The ancestors of the Western Qiang people originated from the Sanmiao tribe and are a branch of the Jiang clan. Their territory is located near Mount Heng in the south. Later, Emperor Shun exiled the Four Calamities to Sanwei Mountain, which is located southwest of Heguan, within Qiang territory. Their territory extends from the Cizhi River to the source of the Yellow River, spanning an area of over a thousand miles. The Cizhi River mentioned in the "Tribute of Yu" is the same as the Xizhi River. They share borders with the southern tribes of Shu and the Han Dynasty, and are adjacent to countries like Shanshan and Cheshi in the northwest. They have no permanent settlements and constantly move in search of water and pasture. They are unable to cultivate much food in their territory and primarily depend on herding for their livelihood. Their clan structure is quite fluid, sometimes using the father's name and sometimes the mother's surname to refer to the clan. After twelve generations, intermarriage began among the clans, with sons marrying their stepmothers and brothers marrying their sisters-in-law. As a result, there are no widowers or widows among them, and the population continues to increase. They do not have kings and ministers, nor do they have leaders. Whoever is powerful will establish their own family as a leader, while the weak will rely on others. They often plunder each other and hold strength in high regard. They adhere to a strict code of retribution, with no other laws in place. Their army is formidable in mountain warfare but weaker on the plains. While they struggle in prolonged engagements, they are fierce in their charges. They believe that dying in battle is a sign of good fortune, while dying from illness is seen as bad luck. They are hardworking and resilient, akin to wild beasts. Even women give birth without hesitation, regardless of harsh conditions. Their strong and courageous character may stem from an influence of the Western metal element.
If rulers govern with diligence and wisdom, their people will be obedient; if moral education fails, they will rebel. In the past, during the Xia Dynasty, when Tai Kang lost his throne, the Western Yi tribes betrayed the Xia Dynasty. Later, when Shao Kang took the throne, he launched expeditions against the rebellious tribes, and it took seven years for them to submit. It was not until Shao Kang's son, Xie, started granting titles to these tribes that they truly became submissive. Later, during the tyrannical rule of King Jie, the rebellious tribes migrated to the region between Bin and Qi. After King Tang established the Shang Dynasty, he attacked and expelled them. When the Shang Dynasty declined, all the tribes rebelled. It was not until the reign of King Wu Ding that the Western Rong and Gui Fang tribes were defeated after three years of battle. This is why there is a poem that says, "From those Di and Qiang tribes, none dare not to come to the king."
During the time of King Wu, the rule was increasingly tyrannical, and the Quanrong attacked the borders. The ancient Duke of Zhou fled to Liangshan to avoid the chaos of war, finally settling at the foot of Qishan. During the reign of his son, Ji Li, he began fighting against the Western Luogu tribes.
During the reign of King Tai Ding of the Zhou Dynasty, Ji Li went to attack the Rong tribes in Yanjing, resulting in a significant defeat for the Zhou forces. Two years later, the Zhou forces finally triumphed over the Yuwu Rong tribes. Therefore, King Tai Ding appointed Ji Li as the military commander. From then on, Ji Li defeated the Shihu and Yitu tribes.
Later, King Wen became the Marquis of the Western Zhou, and the Kunyi tribe revolted in the west, while the Xianyun tribe invaded from the north. King Wen then launched military campaigns against the Rongdi tribes, conquering them all, and no one dared to disobey anymore. King Wen then led the Western Rong tribes to attack the countries that had betrayed the Shang Dynasty, serving King Zhou loyally.
When King Wu attacked the Shang Dynasty, the Qiang and Maosi tribes both brought troops to support King Wu at Muye. When King Mu ascended the throne of Zhou, the Rong and Di tribes ceased to pay tribute to the Zhou Dynasty. King Mu personally led troops to the west to conquer the Quanrong tribe, capturing five tribal leaders, along with four white deer and four white wolves. King Mu then resettled the Quanrong tribe to Taiyuan.
During the reign of King Yi, the country grew weak, and the distant regions ceased to pay tribute. Guo Gong was then sent to lead six armies to attack the Rong tribes in Taiyuan, reaching Yuquan and capturing a thousand horses. During the reign of King Li, the Rong and Di tribes frequently raided, even reaching Quanqiu and killing Qin Zhong's family. King Li sent troops to fight the Rong tribes, but they were unsuccessful.
In the fourth year of King Xuan's reign, Qin Zhong was sent to fight the Rong tribes and was killed by them. King Xuan then summoned Qin Zhong's son, Duke Zhuang, and gave him seven thousand soldiers to fight the Rong tribes. This time, they finally achieved victory, leading the Rong tribes to become somewhat subdued. Twenty-seven years later, King Xuan sent troops to fight the Rong tribes in Taiyuan, but they still suffered defeat.
Five years later, King Xuan fought the Tiaorong and Benrong tribes, resulting in a major defeat for the Zhou army. Two years later, the Jin army defeated the Beirong forces in the region between the Fenshui and Xishui rivers, and the Beirong destroyed the cities of the Jiang Marquis. The following year, King Xuan led an expedition against the Shenrong and defeated them. Ten years later, King You sent Boshi to fight the Rong tribes of Liuji, but the army was defeated and Boshi was killed.
In that same year, the Rong tribes surrounded Quanqiu and captured Qin Xianggong's brother and uncle. King You was incompetent and tyrannical, facing invasions from all directions. He deposed Queen Shen and appointed Bao Si as queen. Angered, the Marquis of Shen allied with the Rong tribes to attack the Zhou Dynasty and killed King You at Mount Li. The Zhou Dynasty subsequently relocated to Luoyi. Qin Xianggong led troops to fight the Rong tribes to rescue the Zhou Dynasty.
Two years later, the Marquis of Xing achieved a decisive victory over the Beirong.
In the later years of King Ping's reign, the Zhou Dynasty began to decline, with the Rong and Di tribes invading in all directions from east of the Long Mountains to the Yi and Luo regions, their presence was felt everywhere. Upstream of the Wei River were the Di Rong, Yuan Yuan Rong, Gui Rong, and Ji Rong tribes; to the north of the Jing River were the Yi Qu Rong tribe; in the Luo River basin lived the Da Li Rong tribe; to the south of the Wei River were the Li Rong tribe; between the Yi and Luo regions lived the Yang Ju Rong and Quan Gao Rong tribes; and to the west of the Ying River basin were the Man Shi Rong tribe. During the Spring and Autumn Period, these Rong and Di tribes occasionally participated in alliances in the Central Plains. Duke Zhuang of Lu also wiped out the Gui Rong and Ji Rong during his military campaigns. Over a decade later, the state of Jin also wiped out the Li Rong. At that time, the power of the Rong and Di tribes in the Yi and Luo regions was quite strong, often advancing eastward to invade the states of Cao and Lu. Nineteen years later, they even reached the vicinity of the royal capital! The states of Qin and Jin had to come together to assist the Zhou Dynasty. Two years later, the Rong and Di tribes again harassed Haojing, and Duke Huan of Qi had to call upon the vassals to defend the Zhou royal family. Nine years later, the Lu Hun Rong relocated from Guazhou to Yichuan, and the Yun clan of the Rong moved to the south bank of the Wei River, extending all the way to Huan Yuan. The Rong and Di tribes north of the mountains in Henan were referred to as the Yin Rong, and their population was on the rise.
Duke Wen of Jin wanted to dominate, so he gave gifts to the Rong tribes and established good relations with them to strengthen the Zhou royal family's position. Duke Mu of Qin received help from the Rong people of Yu, thus controlling the Western Rong and expanding the territory by a thousand miles. When Duke Dao of Jin came to power, he sent Wei Jiang to negotiate peace with various Rong tribes, once again consolidating Jin's dominance. At that time, both the State of Chu and the State of Jin were very powerful, and the Rong tribes were all deterred by them. The Luhun, Yiluo, and Yin Rong tribes all submitted to Jin, while the Manshi Rong surrendered to Chu. Later, the Luhun Rong rebelled against Jin, and Jin sent Xun Wu to annihilate them. Forty-four years later, Chu captured the leader of the Manshi Rong and took them all prisoner. At that time, the Yiqu and Dali Rong were the most powerful. They built dozens of cities and all proclaimed themselves kings.
In the eighth year of King Zhen of Zhou, Duke Li of Qin destroyed the Dali Kingdom and took over their territory. The State of Zhao also destroyed the Dai Rong, the Rong tribes in the north. The States of Han and Wei together dealt with the Rong tribes near the Yiluo Yin Mountains. Those Rong tribes who were not destroyed all fled to the west of Qianshan and Longshan. From then on, there were no more disturbances by the Rong tribes within Chinese borders, only the Yiqu tribe remained.
