In the first month of the 26th year of Guangwu's reign, he built the Gaomiao in Luoyang. Sacrifices were held year-round, with Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang as the Founding Ancestor, Emperor Wen Liu Heng as the Grand Father, and Emperor Wu Liu Xiu as the Imperial Ancestor. Other emperors were honored with sacrifices five times a year: in the first month of spring, the fourth month of summer, the seventh month of autumn, and the tenth and twelfth months of winter.
In the first month of the 29th year of Guangwu's reign, he built the Qinmiao in Luoyang to sacrifice to his father, Lord Nandun, and his ancestors up to the Chongling Marquis. At that time, the world was in turmoil, plagued by bandits and ongoing wars, so the sacrificial rituals at the Qinmiao had yet to be formally established.
It was not until the 45th year of Guangwu's reign, when the bandits were pacified and the wars were largely resolved, that Zhang Chun and Zhu Fu, officials responsible for the Five Offices, proposed that according to ritual, one should first offer sacrifices to the ancestors, then to one's own close relatives. Rituals should not differentiate between family members and outsiders. Therefore, the number of Qinmiao should be reduced to four. Emperor Xiaoxuan, being a grandson, had a temple built for his father named the Emperor's Father Temple, where only ministers performed sacrifices. It was suggested that the four temples of the previous emperors replace the current Qinmiao, and the Emperor's Father Temple be established for Lord Nandun, sacrificing up to the Chongling Marquis, to be worshipped by the ministers.
After much discussion among the ministers, resulting in differing opinions and no consensus, the Emperor accepted the views of Grand Tutor She and his colleagues, decreeing that since the location of the ancestral temple had not been finalized, sacrifices should be conducted collectively at the Gaomiao. Therefore, Emperor Cheng, Emperor Ai, and Emperor Ping would initially be honored at the original Gaomiao in Chang'an. Ancestors from Nanyang Chongling would be honored at the original Yuanmiao. If the Yuanmiao was too far from the Prefectural Governor's office, the local county magistrate would stand in for the Prefect during the sacrifices. Only Emperor Xiaoxuan had the most significant contributions, earning him the posthumous title of Emperor Zhongzong.
Therefore, the Gaomiao in Luoyang must hold sacrifices for a total of five emperors, including Emperor Xiaoxuan and Emperor Xiaoyuan, throughout the year. The emperors Cheng, Ai, and Ping perform their sacrifices at the original Gaomiao located in Chang'an throughout the year. The temple to the east is where the Jingzhao magistrate performs sacrifices, with the ceremonial etiquette being as formal as that of the sacrifices at the imperial tombs. The officials Nan Dunjun and Chongling Jiehou perform sacrifices in their respective temples. The temple of Nan Dunjun is referred to as the Temple of the Emperor, the temple of the Julu Commandant is referred to as the Ancestor Temple, the temple of the Yulin Prefect is referred to as the Great Ancestor Temple, and the temple of Chongling Jiehou is referred to as the High Ancestor Temple, with local officials from their respective counties and prefectures performing the sacrifices.
In the 26th year AD, the emperor asked Zhang Chun how the ancestral rites, including the sacrificial rites and combined sacrifices, have been carried out in recent years. Zhang Chun replied, "According to the ritual system, there is a major sacrifice (Xi) every three years and a grand sacrificial ceremony (Di) every five years. The ancestral tablets of those whose temples have been destroyed are placed in the ancestral temple; the ancestral tablets of those whose temples are still intact are worshipped together with those of the ancestors in the ancestral temple; there are two Yin sacrifices every five years, which are carefully inspected. Previously, the rule was to hold three major sacrifices every three years; the tablets of those whose temples were destroyed were sacrificed alongside those in the high temple, while the ancestors whose temples were still intact have never been sacrificed together. It was not until the fifth year of Yuan Shi that the Di ceremony was implemented. The father, Emperor Zhao, faces south, while the son, Emperor Mu, faces north. Father and son cannot sit side by side; instead, the grandson stands beside his grandfather. The term 'Di' signifies 'dì', which means that the 'Di' ceremony should reflect the order of Zhao and Mu, expressing the etiquette of respect and hierarchy. The Di ceremony is held in the fourth month of summer because at this time the yang energy rises and the yin energy descends, which aligns perfectly with the order of respect and hierarchy. The combined sacrifice takes place in October, as this is when the harvest is plentiful, symbolizing the reunion of family members. Since the ancestral temples were not yet fully established, the combined sacrifices were conducted first. Now, the timing of sacrifices should be determined by the seasons." All of this is recorded in the "Biography of Zhang Chun." The emperor found rebuilding the temples too cumbersome, so he decided to adopt the method of combined sacrifices at the high temple moving forward.
