withdrew his troops.
In the second year, the Prime Minister of the Shache Kingdom, Qie Yun, and his associates felt that King Xian was too proud and domineering, so they secretly plotted a rebellion, intending to offer the city to the Kingdom of Yutian. King Guangde of Yutian led an army of thirty thousand to attack Shache. King Xian defended the city and sent messengers to Guangde, saying, "I honored my commitment to your father and married my daughter to you. Why are you coming to attack me?" Guangde replied, "Your Majesty, you are my father-in-law; it has been a long time since we met. Let's each bring a few people to meet outside the city and forge an alliance." King Xian informed Qie Yun about this, and Qie Yun said, "Guangde is your son-in-law; the closest relationship, you should go out and meet him." King Xian foolishly left the city and was captured by Guangde. Then Qie Yun and his allies opened the city gates to let in the Yutian army, capturing King Xian's wife and children and seizing control of the Shache Kingdom. They took King Xian back to Yutian, and over a year later, they executed him.
When the Xiongnu heard that Guangde had defeated Shache, they sent five generals to surround Yutian with over thirty thousand soldiers from Yanqi, Wuli, and Guizi. Guangde sought to surrender, sent the crown prince as a hostage, and promised to send annual tributes of wool blankets and silk cotton. In winter, the Xiongnu sent troops to install King Xian's son, Buju Wei, as the King of Shache, but Guangde swiftly attacked and killed him, re-establishing his brother Qili as the King of Shache. This occurred during the third year of Emperor Yuanhe's reign in the Han Dynasty. At that time, Chief Historian Ban Chao led the troops from various kingdoms in an assault on Shache, achieving a decisive victory, leading Shache to submit to the Han Dynasty. This event is detailed in the "Biography of Ban Chao."
Shache is located northeast of the Shule. Shule is five thousand li from the Chief Historian's base and thirteen thousand three hundred li from Luoyang. The population stands at twenty-one thousand, with an army of over thirty thousand.
Emperor Han Ming of the Han Dynasty, in the sixteenth year of the Yongping era, King Jian of Kucha killed the King of Shule, Cheng, and proclaimed himself King of Shule, appointing Douti, the Left Marquis of Kucha, as King of Shule. In winter, the Han Dynasty sent General Ban Chao to capture Douti and installed Cheng's nephew, Zhong, as King of Shule. Zhong later rebelled, and Ban Chao attacked and killed him. The details of this event are recorded in the "Biography of Ban Chao."
During the Yuanchu period of Emperor An of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Anguo, the King of Shule, exiled his uncle Chen Pan to the Yuezhi because of a crime. Unexpectedly, the King of Yuezhi took a liking to Chen Pan. Later, Anguo died without a son, and his mother and the ministers decided to appoint Chen Pan's half-brother, Anguo's son, as King of Shule. When Chen Pan heard about this, he went to the King of Yuezhi and said, "Anguo had no sons, and his lineage is thin. If his mother takes over the country, I will become the uncle of the son, and the throne should rightfully be mine!" The King of Yuezhi agreed, so he sent troops to send Chen Pan back to the country of Shule. The people of Shule already respected Chen Pan and feared the Yuezhi, so they together seized the royal seal from the son and crowned Chen Pan as king. The son was then made a minor Marquis of Gaocheng. Later, the kingdom of Shache had a falling out with Yutian and sought refuge in Shule. Shule, being powerful, became adversarial toward Kucha and Yutian.
In the second year of Emperor Hanshun, Chen Pan sent envoys to offer tribute to the court. The emperor happily appointed him as the Grand Commander of Han and also appointed his nephew Chen Xun as the Guardian General. In the fifth year of Yongjian, Chen Pan sent his son and envoys from Dawan and Shache to the capital to offer tribute. In the second year of Yangjia, Chen Pan offered lions and a kind of animal called a "fengniu" as tribute. In the first year of Jianning during the reign of Emperor Ling, the King of Shule was hunting with the Grand Commander of Han when the king's uncle shot and killed him, then declared himself king. Three years later, the Inspector of Liangzhou, Meng Tuo, dispatched Ren She, leading five hundred soldiers from Dunhuang, along with Cao Kuan and Zhang Yan, to join forces with Yutian, Guizi, and Cheshi, totaling over thirty thousand soldiers, to attack the Kingdom of Shule. They besieged Zhenzhong City for over forty days but failed to capture it, eventually retreating. After that, the kings of Shule were killed one after another, and the court could no longer control the situation.