In the twenty-fifth year of King Zheng of Zhou, the state of Qin attacked Yiqu and captured the King of Yiqu. Fourteen years later, Yiqu attacked Qin again and advanced to Wei Yin. Over a hundred years later, Yiqu defeated the Qin army near the Luo River. Four years later, there was a rebellion in Yiqu, and King Hui of Qin sent Shuchang Cao to suppress the rebellion, which led to Yiqu's submission to Qin. Eight years later, Qin attacked Yiqu again and captured Yuzhi. Two years later, Yiqu defeated the Qin army at Li Bo. The next year, Qin launched another attack on Yiqu and took twenty-five cities in Tujing. After King Zhao succeeded to the throne, the King of Yiqu paid tribute to Qin and had a relationship with Queen Xuan Taihou, giving birth to two sons. In the forty-third year of King Nan, Queen Xuan Taihou deceived and killed the King of Yiqu in Ganquan Palace, and then sent troops to destroy Yiqu, establishing Longxi County, Beidi County, and Shang County.
The Rongdi people initially had no permanent leader. From the end of the Xia Dynasty to the Shang and Zhou periods, some Rongdi people followed the princes to fight and were granted titles of princes by the emperor, acting as a buffer. During the Spring and Autumn Period, the leaders of the Rongdi tribes such as Luhun and Manshi were referred to as "Zi." During the Warring States period, the leaders of the Rongdi tribes in Dali and Yiqu were referred to as kings. After their decline and extinction, the remaining Rongdi people returned to their traditional structure and became leaders of various tribes.
The Qiang people were taken as slaves by the Qin State during the reign of Duke Li of Qin. It is unclear which Rongdi tribe Yan Jian came from. Later, he escaped and hid in a cave to survive the pursuit by the Qin soldiers. The Qiang people say that when Yan Jian first hid in the cave, the Qin soldiers set fire to the cave, but a figure resembling a tiger appeared and shielded him from the flames, saving his life. After escaping, he encountered a woman with her nose cut off in the wilderness, and they became husband and wife. The woman, feeling ashamed, covered her face with her hair, and Yan Jian followed suit, and they fled to the Sanhe region together. Other Qiang people, seeing that Yan Jian survived the fire, considered him miraculous and chose him as their leader. In the Helan region, where food was scarce and wild animals were abundant, the Qiang people lived by hunting. Yan Jian taught them farming and animal husbandry, gaining their respect, and more Qiang people began to follow him. The Qiang people called slaves "无弋 (wu yi), meaning 'slave,'" and because Yan Jian had been a slave, they used this name to refer to him. His descendants would go on to lead the Qiang tribe for generations.
Long ago, when Duke Xian of Qin had recently ascended the throne and wanted to restore the glory of Duke Mu of Qin, he marched his troops to the Wei River and defeated the Di Rong. At that time, Ren's uncle Ang, fearing the power of the Qin State, led his people southward to the west of the Zhi River, where the land was vast and sparsely populated, far from other Qiang tribes, thus severing ties with them. Eventually, their descendants spread out and developed independently, some became the Mao Niu tribe (Yue Xi Qiang), some became the Bai Ma tribe (Guang Han Qiang), and some became the Can Lang tribe (Wu Du Qiang). Ren and his brother Wu, however, stayed in Huangzhong and took many wives. Ren had nine sons, forming nine tribes; Wu had seventeen sons, forming seventeen tribes, which led to the prosperity of the Qiang people.
Later, Ren's son Yan became the chieftain during the reign of Duke Xiao of Qin when the Qin state was at its peak and had conquered the Qiang and Rong tribes. Duke Xiao of Qin even sent his Crown Prince along with ninety-two envoys from smaller Rong and Di states to pay homage to King Xian of Zhou! Yan was known for his exceptional strength, so the Qiang people began to refer to his descendants as the "Yan clan." During the time of Qin Shi Huang, the Qin state was busy unifying the six states and concentrated all its efforts on the eastern vassals, resulting in a growing population of the Qiang people in the west. After unifying the country, the Qin state dispatched General Meng Tian to expand its borders, driving various tribes to the west and north, and built the Great Wall to keep them apart. The defiant Qiang people began migrating southward.
During the founding of the Han dynasty, the Xiongnu leader Modu Chanyu was quite powerful, defeating the Donghu, expelling the Yuezhi, and gaining the allegiance of many Qiang tribes. During the reign of Emperor Jing of Han, the descendants of the Yan clan, led by Liu He, requested to defend the border at Longxi, so the Han dynasty relocated them to Didi, Angu, and eventually to areas like Lintao, Didao, and Qiangdao. During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, massive military campaigns were launched to expand the territory, pushing the Xiongnu northward and the Qiang people westward. The Han army crossed the Yellow River and the Huangshui, finished constructing the Yumen Pass, opened up the Hexi Corridor, established four commanderies, and separated the Qiang people and Xiongnu, preventing any potential collusion between them. Consequently, the Han dynasty's border outposts stretched thousands of miles beyond the Great Wall.
At that time, the Xianling Qiang and Fengyang Liao Jie tribes resolved their hatred, formed an alliance, colluded with the Xiongnu, united more than 100,000 troops, and together attacked Lingju and Angu, even surrounding Fahanshan. The Han Dynasty sent General Li Xi and Langzhongling Xu Ziwei to lead 100,000 troops to suppress the rebellion, finally quelling the uprising. The Han Dynasty also established the position of Qiang Guardian, specifically responsible for managing the Qiang people. The Qiang people had to relocate to areas near the Western Sea and Salt Lake. The Han Dynasty then took advantage of the local terrain to construct defensive fortifications. As the population in the Hexi region was sparse, the Han Dynasty gradually moved people there to settle.
During the reign of Emperor Xuan of Han, Chief Minister Yiqu Anguo was sent to investigate the situation of the Qiang people. The chieftains of the Xianling Qiang were quite defiant, saying, "We want to cross the Huang River and graze in the uninhabited areas!" Yiqu Anguo reported this matter, but the then Deputy General Zhao Chongguo felt that this could not be agreed to. However, later on, somehow the Xianling Qiang still crossed the Huang River, and the local authorities could not rein them in.
In the third year of the Yuankang era, the Xianling Qiang, along with other Qiang tribes, formed a large alliance and prepared to attack the border. When the Emperor heard about this, he sent Yiqu Anguo with troops to assess the situation. Upon arrival, Yiqu Anguo directly killed more than 40 leaders of the Xianling Qiang, then attacked them with troops, beheading over a thousand. This angered the other Qiang tribes, and they launched a joint attack on Jincheng Commandery. The court dispatched Zhao Chongguo along with other generals, mustering a total of 60,000 troops to engage in battle, ultimately defeating them and quelling the rebellion. Later, when the Xianling Qiang reached the 13th generation under Sun Shaodang, they emerged as a formidable force once again.
During the reign of Emperor Yuan of Han, the Jie Qiang and six other Qiang tribes attacked Longxi together. The court sent General Feng to lead the troops, which forced them to surrender. From the Yuanjian Qiang to the Diyan Qiang, Diyan was a particularly formidable leader, and the tribe later came to be known as the "Diyan Qiang." Then, in the thirteenth generation, Sun Shaodang, another powerful figure, had his descendants adopt "Shaodang" as their clan name. After the Jie Qiang surrendered, the border regions remained peaceful for several decades; the surrounding tribes were all subdued, and there were no significant disturbances along the border.
However, when Wang Mang came to power, he wanted to demonstrate his authority under the pretext of pacifying distant lands, and sent envoys to demand that the Qiang tribes yield the Western Sea region. Wang Mang quickly established five new counties and erected beacon towers throughout the border region to signal one another.
Dian Liang was the great-grandson of Shao Dang. This was during the final years of Wang Mang's reign, and the minority ethnic groups from the border invaded the Central Plains. After Wang Mang's failure, the Qiang people returned to the Western Sea region and turned to banditry. During the uprising of Emperor Gengshi and the Red Eyebrows army, the Qiang people became even more rampant, plundering Jincheng and Longxi indiscriminately. Although Wei Xiao commanded an army, he was unable to confront them and had to adopt a strategy of appeasement, even using the Qiang people to resist the Han Dynasty. In the ninth year of the Jianwu era, Wei Xiao passed away, and the Minister of Works, Ban Biao, submitted a memorial stating, "There are many surrendered Qiang people in the Liangzhou area now. The Qiang and Xiongnu people have unkempt hair, their clothing was worn open on the left side, and they live together with the Han people. Their customs and habits are different, and their languages are not mutually intelligible. They are often oppressed by some low-ranking officials and cunning people, impoverished and helpless, with no means to seek redress, they revolted. The uprisings among the barbarians were due to this. The previous system stipulated that Yizhou appointed a Qiduwei to oversee the barbarians, Youzhou appointed a Xiaowei to manage the Wuhuan, and Liangzhou appointed a Huqiang Xiaowei, all of whom carried tokens and were responsible for pacifying the barbarians, addressing their grievances, conducting regular inspections every year, and to understand their hardships. Messengers were frequently sent to convey messages, so that the Qiang and Xiongnu people outside the border could serve as the government's eyes and ears, allowing the prefectures and counties to prepare accordingly. The previous system should be reinstated to assert authority and enhance security." Emperor Guangwu accepted his suggestion and appointed Niu Han as the Huqiang Xiaowei, granting him the authority to wield the token as before. Later, after Niu Han's death, this position was abolished.