Later on, during the grand winter festival (Ji) held every three years and the solemn summer festival held every five years, only the ancestral tablets of ancestors who had destroyed temples were displayed for worship, a practice known as Yin sacrifices. In the Temple of the Great Ancestor, Emperor Liu Bang is seated to the east, with Emperors Hui, Wen, Wu, and Yuan designated as the principal ancestors, and Emperors Jing and Xuan listed as the reverent ancestors. Emperors Hui, Jing, and Zhao are worshipped separately only during Yin sacrifices. After Emperor Guangwu Liu Xiu passed away, Emperor Ming Liu Zhuang ascended to the throne. Because Emperor Guangwu pacified the world and revitalized the Han Dynasty, a separate temple was built for him, and he was honored as the Temple of the Ancestor of the World. Although Emperor Yuan was not a direct ancestor, his temple remained intact because he was revered by Emperor Guangwu. This practice eventually became customary. Before Emperor Ming passed away, he left instructions not to build a separate temple for himself, but to be interred alongside the World Ancestor in the changing room of the World Ancestor's temple. Upon ascending the throne, Emperor Xiaozhang was reluctant to disobey these instructions but felt they were somewhat inappropriate. Thus, he honored Emperor Ming with the title "Xianzong" and established a separate worship area in the changing room, while continuing to worship the World Ancestor together each spring, autumn, winter, and summer. These accounts are recorded in the "Zhangji."
When Emperor Zhang passed away, he left a will stating not to build a temple for him, but to manage the temple according to the specifications of the previous emperor. When Emperor He ascended to the throne, he did not dare to go against the will, so he posthumously honored Emperor Zhang with the title "Suzong." Later emperors placed the tablets of the previous emperors in the ancestral temple, but as time passed, the number of tablets accumulated and became indistinguishable. Therefore, the title "Xianzong" eventually became associated solely with the imperial mausoleum. During the Yongyuan era, Emperor He posthumously honored his mother, Lady Liang, as Empress Gonghuai, and her tomb is known as Xiling. Empress Dou was buried with Emperor Zhang, while Empress Gonghuai was honored with a separate tomb for sacrifices. After Emperor He's death, he was posthumously honored as Emperor Muzong. Emperor Shang lived for over three hundred days before passing away. Empress Dowager Deng served as regent, and since Emperor Shang was still an infant, he was not included in the ancestral temple, but sacrifices were made in front of his tomb.
Emperor An was Prince Xiao of Qinghe, and after his ascension, in the first year of Jianguang, he posthumously honored his grandmother, Lady Song, as Empress Jingyin, and her tomb is known as Jingbei Ling. Sacrifices were also only made in front of his tomb, following the same sacrificial practices as those at Xiling. He also posthumously honored his father, Prince Xiao of Qinghe, as Emperor Xiaode, and his mother as Empress Xiaode, with the responsibility of sacrifices falling on the Prince of Qinghe Si. Emperor An was framed by villains, killed ministers, deposed the crown prince, and after his death, there was no proposal to honor him in the ancestral temple. However, since his tomb had remained intact since the Jianwu era, sacrifices continued to be performed, and he was posthumously honored with the title of Emperor Gongzong.
After Shun Emperor ascended to the throne, his mother was posthumously titled Empress Gongmin, and her tomb was called Gongbei Mausoleum, with the same level of honor and specifications as Beiling Mausoleum. After Shun Emperor's death, he was posthumously named Emperor Jingzong. Emperor Zhizhi passed away at a young age, and Empress Liang acted as regent, following the precedent set by Emperor Shang, only offering sacrifices at the tomb. After all the sacrificial activities in the ancestral temples were completed, the three dukes were required to perform separate sacrifices. Emperor Huan was the grandson of King Xiaowang of Hejian, and after his ascension, he also honored his ancestors, with the state responsible for the sacrificial rites. These details are recorded in the "Biographies of the Eight Kings of Zhanghe." After Emperor Huan's death, he was honored as Emperor Weizong, as he had no sons. Emperor Ling was the great-grandson of King Xiaowang of Hejian, and after his ascension, he also honored his ancestors. These details are recorded in the "Biographies of the Eight Kings of Zhanghe."