The route to the northeast is as follows: passing through Youtou, Wensu, Gumo, Guizi, and finally arriving at Yutian. The King of Yutian resides in Nanhe City, eight hundred li from the residence of the Prefect, and eighty-two hundred li from Luoyang. Yutian has fifteen thousand households, fifty-two thousand people, and over twenty thousand elite soldiers. The country is surrounded by mountains and borders Guizi. The roads are rugged and treacherous, which makes it easily defendable but hard to attack. There is also a tributary of seawater flowing through the mountains, surrounding the city for over thirty li.
Towards the end of the Yongping period, Yutian and Guizi joined forces to kill the officials Chen Mu and Guo Xun, resulting in the deaths of over two thousand officials and soldiers. This incident caused a significant uproar.
In the sixth year of Yongyuan, General Ban Chao led forces from various nations to campaign against Yanqi, Wuxu, Yuli, and the Shan Kingdom, directly beheading the kings of Yanqi and Yuli, and sending their heads to the capital city to be displayed at the residences of the barbarian tribes. Ban Chao then appointed the Left General of Yanqi, Yuan Meng, as the new king, and the kings of Yuli, Wuxu, and the Shan Kingdom were also reestablished. During the reign of Emperor An, the nations of the Western Regions rose in rebellion again. During the Yongguang era, Ban Chao's son Ban Yong became the Chief Official of the Western Regions and once again pacified those countries. However, both Yuan Meng and the kingdoms of Yuli and Wuxu refused to surrender. In the second year of Yongjian, Ban Yong and the Prefect of Dunhuang, Zhang Lang, defeated them, and it was only then that Yuan Meng sent his son to the capital with gifts to plead for mercy.
The Pulei Kingdom, located west of the Tianshan Mountains in the Shuyu Valley, is located approximately 1,290 li southeast of the Chief Official's residence, and over 14,900 li away from Luoyang. They consist of over 800 households, with a population exceeding 2,000, and more than 700 soldiers. They reside in tents and migrate in search of water and pasture, and have some knowledge of farming. They raise cattle, horses, camels, and sheep, and are adept at crafting bows and arrows. This region is renowned for its excellent horses.
The Pulei Kingdom used to be a powerful nation, but during the time when the Western Regions were dominated by the Xiongnu, their king offended the Xiongnu Chanyu. In a fit of rage, the Chanyu relocated over 6,000 individuals from the Pulei Kingdom to the territory of the Right Wing of the Xiongnu, which became known as the A'e Kingdom. Traveling from the rear of the Cheshi to A'e takes over 90 days. Due to their weakened population, many people fled to the mountains and settled there, eventually forming a new nation.
The Yizhi Kingdom lies within the territory of the Pulei Kingdom. They have over 1,000 households, with a population of over 3,000 people, and more than 1,000 soldiers. They are fierce warriors who relish battle and plunder, sport untamed hair, migrate with livestock, and do not engage in farming. The products from their region are similar to those of the Pulei Kingdom.
Dongqiemi Kingdom, from the residence of the chief historian, heading east for eight hundred li, which is nine thousand two hundred and fifty li from Luoyang. There are over three thousand households, with a population exceeding five thousand, including more than two thousand soldiers. They live in tents, migrating in search of water and pasture, while also cultivating some land. The products from there are similar to those of Pulie Kingdom, and their place of residence is not fixed.
The former king of Cheshi resided in Jiahe City, where the river splits into several branches encircling the city. From the willows near the chief historian's residence, heading west for eighty li, and from Luoyang to the west for nine thousand one hundred and twenty li. There are more than one thousand five hundred households, more than four thousand people, and two thousand soldiers who can fight.
Regarding Cheshi Kingdom, the king's residence was known as Wutugu, five hundred li away from the place where the chief historian (equivalent to the local administrative chief) lived, and it was far from Luoyang, as far as nine thousand six hundred and twenty li! He governed over more than four thousand households, with a population exceeding fifteen thousand, and more than three thousand elite soldiers.
In fact, Cheshi Kingdom is divided into the front and rear parts, as well as the smaller states of Dongqiemi, Beilu, Pulie, and Yizhi, which together form the six countries of Cheshi. They border on the Xiongnu in the north, the front part can lead to the northern road of Yanqi Kingdom in the west, and the rear part can lead to Wusun Kingdom in the west.
In the twenty-first year of the Jianwu era, the kings of Cheshi dispatched their sons to Luoyang as hostages. Emperor Guangwu of Han sent them back, but they fled to ally with the Xiongnu. It wasn't until the sixteenth year of Yongping during Emperor Ming's reign that the Han Dynasty captured Yiwu Lu and opened up the road to the Western Regions, and Cheshi returned to the Han Dynasty. But not long after, the Xiongnu sent troops to attack, and Cheshi once again sought refuge with the Xiongnu. It was not until the second year of Yongyuan of Emperor He that Grand General Dou Xian defeated the Northern Xiongnu, and Cheshi became afraid. The two kings of Cheshi promptly sent their sons to present tribute, and the emperor rewarded them with seals, silk, and treasures of gold and silver.