In the tenth year of Jianwu, the leader of the Xianling Qiang joined forces with other tribes to launch another attack on Jincheng and Longxi. The court sent Zhonglangjiang Lai She and others to suppress them and achieved a decisive victory. The details are documented in 'Lai She Zhuan'. In the summer of the eleventh year of Jianwu, the Xianling Qiang attacked Lintao again, where the Prefect of Longxi, Ma Yuan, defeated and subjugated them. Eventually, they all surrendered to the Han Dynasty and were relocated to Tianshui, Longxi, and Fufeng. The next year, the Canlang Qiang in Wudu staged a rebellion, and Ma Yuan defeated and subjugated them. The specific details are recorded in 'Ma Yuan Zhuan'.
From Shaodang to Dianliang, they lived in Hebei Dayungu for generations, with a small population and poor living conditions. The Xianling Qiang and Beinan Qiang were powerful and wealthy, often invading them. Dianliang and his son Dianwu endured prolonged oppression, yet they held significant respect among the Qiang. Dianwu mobilized various tribes and some mixed-blood Qiang, entered the territory of Xianling Qiang and Beinan Qiang from Dayu, launched a surprise attack, routed the enemy, killed three thousand foes, looted a large amount of wealth and livestock, and occupied Dayu. From that point on, Dianliang's power began to rise.
In the first year of Zhongyuan, the Canlang Qiang in Wudu revolted, resulting in the deaths of many officials and civilians. The Prefect led his troops into battle but was unsuccessful. The Prefect of Longxi, Liu Xu, sent military officer Xindu and Li Bao with five thousand soldiers to support Wudu. They engaged the Qiang forces, killed their leader, and captured over a thousand people. The Wudu army pursued the victory, beheading over a thousand more, and the remaining Qiang forces surrendered completely. At that time, Dianwu's territory expanded, solidifying his power among the Qiang. Dianwu educated those wishing to invade the border in military strategies, becoming their leader.
In the autumn of the second year of the reign, Dianwu and his younger brother Dian'an from the Shao Dangqiang tribe led five thousand troops to attack the border of Longxi County. Liu Xu dispatched troops to confront them at Fuhang, but they suffered defeat. They then fought at Yunjie and were defeated by the Qiang people, resulting in over five hundred casualties. This incited a rebellion among the Qiang people at the border. The court sent the official Zhang Hong, accompanied by troops from various counties, to fight, but they were defeated in Yunwu and Tanggu, resulting in the deaths of both Zhang Hong and Tian Sa, the Chief of Longxi. The Tianshui army was also defeated by Laojiezhong at Baishi, with over a thousand casualties.
At that time, there was an old woman named Bitongqian in the Shaohe tribe, over a hundred years old, very wise, and the Qiang people respected her. Later, they were attacked by the Lushui Hu, so Bitongqian led her tribe to seek refuge in the local counties. However, some Qiang individuals committed crimes, prompting the county magistrate of Linqiang to arrest Bitongqian and kill six to seven hundred people from her tribe. Emperor Han Xianzong learned of this situation and felt great pity, decreeing: "In the past, Duke Huan of Qi attacked the Rongdi without showing any benevolence, so the 'Spring and Autumn Annals' criticized the actions of the 'people of Qi'. Now the court lacks grace, and kindness does not reach so far. What crimes have the weak Qiang people committed to deserve such collective punishment? The tragedy of the Changping battle was not the achievement of the emperors, but the result of the excessive killing of innocent people by the governors and officials. Those still alive from Bitongqian's tribe should receive medical treatment in various locations, be taken care of properly, and be allowed to recruit their people. If they wish to return to their homeland, they should be escorted back with care. For individuals from smaller tribes who surrender willingly, their offenses will be pardoned if they seek to make contributions. If anyone conspires against the government and is apprehended, before their cases are adjudicated, rewards will be granted to those who have shown merit."
In the year 2 AD, the emperor sent Zhonglang General Dou Gu and General Ma Wu to Xihan to attack Dianwu, and Dianwu's army was defeated. Wu and his team reported the specific details. Dianwu fled with the remnants of his defeated troops, and the rest surrendered. Over seven thousand people were relocated to the Sanfu region.
The emperor appointed the courtier Dou Lin as the Protector of the Qiang and stationed him in Dida. Dou Lin gained the trust of the Qiang people, and as a result, Dian'an surrendered to Dou Lin. Unfortunately, Dou Lin was misled by his subordinates, who falsely reported to the emperor that Dian'an was a significant leader. The emperor approved his appointment as the Marquis of Guiyi and also granted him the title of Han Dafu.
The following year, Dianwu surrendered again, and Dou Lin reported that Dianwu was the most prominent leader and brought him to the capital to present to the emperor. The emperor found it strange that there were two so-called greatest leaders and questioned Dou Lin. When he couldn't explain, Dou Lin concocted a story, claiming that Dian'an was just another name for Dianwu, just a different pronunciation in Longxi dialect. After a thorough investigation, the truth came to light, and the emperor was furious, stripping Dou Lin of his position.
Coincidentally, the Governor of Liangzhou uncovered additional crimes committed by Dou Lin, which led to his arrest and eventual death in custody. The courtier Guo Xiang succeeded Dou Lin as the Protector of the Qiang, but when she learned about the strong influence of the Qiang people in Liangzhou, she quickly returned to the capital to confess and request the removal of her position, which resulted in the abolition of the Protector of the Qiang position.
Dianwu's son Dongwu, due to his father's surrender to the Han Dynasty, settled with his family within the borders and led a quiet life. However, several of Dianwu's brothers, led by Miwu, continued to stir up trouble and engage in banditry.
In the first year of the Jianchu era of Emperor Suzong of the Tang Dynasty, there was a low-ranking official in Anyi County who took a Qiang woman named Beinan by force as his wife. As a result, the woman's husband killed the official. County Chief Zong Yan pursued the culprit to capture him, but the Qiang people, fearing for their safety, killed Zong Yan instead. Beinan then joined forces with Qiang leaders Lejie and Wuliang to rebel.
The Prefect of Longxi, Sun Chun, sent his subordinate Li Mu and the Jincheng Commandery's army to battle Beinan and his followers in Luogu Valley, killing hundreds of rebels. Later, the court appointed former general Wu Tang as the Protector-General of the Qiang and stationed him in Anyi.
In the summer of the second year, Mei Wu led a large group of rebels to the border. Prefect of Jincheng, Hao Chong, caught up with them and defeated them in Ligu Valley, with Hao Chong escaping on horseback, resulting in over two thousand casualties. Following this, many Qiang and Lushui Hu people joined the rebellion. Wu Tang was unable to manage the situation and was eventually removed from his position by the court. Prefect of Wuwei, Fu Yu, replaced him as the Protector-General of the Qiang and relocated his headquarters to Linqiang.
Mei Wu then united with Qiang leaders including Fengyang, Zhanhao, and Buqiao, commanding over fifty thousand troops to attack Longxi and Hanyang. The court dispatched General Ma Fang and Deputy General Geng Gong to quell the rebellion, defeating them. Lin Tao, Suoxi, and Mei Wu ultimately surrendered. Ma Fang constructed a fort in Suoxi, reassigned the southern Longxi troops to garrison there, and restored the damaged outposts.
In the third year of Yuanhe, Miwu and his younger brother Haowu led a group of disorganized Qiang people in another rebellion. In the autumn, Haowu led his men to conduct a covert raid on the border of Longxi. The signal fires of Longxi County alerted Li Zhang, who captured Haowu. As they were escorting Haowu back to the county, Haowu said, "If you let me go, I promise to have everyone lay down their weapons and refrain from any further border offenses." Seeing the urgent situation, the Prefect of Longxi, Zhang Yu, decided to release him. As a result, the Qiang people indeed dispersed and returned home. Miwu then hid in Guiyi City in Hebei.
Fu Yu did not want to break his promise to the imperial court, so he recruited people to confront the Qiang and Hu tribes. However, the Qiang and Hu people were too intimidated to fight and rebelled again, fleeing to Miwu.
In the year 78 AD, also known as the first year of Zhanghe, an official named Geng Yu requested the mobilization of five thousand soldiers from Longxi, Zhangye, and Jiuquan counties, and the prefects of each county agreed. Geng Yu himself also led five thousand soldiers from Hanyang and Jincheng counties, bringing the total to twenty thousand soldiers. They planned to attack together, with the soldiers from Longxi positioned in the southern region and the soldiers from Zhangye and Jiuquan blocking the west. However, before they could gather, Geng Yu charged ahead with his troops on his own.