During Emperor Ling's reign, five emperors were honored at the high temples in the capital each year during the spring, autumn, winter, and summer sacrifices, seven emperors at the ancestral temple, three tombs for the deceased young emperors, and three tombs for honored empresses, totaling eighteen sacrificial animals along with additional offerings. As a result, after the tablets of three emperors were taken down from the high temples, only basic sacrifices were conducted each year during the spring, autumn, winter, and summer. After Emperor Ling's death, Emperor Xian ascended to the throne. During the Chuping era, the Prime Minister Dong Zhuo and General Cai Yong, among others, believed that there was no distinction in merit among the emperors from Emperor He onward, and that they should not be honored in the ancestral temples, and that the honored empresses should also be excluded from the ancestral temples, so they requested for these tablets to be removed. Therefore, the annual sacrifices during spring, autumn, winter, and summer were dedicated to one ancestor and two emperors at the high temples, along with the four most recent emperors, bringing the total to seven emperors.
It is said that in ancient times there was no custom of tomb offerings, and the imperial tombs of the Han Dynasty were constructed with garden chambers, following the practice of the Qin Dynasty. Some say that in ancient times, temples were constructed in front of ancestral shrines, and chambers were built behind them, symbolizing a household's layout, where the front represents the court and the back represents the bedroom. The "Yueling" states, "first offer the chamber temple," and the "Book of Songs" also mentions "chamber temple yiyi," indicating a connection between the two. Temples are used to enshrine ancestral tablets and conduct seasonal sacrifices; chambers are used to display clothing, headgear, and other items representing the living, and are used to offer fresh sacrifices. The Qin Dynasty began setting up chambers next to tombs, and the Han Dynasty followed this practice, so chambers on tombs are called chamber temples, containing items such as clothing, headgear, and bedding symbolizing the lives of the living; this encapsulates the meaning of ancient chamber temples. After the Jianwu period, due to the age of imperial tombs in the Guanzhong area, only basic offerings were performed throughout the four seasons; the emperor would only conduct elaborate sacrificial ceremonies during visits to the various tombs in Chang'an. From the imperial tombs in Luoyang to the reign of Emperor Ling, sacrifices were conducted in accordance with the dark days, the new moon, the twenty-four solar terms, the winter solstice, and the changing seasons. On the day of the sacrifice, food was delivered in the morning; the Tai Guan was responsible for delivering the sacrificial items, the Garden Superintendent and the Food Supervisor were in charge, and the palace attendants of the imperial tombs adjusted the bedding and pillows according to the sundial, prepared washing water and arranged the sacrificial items.
In the second year of Jianwu, the Altar of Land and Grain was established in Luoyang, situated to the right of the ancestral temple. It was a square altar without a roof, featuring only walls and a gate. Sacrifices were held three times a year in February, August, and December, with Taolao offerings each time, led by the supervising officials. The "Xiaojing Yuanshen Qi" states: "She is the god of the land, and Ji is the god of the five grains." The "Book of Rites" and "Guoyu" both record that Gong Gong's son was named Ju Long, who served as the land deity, who could pacify the lands of the nine provinces, and thus he was worshipped as the god of She; the son of Lishan was named Zhu, who could cultivate various grains and manage waterways, and thus he was worshipped as the god of Ji since the Xia Dynasty. During the Yin and Shang dynasties, due to Zhu being an ancient figure, he was replaced during Emperor Yao's reign by Hou Ji, who was also skilled in cultivating various grains. Therefore, the sacrifices to Zhu were discontinued, and instead, the sacrifices to Hou were conducted as the god of Ji. The Grand Minister of Agriculture, Zheng Xuan, explained that in ancient times, officials who had great achievements would be granted the status of a deity. Therefore, Ju Long was granted the status of the god of She, and Hou was granted the status of the god of Ji. Counties established Sheji altars, and the governor, county magistrate, and chief of the county were all required to participate in the sacrifices, using sheep and pigs as sacrificial offerings. Only the provincial capital had a She altar without a Ji altar, because the provincial capital served as the local administrative center, and officials were responsible for the sacrifices. In ancient times, when armies went to war or suppressed rebellions, they would carry the shrine of the She deity, but not the Ji deity. The state also conducted the Five Sacrifices rituals, overseen by designated officials, with simpler rituals than those of the Sheji sacrifices.