In the eighth year of Yongyuan, Colonel Suo Jun wanted to depose the king of Houbu, Zhuodi, and support the Marquis of Polu, Xizhi, as king. Zhuodi resented the previous king, Weibei, for selling him off, so he rebelled against Weibei and captured his wife and children. The following year, the Han Dynasty sent General and Chief of Staff Wang Lin with troops from six counties of Liangzhou, as well as over 20,000 Qiang and Hu soldiers, to attack Zhuodi. The campaign resulted in over a thousand captives being taken, and Zhuodi himself fled to the Northern Xiongnu. The Han army pursued and killed him, then installed Zhuodi's brother, Nong Qi, as the king.
In the first year of Yongning, the king of Houbu, Jun, rebelled with his mother, Shama, and killed the marshal of Houbu and officials from Dunhuang. It wasn't until the fourth year of Emperor An's Yanguang reign that the Chief of Staff Ban Yongcai led troops to defeat Jun and eventually kill him.
In the year 106 AD, during the first year of Emperor Shun of Han, General Dou Xian sent Gatenu, the son of the king of Houbu, and Bahua, with elite troops to confront the Northern Xiongnu king, Huyan. Huyan was defeated by them, and Gatenu was installed as the king, while Bahua became the Marquis of Houbu.
In the summer of 109 AD, during the third year of the Han Yangjia era, the marshal of the Cheshi Houbu, Gatenu, led 1,500 troops in a surprise attack against the Northern Xiongnu in Changwulu Valley, destroying their camps and killing hundreds, capturing the Chanyu's mother and stepmother, along with hundreds of women, and seizing tens of thousands of cattle and sheep, over a thousand carts, and a large cache of weapons and supplies.
In the spring of the year 110 AD, King Huyan of the Northern Xiongnu led troops to attack the rear of the Cheshi. The emperor felt that the six kingdoms of Cheshi were too close to the Northern Xiongnu, serving as a barrier in the Western Regions. He ordered the Dunhuang Prefect to lead troops from various countries, along with the defenders of Yumen Pass and the Sima of Yiwu, totaling 6,300 cavalry to provide assistance. They engaged in battle with the Northern Xiongnu at Leshan, but the Han army did not gain an advantage and suffered losses. In the autumn, Huyan King led two thousand troops to attack the rear of the Cheshi and defeated them.
In the year 147 AD, during the first year of the reign of Emperor Huan of Han, Huyan King led over three thousand cavalry to harass Yiwu. The Sima of Yiwu, Mao Kai, sent five hundred soldiers to fight against Huyan King at the eastern edge of Puleihai, resulting in the army being completely annihilated. Huyan King then attacked the garrison of Yiwu. In the summer, the court dispatched Dunhuang Prefect Sima Da, along with over four thousand officials and soldiers from Dunhuang, Jiuquan, Zhangye, and other regions, to provide assistance. They reached Puleihai, but upon hearing that the Han army had arrived, Huyan King withdrew his troops. The Han army did not achieve victory and returned empty-handed.
In the first year of Yongxing, in 151 AD, the relationship between Wang Aluo Duo, the leader of the rear army, and Yan Hao, the leader of the Wubu, was strained. They had always had a grudge against each other, and eventually had a falling out. Wang Aluo Duo rebelled! He led his troops to attack the Han's farming camp and cities, resulting in casualties among the officials and soldiers.
At that time, Tan Zhe, the rear army leader, dissatisfied with Wang Aluo Duo's rebellion, surrendered to the Han officials. Realizing the situation had worsened, Wang Aluo Duo panicked and fled with his mother, wife, children, and over a hundred cavalry to the Northern Xiongnu! Upon seeing this, Dunhuang Prefect Song Liang quickly appointed the son of the former rear army leader, Beijun, as the new rear army leader to restore order.
As a result, Wang Aluo returned from the Xiongnu once more! He competed with Beijun for the throne and gained the support of many common folk. Wuxiaowei Yan Xiang grew concerned that Wang Aluo would collude with the Northern Xiongnu and stir up trouble in the Western Regions, so he wrote to him, saying that as long as he surrendered, he could keep his title as king. Upon hearing this, Wang Aluo hurried to surrender to Yan Xiang.