Mi Wu, the leader of the Qiang tribe, heard that Geng Yu was leading troops to attack, so he quickly led his people to pack up and flee. Geng Yu selected three thousand elite cavalry to pursue, and they reached San Dou Valley, just south of Jianwei County, under the cover of night, only a few miles away from the Qiang camp. They planned to launch an attack at dawn, but the Qiang were completely unprepared. Mi Wu had actually set an ambush with three hundred men and suddenly attacked Geng Yu's camp in the middle of the night. Geng Yu's camp was thrown into chaos as soldiers panicked and scattered in all directions. Geng Yu dismounted and fought bravely, killing over ten enemies, but ultimately fell in battle, along with eight hundred eighty of his men. By the time reinforcements from nearby counties arrived, the Qiang had already vanished. Geng Yu was from the northern region, and during the early years of Emperor Xianzong's reign, he was the magistrate of Linqiang County. He fought against the Dianwu tribe of the Qiang people alongside General Ma Wu, and his military accomplishments stood out among all the forces. Later, he served in Wuwei, where his reputation spread far and wide, even reaching the Xiongnu. He served as an official for decades, spending his salary to help relatives and friends, while his own wife and children struggled to get by. Emperor Suzong posthumously honored him and made his son, Geng Yi, the Marquis of Mingjin, with a fief of seven hundred households to manage. Simultaneously, he appointed Zhang Yu, the Prefect of Longxi, to take over as Colonel from Geng Yu, commanding ten thousand troops stationed in Linqiang.
After killing Fu Yu, Mi Wu grew even more arrogant and overbearing, exploiting the advantages of the border and becoming even more reckless. In the first year of the Zhanghe era, he led over seven thousand infantry and cavalry from various tribes to attack Jincheng Fortress once again. Zhang Yu sent the Attendant-Supervisor Sima Fang to lead over a thousand cavalry, along with the garrison of Jincheng, to engage Mi Wu's forces in Mucheng Valley. Consequently, Mi Wu's forces suffered a crushing defeat, and he quickly sent someone to surrender, and Zhang Yu accepted it.
Then, Zhang Yu brought these Qiang people to Linqiang County, arranged a formation, and prepared a feast. He secretly laced the wine with poison, and after the Qiang people got drunk, Zhang Yu ordered his soldiers to attack. The ambushing soldiers surged forward and killed over 800 Qiang leaders and nobles. The heads of five individuals, including Mi Wu, were severed and offered as sacrifices at Fu Yu's grave. Then, Zhang Yu sent troops to attack the Qiang people hiding in the valleys, killing over 400 people and capturing more than 2,000 prisoners.
Mi Wu's son, Mi Tang, along with his Qiang followers, cried out from the border and united with other tribes like Shaohe, Dangjian, and Dantian, offering children, gold, and silver as bribes to other tribes to resolve the hatred, exchange hostages, and gathered more than 5,000 people to attack Longxi's border. Longxi's Prefect, Kou Xu, fought against them at Baishi but was ultimately defeated by Mi Tang, who then retreated from Dayaoyu Valley to Poyangu Valley. Mi Tang then contacted the Hu people in the north and gathered troops from various tribes, making the Qiang people's power grow stronger, and Zhang Yu had no way to subdue them. In the first year of Yongyuan, Zhang Yu was dismissed due to his military failures, and the Prefect of Zhangye, Deng Xun, replaced him as the Colonel. Deng Xun adopted a strategy of division and corruption, using rewards and bribes to sow discord among the Qiang tribes, easing the tensions between them.
Dong Wuzi claimed to be established. At that time, he subdued his own people. Colonel Deng Xun sent troops to attack Mi Tang, who subsequently relocated from Dayaoyu Valley to Poyangu Valley. In the fourth year of Emperor He's Yongyuan, Deng Xun fell ill and died, and the Prefect of Shu County, Nie Shang, succeeded him as the Colonel. Nie Shang, realizing that previous attempts to capture Mi Tang had failed, decided to adopt a more conciliatory approach to win him over. He sent people to invite Mi Tang back, asking him to return to both Dayaoyu Valley and Xiaoyu Valley.
After Mitang returned, he sent his grandmother Beique to pay a visit to Nie Shang. Nie Shang personally escorted Beique to the border, held a farewell ceremony for her, and sent Tian Si and four others to escort her to Lulu. However, Mitang changed his mind, killed Tian Si and the others with other tribes, cursed them with a blood pact, and then attacked Jincheng Pass. In the fifth year of Yongyuan, Nie Shang was relieved of duty following his unsuccessful campaign, and Juyan Commandant Guan You replaced him as colonel. Guan You found it challenging to sway Mitang with kindness and moral integrity, so he incited the tribes against each other and lured them with money, leading to their disbandment.
Guan You then led troops to attack Mitang in Dayugu and Xiaoyugu, capturing over 800 captives and seizing tens of thousands of shi of grain. He then built walls and fortresses on both sides of the river, constructed large vessels, built bridges, and intended to cross the river to confront Mitang. Mitang retreated with the tribes to Cizhi River. In the eighth year of Yongyuan, Guan You died of illness, and Hanyang Prefect Shi Chong replaced him as colonel. After taking office, Shi Chong mobilized the Qiang and Hu from Huangzhong to attack Mitang, but the Qiang forces defeated Shi Chong's troops and resulted in the deaths of hundreds.
The following year, Shi Chong was dismissed due to his failed campaign, and Wu Zhi, the Prefect of Dai Commandery, replaced him as colonel. That autumn, Mitang led 8,000 men to attack Longxi, killing hundreds of people. They then threatened to incite a rebellion among many Qiang tribes within the pass, and many Qiang tribes responded. With a total of 30,000 infantry and cavalry, they defeated the army in Longxi and killed the official of Daxia. The court subsequently dispatched General Liu Shang and Lieutenant Zhao Dai as their deputy commanders with a total of 30,000 troops to suppress Mitang. Liu Shang stationed at Didi, while Zhao Dai stationed at Fanggan. Liu Shang sent Sima Kou Xu to supervise the armies of various counties and encircled them from all directions.
Mi Tang was afraid, abandoned the elderly, sick, and disabled, and fled to the south of Lintao. Liu Shang and his men pursued Mi Tang and his followers into the mountains. Mi Tang found himself cornered, so he led his elite troops to fight against the Han army. Kou Xu slaughtered thousands of enemies and seized tens of thousands of cattle and sheep. Mi Tang escaped. The Han army also suffered significant losses and decided to retreat. The following year, Liu Shang and Zhao Dai were arrested and imprisoned due to their cowardice, and then dismissed from their positions. Envoy Wang Xin took over Liu Shang's army stationed in Fanggan, while Envoy Geng Tan took over Zhao Dai's army stationed in Baishi. Geng Tan offered bounties for those who surrendered, leading many tribes to capitulate. In his fear, Mi Tang requested to surrender. Wang Xin and Geng Tan accepted his surrender, withdrew their troops, and sent Mi Tang to the capital. The remaining tribes, numbering fewer than two thousand, poor and hungry, settled in Jincheng. The Emperor ordered Mi Tang to lead his people back to Dayugu and Xiaoyugu.
Mi Tang was concerned that the Han army had built a bridge over the river, allowing them to attack at any moment, so he could no longer remain in his homeland. He claimed that his people were hungry and impoverished and refused to move far away. Wu Zhi and his men gave Mi Tang a lot of gold and silver treasures to buy food and livestock, urging him to leave the area. As a result, the people became more suspicious and fearful. In the twelfth year of Yongyuan AD, Mi Tang betrayed again, coerced various Hu tribes in Huangzhong, looted their possessions, and fled. Wang Xin, Geng Tan, and Wu Zhi were all dismissed, and Zhou Wei, the Prefect of Jiuquan, replaced Wu Zhi as the new Colonel. The following year, Mi Tang returned to Cizhihequ.
At first, the Lei Jie tribe had a strained relationship with the Han Dynasty, always bearing in mind the grievances they had endured in the past, so they killed the leader of Mi Tang's tribe. This created enmity with other tribes, leaving them without allies.
That autumn, the Mi Tang tribe launched another attack on the border. General Zhou Wei, along with the Prefect of Jincheng, Hou Ba, and the armies of various counties, as well as the Hu people of the Yuezhi in Huanzhong and the Laojie Qiang of Longxi, totaling thirty thousand troops, marched out of the pass to Yunchuan and fought with the Mi Tang tribe. Zhou Wei took a more cautious approach and returned to his camp to defend, while only Hou Ba's army charged into the enemy lines and killed more than four hundred foes. The Qiang people suffered heavy casualties, and the Laijie tribe's army was also routed, with over six thousand people surrendering. They were subsequently sent in groups to Hanyang, Anding, and Longxi. The Mi Tang tribe suddenly weakened, with fewer than a thousand remaining, who fled far away, crossed the Cizhi River, and sought refuge with the Faqiang tribe.
The following year, Zhou Wei faced punishment from the court for his hesitance in battle, and Hou Ba succeeded him as the new captain. The Qiang people who surrendered in Anding County burned the camp of the Hezhong tribe and incited a rebellion among several hundred Qiang. The county's forces defeated them and captured all of them as slaves.