In the eight years of the Han Dynasty, some believe that the Zhou Dynasty's prosperity stemmed from the establishment of sacrifices to Houji, so Emperor Gaozu ordered the establishment of Lingxing Temples across the nation. The sacrifice to Houji was referred to as Lingxing because he was also deemed worthy of worship as a star god. According to earlier accounts, the star referred to was the Tian Tian star. Another belief holds that the dragon's left horn represents the Tian Tian star official, responsible for ensuring the abundance of the five grains. During the sacrifice, an altar was set up facing the direction of Ren Chen. Ren belongs to water, and Chen belongs to the dragon; this was chosen based on the attributes of the five elements. The sacrificial animals included Taolao, which refers to cows, sheep, and pigs, and the county magistrates and village chiefs from each county and village had to participate in the sacrifice. Sixteen boys performed a dance that simulated various scenes of farming, from initial weeding to planting, weeding, scaring away birds, and finally to harvesting, threshing, and winnowing, all expressed through dance to symbolize the hard work and harvest of agriculture.
Every year, each county had to perform sacrifices to the God of Agriculture on Yiwei day, with the ceremony held at the Yi position; on Bingxu day, they would sacrifice to the God of Wind, with the ceremony held at the Xu position; on Jichou day, they would sacrifice to the Rain Master God, with the ceremony held at the Chou position, using sheep and pigs as sacrificial animals.
On the day marking the beginning of spring, everyone wore green hats and went outside the east gate of the city to welcome spring. A boy would be chosen, wearing a green headband and clothes, waiting in the fields outside the east gate. When the procession welcoming spring arrived, the spring-welcoming crowd would bow to him before he returned without performing a sacrifice. Throughout the year, spring was only welcomed on this day, and the other two seasons were not welcomed.
It is said that the place where Zang Wenzhong conducted his sacrifices is called Yuanju, but Confucius believed he lacked understanding of the proper rituals. According to the "Book of Han: Records of Sacrifices," from the Qin Dynasty to Wang Mang, some sacrificial ceremonies were poorly conducted, with many instances like Yuanju. When Emperor Guangwu ascended to the throne, unnecessary sacrifices were eliminated, and the traditional sacrificial rituals were reinstated; the difference was like night and day! I've heard it said by Confucian scholars that there were no written characters during the era of the Three Emperors, and they used knots to record events to govern the country. It was not until the era of the Five Emperors that written characters were introduced. During the period of the Three Kings, society began to emphasize elaborate decorations, and incidents of fraud and forgery gradually increased, which led to the creation of seals to curb wrongdoing. However, at that time, objects made of gold, silver, copper, or jade did not yet exist. From ancient times to the Zhou Dynasty, Mount Tai was worshipped a total of seventy-two times. The term "worship" refers to building an altar from earth, offering sacrifices using firewood, making offerings to the heavens, and celebrating their accomplishments. The "Rites" referenced in the "Book of Rites" conveys this meaning. With each change of dynasty, a new worship ceremony is necessary, signifying the start of a new era and indicating a break from the previous dynasty. Subsequent emperors' tours and hunts were merely for the maintenance of the sacrificial sites.
From Qin Shihuang and Emperor Wu of Han onwards, the practice of 封禅 at Mount Tai was all because of superstition regarding immortals and listening to the words of diviners, leading to the creation of stone inscriptions and seals. Although it is said that the ways of Heaven are hard to predict, there is still a general rule to follow. The will of Heaven emphasizes simplicity and sincerity, being plain and not extravagant. Therefore, the sacrificial animals used are merely young calves, and the utensils used are only pottery and gourds, probably to avoid elaborate sealing ceremonies and to savor the challenge of climbing the formidable Mount Tai. Moreover, the 封禅 ceremony can only be performed with a change of dynasty, hence its name "Dai Zong." Kings Kang of Xia and Xuan of Zhou both revived from decline, and there is no record of them performing the 封禅 ceremony. Emperor Guangwu wanted to continue using the previous site of 封禅 established by Emperor Wu of Han, which was essentially a continuation of ancestral practices. However, Liang Song firmly opposed this, believing that the ceremony needed to be performed afresh. As a result, after Emperor Guangwu performed the 封禅, there were no favorable signs, and Liang Song was eventually killed. Although he deserved his punishment, it could also be viewed as him being unjustly blamed by the spirits. Furthermore, the reason emperors are remembered in later generations is because of their virtue benefiting the people, not because of offering sacrifices to Mount Tai! Nothing surpasses the Book of Changes (Yijing), and there are no hexagrams of the Six Ancestors within it. Only by truly believing one is revered by the four corners of Heaven and Earth can one attain true greatness and sanctity; when compared to the Grand Altar, it seems to have lost its significance, making it difficult to be considered sincere!