So, Yan Xiang revoked the royal seal he had given to Beijun earlier and reinstated Wang Aluo as king. As for Beijun, he was sent back to Dunhuang, and the Han Dynasty allocated three hundred households to specifically manage Beijun, allowing him to live on the taxes of these people, essentially putting him under house arrest.
It is said that the customs and practices of the Western Regions were previously unknown. During the Han Dynasty, Zhang Qian had big dreams, while Ban Chao dreamed of becoming a marquis or a high-ranking official. In the end, they both achieved great success in the Western Regions, making those foreign tribes bow to them. Wherever the Han Dynasty army intimidated or where they used wealth to buy influence, the Western Regions countries obediently offered tribute and rare treasures, bowing their heads and bending at the waist to show their submission, facing east to worship the emperor. Therefore, the Han Dynasty set up officials like Wujixiaowei to manage Western Region affairs and appointed commanders to oversee military and political power in the region. When these Western Region countries first submitted, the Han Dynasty rewarded them with gold, silver, and official seals; after they fully surrendered, they held ceremonies in front of the palace in Chang'an. The Han Dynasty also farmed the fertile land in the Western Regions and set up postal stations along important trade routes. Messages flowed constantly between these stations, and Western merchants came to the border every day to trade. Later, Gan Ying reached Tiaozhi, passed through Anxi, arrived at the shores of the Western Sea, gazed at Daqin, and traveled more than forty thousand li from Yumen Pass to Yangguan, truly exploring different parts of the Western Regions.
The customs and habits of various regions in the West, the intelligence and ignorance of the people, various products, the geography of rivers and mountains, changes in climate, as well as the routes across mountains and through deserts, diseases, and disasters there, were all detailed and carefully documented by the Han Dynasty. As for Buddhism, Taoism, and some supernatural events in the western territories, as well as the customs of self-mutilation for sacrifice by the people there, the historical records of the Han Dynasty do not mention them. Zhang Qian only wrote about the damp and hot land in the West, where the locals rode elephants to fight battles; Ban Yong recorded the worship of Buddha statues by the people in the western territories, but did not mention their military activities. As for the advanced systems and rich culture of the West, as well as how they communicated and interacted with the Han Dynasty, historical records also do not mention much. Later, I heard that the level of civilization in the West was not inferior to that of the Central Plains, with a mild climate, auspicious signs, and many talented individuals. Those wondrous phenomena were beyond people's understanding; those extraordinary events seemed to be from another world. However, Zhang Qian and Ban Chao did not record much of this, perhaps due to the poor transportation at the time, or the timing was not right? Or was it that these strange events were intentionally hidden?
The Han Dynasty, starting from Emperor Yuan of Chu, attached great importance to sacrificial activities; Emperor Huan even built a Hua Gai Pavilion for sacrifices. Does this mean that the Han Dynasty had insufficient understanding of Western Region culture and only focused on myths and spirits? If you carefully examine the teachings of the Western Region, which emphasize a clear heart, eradication of distractions, and the notion of benefiting all, you will find that they are actually quite similar to Daoist thoughts. They advocate benevolence, oppose killing, and promote innovation, which is why many wise and virtuous individuals admire their teachings. However, some customs in the Western Region can seem exaggerated and peculiar, making it difficult to fully comprehend their culture, even the discussions of figures like Zou Yan and Zhuangzi. Additionally, the spirits and ghosts of the Western Region, known for their cycles of retribution, are often unpredictable, leaving many confused. In general, the culture of the Western Region lacks a unified framework, adapting to different environments and situations, ultimately converging on the same path. If people's doubts can be eliminated, the underlying truths can be revealed.
Speaking of the Western Hu, they live in remote corners of the earth, far from the Central Plains. Their local products may look exquisite, but their character is somewhat unreliable and quite hypocritical. They do not follow the Central Plains' etiquette, nor do they possess any canonical texts to refer to. However, as long as they do not violate the natural order, why should we concern ourselves too much with them?
"The Western Hu, far from the heavens; their land is rich, but their hearts are hollow. They disregard our customs, lacking sacred texts to guide them. If they don't defy the natural order, why should we fret over them!" This ode captures the essence. You see, the Western Hu, residing in distant lands, have customs that are very different from ours. Their goods may look beautiful, but their people are not very reliable. They do not follow the etiquette of the Central Plains, nor do they have proper scriptures and rules. As long as they do not violate the natural order, we shouldn't be overly strict with them.
In short, the barbarians from the Western Regions, far away in the distance, have cultural customs that differ greatly from ours. Their goods may look beautiful, but their character can be somewhat elusive. They don't adhere to our customs, and there aren't any reliable texts to refer to. However, as long as they don't violate natural order, we can just overlook it.