Speaking of the area around the Western Sea and Dayao Valley, the situation of the Qiang people's disturbances has been pacified. Cao Feng reported to the court: "The threat posed by the Western Rong has been a problem that has plagued us for generations. My knowledge is limited, so I cannot provide a detailed account of ancient events, so I will talk about recent occurrences. Since the Jianwu period, the crimes committed by the Western Rong often begin with attacks on villages. The reason is that they live in the fertile lands of Dayao Valley, which is near the frontier. Other tribes are easily swayed by them, making them hard to subdue. They rely on Zhong Cun's power in the south and the river as a natural barrier to the north. They also have the advantage of fish and salt from the Western Sea, with abundant land for farming and raising livestock, which has allowed them to grow powerful. They often dominate other tribes, enlisting Qiang and Hu people through their power and valor. Now they are weakened, their followers have scattered, and only a few hundred elite soldiers remain, while the rest have fled to distant lands. I believe we should seize this opportunity to rebuild the counties around the Western Sea, consolidate Dayao Valley, establish farms, cut off the routes used by the Qiang and Hu, and curtail their attempts to encroach on the border. By promoting agriculture, we can make the border areas prosperous, reducing the burden of transportation and alleviating the worries from the west."
The court appointed Cao Feng as the Commandant of the Western Region of Jincheng and planned to relocate the people to Longqi for farming. Later, the Chief Historian of Jincheng, Shangguan Hong, suggested establishing 27 farms, including Guiyi and Jianwei. Hou Ba also suggested establishing five farms, such as Dongxi Han, and the addition of the Liu and Feng departments, which the Emperor approved without hesitation. These farms were laid out along the river, totaling thirty-four, and made significant contributions. It wasn't until the Yongchu period that these farms were disbanded as a result of rebellions by the Qiang people. Cao Feng's son, Mitang, fell into despair and died after losing the people's support, leaving behind only one son, Long, who had fewer than thirty households.
His younger brother Zimanu took the throne. Zimanu had followed his father and surrendered to the Han court, where he settled in Anding Commandery. At that time, many surrendered Qiang people were scattered in various commanderies and counties, all suffering from oppression and forced labor by officials and local tyrants, leading to longstanding resentment. In the summer of the first year of Emperor An's Yongchu era, the court dispatched Cavalry Commandant Wang Hong to lead several thousand Qiang cavalry from Jincheng, Longxi, and Hanyang to campaign against the Western Regions. Wang Hong urged them to set out, but many Qiang people were daunted by the long journey and reluctant to go. When they reached Jiuquan, many scattered and defected. Troops from various commanderies were sent to pursue and besiege them, even burning their tents. This made leaders of major clans like Lelie and Dangjian on the eastern bank even more panicked, resulting in a mass exodus. Zimanu and his brothers thus left the border with their people.
The Xianling, Dianling, and Zhongqiang tribes gave us a tough fight, blocking the Longshan Road. Those Qiang people had indeed surrendered to the court long ago, having not fought in ages, and their weapons and gear had long since fallen into disrepair. Some used bamboo poles and wooden sticks as spears, some carried wooden boards as shields, and some even wielded bronze mirrors as weapons, which was quite absurd! Local officials were cowardly and hesitant to take action. In winter, the court sent Chariots and Cavalry General Deng Zhong with an army, with Assistant Imperial Secretary Ren Shang serving as his deputy, bringing together fifty thousand troops from Sanhe, Sanfu, Runan, Nanyang, Yingchuan, Taiyuan, Shangdang, and beyond, where they were stationed in Hanyang.
In the second year of spring, the reinforcements from various counties had not yet arrived, and the Zhongqiang tribe took the initiative to strike first in the west of Ji, defeating Deng Zhi's army and killing more than a thousand people. Captain Hou Ba was dismissed for his failure to quell the Qiang rebellion, and the Western Regions Protector Duan Xi took over his position. That winter, Deng Zhi sent Ren Shang and the Attendant Lang Sima Jun with the armies from various counties to engage the tens of thousands in Pingxiang. As a result, Ren Shang's forces suffered a disastrous defeat, with over eight thousand casualties. Now the Tien Ling tribe was emboldened, declaring themselves "emperor" in the northern territories, and they also allied with other tribes from Wudu, Canlang, Shangjun, Xiyu, and beyond. Their forces grew stronger as they marched eastward to attack the states of Zhao and Wei, and southward into Yizhou, killing the Prefect of Hanzhong, Dong Bing. They then proceeded to raid the Sanyuan area, once again cutting off the Longshan Road. The food in Huangzhong was extremely expensive, with one stone of grain costing ten thousand coins, and countless common people died or were injured, too many to count. The court was powerless to stop them, struggling with severe logistical challenges, so they were forced to order Deng Zhi to withdraw his troops, leaving Ren Shang to defend Hanyang and oversee the various armies. Due to the influence of Empress Dowager Deng, the court promoted Deng Zhi to Grand General, and Ren Shang was also granted the title of Marquis of Leting, with a fief of three hundred households.
In the third year of spring, the court sent the Cavalry Captain Ren Ren with the stationed armies from various counties to rescue the Sanyuan area. However, Ren Ren faced defeat in every battle, and the Qiang people capitalized on their victories to pursue the Han forces, resulting in a series of defeats for the Han army. When the Jian and Lejie tribes breached Qiang County, the Zhongqiang tribe captured Lin Tao County and even captured the Southern Commandant of Longxi.
In the spring of the second year, the Dianling tribe launched an attack on Baozhong, burning down the post station and plundering the local populace. Therefore, the Han Prefect of Hanzhong, Zheng Qin, moved his forces to Baozhong. The army camped outside for an extended period with little success in battle, disrupting agricultural production. The court subsequently ordered Ren Shang to return the generals and soldiers to Chang'an, disbanded the troops and officials from Nanyang, Yingchuan, and Runan, and established the position of Jiaozhao Huya Captain in Chang'an, Fufeng Huya Captain in Yong County, and the Three Fuyu Captains in the Western Capital. At this point, the Qiang launched another attack on Baozhong, and Zheng Qin wanted to lead troops to counterattack. The chief scribe, Duan Chong, advised him, saying that the enemy was formidable and hard to resist, and they should hold their ground and wait for an opportunity. Zheng Qin did not listen, led the troops into battle, and suffered a major defeat, with more than three thousand people killed. Duan Chong and his subordinates, Wang Zong and Yuan Zhan, shielded their bodies from the enemy's swords and died in battle with Zheng Qin. Afterwards, Jincheng County was relocated to Xiangwu. Ren Ren suffered multiple defeats, and the soldiers were also undisciplined, and were ultimately escorted to the Ministry of Justice in a prisoner transport and sentenced to death. Duan Xi passed away due to illness, and the court appointed Hou Ba, a former Colonel, to replace him, and then relocated the garrison to Zhangye.
In the spring of the fifth year, Ren Shang was dismissed for lack of military achievements. The Qiang took advantage of the situation to invade Hedong, advancing all the way to Henan, terrifying the local populace, and many people fled south of the Yellow River. The court dispatched Northern Army Lieutenant Zhu Chong to lead five battalions to camp in Mengjin, and ordered the counties of Weijun, Zhaoguo, Changshan, and Zhongshan to construct six hundred and sixteen stockades for defense.
The power of the Qiang ethnic group is growing stronger. Most of the county magistrates, district officials, and village leaders are from the mainland and are not inclined to fight. They are focused on advancing, transferring to better counties, and avoiding the chaos of war. The imperial court consented, so Longxi County was relocated to Xiangwu, Anding County was moved to Meiyang, Beidi County was moved to Chiyang, and Shang County was moved to Yaxian. The common people were hesitant to leave their hometowns and opposed to relocating, resulting in them having to abandon their crops, demolish their houses, destroy their camps, and give up all their savings. Unfortunately, there were consecutive years of drought, locust disasters, widespread famine, compounded by Qiang raids. The people were displaced, suffering countless deaths and injuries; some abandoned the elderly and children, while others became slaves, resulting in a loss of over half the population. Later, the court dispatched Ren Shang as an imperial censor and defeated the Qiang at Yangtou Mountain in Shangdang, killing more than two hundred surrendered Qiang people, finally lifting the military garrison at Mengjin. In the autumn of that year, the people of Hanyang, Du Qi and his brother Du Jigong, along with Wang Xin and others from the same county, actually colluded with the Qiang, gathered troops, and captured Shanggui City. Du Qi even called himself "General Anhan." As soon as the court heard about this, they immediately decreed that whoever captured Du Qi's head would be granted the title of marquis and rewarded with one million coins! If a Qiang or Hu person killed Du Qi, they would receive one hundred jin of gold and two hundred jin of silver as well! The Governor of Hanyang, Zhao Bo, sent an assassin, Du Xi, to assassinate Du Qi. Du Xi was subsequently bestowed the title of "Conqueror of Villains" and also rewarded with one million coins. However, Du Jigong and Wang Xin seized control of Chuchen Camp with their forces. Imperial Censor Tang Xi led forces to confront them, defeated them, killed Wang Xin and over six hundred others, captured the wives and children of more than five hundred individuals, along with valuables valued at over one hundred million in gold, silver, and silk. Du Jigong escaped to Dianling. Six years later, Ren Shang was relieved of his duties due to military circumstances.
When Dian Ling died, his young son Ling Chang succeeded him, but his clan members failed to offer him any guidance, allowing Du Jigong to become a general stationed in Xicheng. In the summer of the seventh year, Cavalry Prefect Ma Xian and Hou Ba launched an attack on a contingent of Ling Chang's Qiang forces in prison, capturing more than a thousand people and seizing over 20,000 donkeys, mules, camels, horses, cattle, and sheep, which were all distributed as rewards to the soldiers who fought in the battle.
In the spring of 276 AD, the court dispatched troops to garrison in Henei, constructing thirty-three fortresses along key transportation routes, each equipped with alarm drums. Ling Chang sent troops to attack Yongcheng, reportedly allying with local wealthy landowners like Dangjian and Lejie to intimidate various tribes, dividing his forces to plunder Wudu and Hanzhong. The Bandun tribesmen from Bajun came to their aid, and Cheng Xin, the official of Hanzhong, led warriors and barbarians to defeat Ling Chang's army.
After Ling Chang fled, he conspired with others to rebel. Hou Ba and Ma Xian led officials from Huangzhong and surrendered Qiang people to fight them in the Dingfenghan area, killing more than two hundred enemies. The Governor of Liangzhou, Pi Yang, fought against the Qiang people in Didaoguan, resulting in a significant defeat with over eight hundred casualties, which led to Pi Yang's dismissal from office. Hou Ba later fell ill and died, and Han Yang Prefect Pang Can took over as colonel. Pang Can employed a mix of kindness and coercion to convince the rebels to surrender.
In the spring of the second year, a man named Duo Deng arrived with over seven thousand followers to surrender, and the court sent him to the capital, granting him the title of Duo Hou along with a seal, before sending him on his way. Can (Pang Can) returned to his original position, responsible for the defense of Hexi Road. Consequently, Ling Chang's rebels wreaked havoc in Yizhou once more, so the court sent Zhonglang General Yin Jiu to lead the soldiers from Nanyang, mobilizing the garrisons from various counties in Yizhou to confront Ling Chang's henchmen, Lu Shudou and his followers.
When autumn came, Chen Xing and Luo Heng from Shu took the initiative to assassinate Lv Shudu. Both of them were granted the title of marquises and were rewarded with a lot of money. The court also sent Ban Xiong, the cavalry commander, to station in the Sannin region. At the same time, Sima Jun, the Left Fengyi, was appointed as the General of the West Expedition, commanding Zhong Guang, the Prefect of Fufeng, Du Hui, the Prefect of Anding, Sheng Bao, the Prefect of Beidi, Geng Pu, the Captain of Huyaduwei in Jingzhao, and Huang Fuqi, the Captain of Fufeng, totaling more than 8,000 troops. In addition, Pang Can led more than 7,000 Qiang and Hu soldiers, operating independently from Sima Jun, to attack Lingchang from the north. When Pang Can's army reached Yongshi Dong, they were defeated by Du Jigong and subsequently retreated. Sima Jun and his men continued their attack, captured Dingxi Cheng, and won a decisive victory. Du Jigong feigned retreat. Sima Jun ordered Zhong Guang, Du Hui, and Sheng Bao to harvest the Qiang people's crops, but they disregarded Sima Jun's orders, dispersed their forces far into enemy territory, and were ambushed by the Qiang people. Sima Jun, though angry, did not come to their rescue; Zhong Guang and his men were all killed, resulting in over 3,000 casualties. Sima Jun fled and was punished for his defeat and subsequently committed suicide. Pang Can was also punished for failing to complete his mission and for the defeat of his army, and Ma Xian was appointed as his successor.
Later, the court appointed Ren Shang as the Zhonglang General, leading 3,500 men including the Yulin Army, Tiqi cavalry, and soldiers from the Five Camps to replace Ban Xiong in guarding the Three Frontiers. When Ren Shang was about to depart, his subordinate Yu Xu said to him, "General, you have been ordered to go on expeditions and suppress rebels multiple times. The common people have abandoned their farmland and are exhausted from constant labor, which has made their lives extremely difficult. Yet, there have been no significant results so far, and the waste of resources is increasing. If this expedition fails again, it could be very perilous for you!" Ren Shang said, "I have been worried for a long time, not knowing what to do." Yu Xu said, "The art of war teaches that the weak should not attack the strong, and that one should not pursue fleeing enemies. This is a fundamental principle. The enemy now is all cavalry, able to travel hundreds of miles in a day. They come as fast as a storm, and leave as quickly as a bowstring. Our infantry simply cannot keep up with them, which explains our lack of victories. In my opinion, the best solution is to withdraw the army from each county, have everyone pitch in a few thousand coins, so that twenty people can pool their resources to buy a horse. This way, they can ditch the heavy armor, move lightly, and use over ten thousand cavalry to pursue and intercept a few thousand enemy troops. By chasing and blocking from behind, the enemy will naturally become exhausted. This method is convenient for the people and will ensure the successful completion of the mission, achieving a great victory!" Ren Shang was very pleased upon hearing this, immediately reported to the court, and adopted Yu Xu's suggestion. Therefore, light cavalry was sent to attack Du Jigong in Dingxi City, resulting in the deaths of over four hundred enemies and the capture of thousands of cattle, horses, and sheep.
Next summer, General Deng Zun led the Chanyu of the Southern Xiongnu and the Left Lu Li King Xushen, commanding tens of thousands of cavalry, defeated the forces at Lingzhou and killed more than 800 enemies. The Emperor appointed Xushen as the Marquis of Breaking the Enemy, rewarded him with a golden seal and purple ribbon, and gave him a substantial amount of gold, silver, and silk treasures, with the rewards given based on the level of contribution. Ren Shang also dispatched troops to defeat the Xianling Qiang, which took place at Dingxi City. In autumn, five hundred lookout posts were constructed along the northern border of Fengyi. Ren Shang also sent a false Sima to recruit death row inmates for an attack on Lingzhou to the north, killing their women and children, capturing twenty thousand head of cattle, sheep, and horses, setting their houses on fire, killing more than seven hundred enemies, and seizing documents claimed by Lingzhou along with the seals and official insignia of the captured leaders.
In the spring of the fourth year, Ren Shang sent five individuals, including Yu Gui, to assassinate Du Jigong, and then appointed Yu Gui as Marquis of Poqiang. In the summer of that year, Yin Jiu was held accountable by the court for his failure to pacify Yizhou. The court then had the Governor of Yizhou, Zhang Qiao, take over Yin Jiu's army, stationed in Yizhou, to negotiate the surrender of the rebellious Qiang people. Gradually, the rebellious Qiang scattered and fled. In the autumn, Ren Shang recruited those who had performed meritorious deeds for the assassination of Ling Chang and appointed them as Qiang kings. In the winter, Ren Shang led the armies of various counties together with Ma Xian to attack Beidi and defeated Lang Mo. Ma Xian first arrived at Qingshi'an in Anding County, where Lang Mo counterattacked but was defeated by Ma Xian. When Ren Shang's army arrived at Gaoping, they joined forces to attack. Lang Mo and others retreated, so Ren Shang mobilized the army to pursue them. After chasing them to Beidi, the two sides faced off for over sixty days. Finally, a major decisive battle took place at Shanghe in Fuping, achieving a significant victory, killing five thousand enemies, capturing over a thousand men and women, and seizing tens of thousands of cattle, horses, donkeys, sheep, and camels. Lang Mo fled, and over ten thousand Qiang people from Xihuo Qianren surrendered to Deng Zun. In the fifth year, Deng Zun recruited people from Shangzhou who had no Qiang ancestry, including Diao He, to assassinate Lang Mo. The emperor appointed Diao He as the new Marquis of Qiang and Deng Zun as the Marquis of Wuyang, with a fief comprising three thousand households. Deng Zun, a maternal cousin of the empress dowager, received particularly generous titles and rewards. Ren Shang, due to his competition with Deng Zun for merit, falsifying the number of enemy casualties, and corruption and bribery totaling over ten million, was eventually sentenced to death, and his family was exterminated, with all his land, houses, slaves, and property confiscated. Since the demise of Ling Chang and Lang Mo, the Qiang people became fragmented, and the Sanfu and Yizhou regions have not been disturbed by the Qiang since.
The Qiang have been in rebellion for over a decade, with relentless warfare that has left soldiers utterly exhausted and deprived of any peace. The costs of war, transportation, and logistics have surpassed 24 billion, depleting the treasury. Even the counties in the interior have been affected, with countless casualties among the border residents, and the regions of Bingzhou and Liangzhou have been ravaged.
In the spring of the sixth year, the Qiang tribal leaders, Lejie Zhong and Longxi Zhong, conspired to rebel. Ma Xian led an attack against them in Angu, killing hundreds of Qiang people, while the others surrendered or fled.
In the spring of the first year of Yongning, over 5,000 people from the Shen Di tribe of Shangzhou Qiang attacked Zhangye again. That summer, Ma Xian led an army of 10,000 to quell them. In the first engagement, they suffered defeat, losing hundreds. In the second battle the next day, they defeated the enemy, beheading 1,800 and capturing over 1,000, along with tens of thousands of horses, cattle, and sheep. The remaining enemies surrendered. At that time, the Jiansheng tribe was experiencing a famine, and they took advantage of Ma Xian's absence in Zhangye to attack Jincheng. Ma Xian pursued them all the way to the border, beheading thousands before making his way back. Hearing that Ma Xian's forces had departed, the Shaodang and Shaohe tribes, numbering over 3,000, launched another attack on Zhangye, killing the local officials. Initially, the Wushutong leaders, including Lu Congxin and Renliang, along with over 1,000 households, formed their own faction, wavering between both sides. In the spring of the first year of Jianguang, Ma Xian captured Lu Congxin and had him executed, then attacked their tribe, capturing over 2,000 people and looting 100,000 horses, cattle, and sheep. Renliang and others fled to the border. The court issued a decree appointing Ma Xian as the Marquis of Anting, granting him a fief of a thousand households.
Ren Liang and the others were the Ma Nu brothers, originally the legitimate descendants of the Shao Dang tribe, but Ma Xian failed to adequately appease them, so they continued to harbor resentment. In the autumn, they united and forced three thousand cavalry from various tribes, attacked Huangzhong and besieged Jincheng and other counties. Ma Xian sent Xianlingzhong to confront them in battle, engaged in battle at the Mu Yuan, and was defeated, resulting in the deaths of over four hundred men. Ma Nu and others also defeated the forces of Wuwei and Zhangye prefectures at Lingju, then forced more than four thousand households from the Xianling and Shendi tribes, fleeing west along mountain roads and attacking Wuwei. Ma Xian pursued them to Luan Niao and surrendered them. Thousands of Qiang people surrendered, while Ma Nu fled back to Huangzhong.
In the spring of 122 AD, Ma Xian pursued them to Huangzhong, and Ma Nu led his men and horses out of the pass, crossing the Yellow River. Ma Xian continued to pursue and defeated them; Ma Nu's followers scattered and fled, finally surrendering to Zong Han, the Governor of Liangzhou. Ma Nu and his followers were destitute, hungry, and exhausted. By the winter of that year, they surrendered to the Han Yang Prefect Geng Zhong along with over three thousand households. Emperor Han An rewarded them with a golden seal and a purple ribbon, as well as gold, silver, and silk in varying quantities.
In the same year, the Qiang people from Qianzhou and the Hu people from Shangzhou rebelled, attacking Guluocheng. General Du Liao Geng Kui led troops from various counties and Wuhuan cavalry to their aid, defeating them. Three years later, in the autumn, Longxi Prefecture successfully recaptured Didaocheng. At this time, Ma Nu's brother Xiku declared himself the leader.
In 144 AD, the Qiang people in Longxi rebelled again. Captain Ma Xian led over seven thousand men to suppress the rebellion, fought a battle in Lintao, beheaded over a thousand, and the remainder surrendered along with their clansmen. The emperor conferred the title of Marquis of Duxiang upon Ma Xian, and from that point forward, Liangzhou enjoyed peace.
It is said that after four years, the Supervisor of the Masters of Writing, Yu Xu, presented a memorial to the Emperor, saying, "I have heard that filial piety is the virtue of serving one's ancestors, and a wise monarch ensures the stability of the people. This is why Emperor Gaozu and King Xuan of Zhou are ranked alongside Kings Tang and Wu. In the 'Tribute of Yu,' it is recorded that Yongzhou is fertile and possesses the best land. The vast plains are filled with fertile fields stretching for miles, with grain stacked high like mountains, and salt pools from the region of Guizi that benefit the local populace. The water and grass are abundant, the land suitable for grazing, with herds of cattle and horses, and flocks of sheep scattered across the land. To the north, there are mountains and rivers blocking the way, with difficult terrain. Utilizing canals for irrigation, river water for powering mills, and water transport for grain saves both labor and money while ensuring a sufficient supply of military provisions. That is why Emperor Xiaowu and Emperor Guangwu both built cities in Shuofang, Xihai, and Shangjun for this reason. However, later they encountered unprovoked disasters, with internal rebellions among the Qiang tribes, chaos in the counties, lasting for more than twenty years. Abandoning the fertile and abundant land, damaging natural resources—how can this possibly be seen as beneficial? Abandoning the natural barriers of mountains and rivers to defend less strategic areas, how can this be defended? Now that the three counties have not been recovered, the imperial tomb remains isolated and unprotected, the court officials are weak and incompetent, preoccupied with their own interests, and quick to shift blame, focusing only on expenses and failing to consider long-term security. We should uphold the virtuous governance of wise leaders and appoint talented individuals." After reviewing the memorial, the Emperor ordered the recovery of the three counties. He also sent the courtier Guo Huang to encourage those relocated to return to their original counties, repair the city walls, and establish relay stations. Later, he dredged the river channels, excavated canals, developed garrison farming, resulting in annual savings of up to a hundred million in the interior counties. He then commanded Anding County, Beidi County, Shangjun County, as well as Longxi County and Jincheng County to store grain all year round, sufficient to sustain the region for several years.
Ma Xian captured the Xiku brothers as hostages because they had betrayed him several times. In the winter of that year, Ma Xian was dismissed due to conscription, and Han Hao, the Right Fufeng, took over as the captain. The following year, Xiku went to see Han Hao, requesting to return to their original place. Han Hao did not agree and transferred him to manage farmland between the two rivers to restrain the Qiang tribes. Han Hao was later dismissed due to conscription, and the Zhangye Prefect Ma Xu took over as the captain. The Qiang tribes between the two rivers, fearing they would be attacked due to the farmland being near them, set aside their animosities and renewed their vows, strengthening their defenses. Ma Xu wanted to show friendship first, so he petitioned the court to relocate the farmland back to Huangzhong, and the Qiang tribes were finally at ease. In the first year of the Yangjia era, given Huangzhong's vast and sparsely populated landscape, five more farmland departments were added, making a total of ten departments. The following summer, the court reinstated the previous commandery system in the southern part of Longxi.
In the third year, Zhong Qiang and Liang Feng stirred up trouble in Longxi and Hanyang again. The court sent Ma Xian, who had previously been the captain, as an envoy to appease the minority ethnic groups. Ma Xu led troops to fight Liang Feng, taking hundreds of heads. In the fourth year, Ma Xian led the officials and Qiang and Hu soldiers from Longxi to fight Liang Feng, beheading more than 1,800 enemies and seizing over 50,000 cattle, sheep, and horses. Liang Feng's relatives surrendered to Ma Xian. Ma Xian then went to fight Zhong Qiang and Qie Chang, who surrendered along with over 100,000 troops to the Governor of Liangzhou. In the first year of the Yonghe era, Ma Xu was promoted to Duliang General, and Ma Xian took over as the captain.
At the beginning, the White Horse Qiang at Wudu Pass breached the military camp and rebelled for several years. In the spring of the second year, the Commandant of Guanghan defeated them, decapitating over 600 enemies. Ma Xian then decapitated over 300 leaders, including Jizhi, Leizu, and others, restoring peace to the Longyou region. In the winter of the second year, the Shaodang tribe, led by Nali, attacked with over 3,000 cavalry. Ma Xian led the troops to fight, decapitating over 400 enemies and seizing more than 1,400 horses. Nali then retreated westward to rally the Qiang and Hu tribes, resulting in the deaths of many officials and civilians.
Four years afterwards, Ma Xian led the militia from Huangzhong region and over 10,000 Qiang and Hu cavalry, launching a surprise attack on Nali and his forces, decapitating over 1,200 enemies and capturing more than 100,000 cattle, sheep, and mules. The court appointed Ma Xian as the Governor of Hongnong, Yi Dang as the Inspector of Bingzhou, and Liu Bing as the Inspector of Liangzhou, ordering them to take office. General Liang Shang addressed Yi Dang and the others, saying, "These border minority groups, the barbarians, whose character is fickle and unpredictable. There is no fixed method to manage them; you must manage them flexibly based on the specific circumstances, generally following their customs. You three have always been upright and clear-cut, liking to distinguish between right and wrong. Confucius said: 'If people lack kindness and love, and are too averse to evil, it will lead to chaos.' Not to mention these barbarians! Your main goal should be to pacify the Qiang and Hu people, prevent major conflicts, and overlook minor transgressions." However, Yi Dang and others were inherently cruel and ruthless, not listening to Liang Shang's advice. After arriving at the provincial capital, they plundered and oppressed the local populace.
It is said that in the summer of the fifth year, rebels named Qie Dong, Fu Nanzhong, and Qiang attacked Jincheng. They joined forces with the Qiang people from Xisai and Huangzhong, burning, killing, and looting across the Sanfu region, creating chaos. Many officials were killed by them. This threw the court into a panic, and Generals Ji and Bing were held accountable.
Therefore, the court mobilized troops from nearby counties and across the nation to quell the rebellion. The court appointed General Ma Xian as the Western Expedition General, with Geng Shu serving as his deputy. They commanded the Imperial Guard, five regiments, and soldiers from various provinces and counties, totaling 100,000 troops, stationed in Hanyang. In order to safeguard the common folk, over 300 fortresses were constructed in Fufeng, Hanyang, Longdao, and elsewhere to garrison the troops. Qie Dong even dispatched raiders to Wudu, burning Longguan, and took away many imperial horses.
In the spring of the sixth year, General Ma Xian led five to six thousand cavalry to battle the rebels. They faced a crushing defeat at Shegushan, and General Ma Xian and his two sons were killed in battle. Emperor Hanshun was deeply saddened by the news, granting him three thousand bolts of cloth and one thousand hu of grain, and bestowing the title of Marquis of Wuyang Pavilion upon his grandson Ma Guang, with an annual income of one million coins in tax revenue. At the same time, the court sent an imperial censor to the Western Expedition camp to oversee post-war affairs and offer support to the families of the fallen soldiers.
Goodness, the Qiang people on both sides have fully united now. Gong Tangzhong led over three thousand cavalry to attack Longxi, burned down the royal tombs, looted Guanzhong, and killed many officials. County magistrate Ren Jun went to pursue, but ended up dying in battle. The court then dispatched General Pang Jun to recruit fifteen hundred warriors to garrison in Meiyang and support Liangzhou. Zhao Chong, the Prefect of Wuwei, pursued Gong Tangzhong, killing over four hundred enemies, capturing more than eighteen thousand cattle, sheep, horses, and donkeys, and over two thousand Qiang people surrendered. The court appointed Zhao Chong to lead the armies of the four counties in Hexi, overseeing military security there.
Later, more than a thousand from the Han Qiang tribe launched an attack on Beidi County, and the Prefect of Beidi, Jia Fu, along with Zhao Chong, fought them off but gained no advantage. In the autumn, several Qiang tribes, totaling eight to nine thousand cavalry, attacked Wuwei again, which caused panic in Liangzhou. Therefore, the court relocated the Anding residents to Fufeng and the Beidi residents to Fengyi, and sent General Zhang Qiao, the Chariot and Cavalry commander, along with the Imperial Guards, Five Schools of Scholars, and troops from Henan, Nanyang, and Runan, totaling fifteen thousand, to be stationed in the Sannin region as a precaution. In the first year of Han'an, the court appointed Zhao Chong as the Protector of the Qiang people. Zhao Chong successfully persuaded several rebellious Qiang tribes to surrender, and Han Zhong brought over five thousand households to surrender to Zhao Chong. Now, Zhang Qiao's army can pull back.
There are only more than three thousand households left in the area north of Cangling, still causing unrest. In the summer of the third year of the rebellion, Zhao Chong and the Han Yang Prefect Zhang Gong launched an attack together, killing 1,500 enemy combatants and seizing 180,000 cattle, sheep, and donkeys. In the winter, Zhao Chong attacked the Qiang people again, killing more than four thousand enemies. The court also appointed one of Zhao Chong's sons as a Langguan (a court official). Zhao Chong then pursued them to Ayang, killing another eight hundred enemies. In total, more than thirty thousand Qiang people surrendered to the Governor of Liangzhou, the provincial capital.
In the spring of 256 AD, the Protector of the Qiang, Ma Xuan, was tricked by the Qiang and fled with a large group of them beyond the frontier. Captain Wei Yao, responsible for guarding the Qiang people, led troops to pursue Ma Xuan and his followers, killing more than eight hundred enemies and capturing over two hundred thousand cattle, sheep, and horses. Zhao Chong then pursued the fleeing Qiang people to Jianwei Yinhe. Before the army crossed the river, more than six hundred surrendered Hu people defected again. Zhao Chong led hundreds of men in pursuit, but fell into an ambush laid by the Qiang and was killed in battle. Although Zhao Chong died, the Qiang's strength was significantly diminished by these battles. In 291 AD, Zhao Chong's son was appointed as the Yiyang Tinghou, and the Han Yang Prefect Zhang Gong succeeded him as Captain. Liang Bing, who was from the Left Fengyi, used kindness and trust to surrender the Qiang people, leading to more than fifty thousand households from Li Pu, Hu Nu, and other tribes surrendering, restoring peace in the Longyou region. Liang Bing, a relative of the current General, was granted the title of Hu Hou with a land grant of two thousand households.
From the Qiang rebellion in the Yonghe era to this year, over a decade, the country expended over eight billion coins. Many generals misappropriated military supplies for their own benefit, stockpiled treasures, and bribed officials at every level. The higher-ups indulged them and paid no attention to military affairs, leading to soldiers starving and countless deaths, with bones strewn across the land!
In the year 147 AD, the Baima Qiang attacked the vassal state of Guanghan and killed local officials. At that time, the Western Qiang and Hu people in the Huangzhong area also rebelled, and the governor of Yizhou led the Ban Shield Barbarians to suppress them, defeating and either beheading or capturing two hundred thousand people.
In the year 78 AD, Colonel Zhang Gong died. Later, Hu Hong, the Prefect of Nanyang, took over as Colonel and governed very well, earning great respect and bringing peace to the western border. In the year 80 AD, Hu Hong also died, and Colonel Duan Jiong took over. At that time, the Ba Qiang tribes in the Longyou area revolted, and Duan Jiong led troops to defeat them. In the year 82 AD, the Lingwu Qiang, along with the Xianling Qiang, the Shen Di tribe of Shangjun, and the Laojie Qiang, attacked Bingzhou, Liangzhou, and the Sannin region. Duan Jiong happened to be recalled by the court due to an offense, and Hu Hong, the Prefect of Jinan, took over as Colonel. Hu Hong was incompetent, and the Qiang grew increasingly bold, burning down camps and looting everywhere. The situation worsened, but later Colonel Huang Fu Gui led troops to defeat them. In the year 83 AD, the Shen Di and other Qiang tribes attacked Zhangye and Jiuquan, and Huang Fu Gui went to negotiate their surrender, and they all surrendered. This incident is detailed in the biography of Huang Fu Gui. The Niao Wu Qiang attacked Hanyang, and the armies from Longxi, Jincheng, and other counties defeated them, and they surrendered. In winter, the Dian Na and others attacked Wuwei, Zhangye, and Jiuquan, burning the homes of ordinary citizens. In the year 84 AD, Sun Qiang, the Prefect of Longxi, defeated them, killing over three thousand. Hu Hong fell ill and died, and the court reinstated Duan Jiong as Colonel.
In the year 84 AD, the Qiang people led by Anwei of Dongqiang launched an attack on the Three Fufang region together with other Qiang tribes. Zhang Huan, a general of the Zhonglang rank, pursued and defeated them, as detailed in his biography. At that time, the Jian Qiang attacked Wuwei, but the Qiang general Duan Qiong also defeated them, with the remainder surrendering or scattering. This event is recorded in the biography of Dong Zhuo. In the third year of Jianning during the reign of Emperor Ling in 170 AD, the Shaodang Qiang sent envoys to present tribute. In the first year of Zhongping in 184 AD, the Qiang tribes in Beidi, starting with the Xianling and others, rebelled together with the Yellow Turban Rebellion, attacking the Longyou region. In the first year of Xingping in 194 AD, the surrendered Qiang tribes in Fengyi revolted, attacking various counties, but they were defeated by Guo Si and Fan Chou, with thousands beheaded.
Since our ancestors began using swords, their descendants have branched into over 150 lineages. Nine of these branches lived west of the Cizhi River and in the northern border areas of Shu and Hanzhong. Previous historical records did not document their population figures. Only the Canlang Qiang in Wudu maintained a military strength of several thousand. Another 52 branches weakened and could no longer sustain themselves independently, becoming small groups attached to other tribes, some completely vanished, while others relocated to far-off areas. Among the remaining 89 branches, the Zhong Qiang were the most formidable, with military strength surpassing one hundred thousand. Other larger branches had tens of thousands of people, while smaller ones had several thousand. They raided one another, their fortunes rising and falling unpredictably. It is estimated that by the reign of Emperor Shundi of Han, their total military force could total two hundred thousand. The Qiang people residing in remote regions like Qiangdi and Tangmao had little interaction with the Central Plains dynasty. The Maoniu Qiang and Baima Qiang lived in Shu and Hanzhong, with an overwhelming number of branch names to recall.
In the thirteenth year of Jianwu, Lou Deng, the leader of the Baima Qiang beyond the borders of Guanghan Commandery, led more than five thousand households to submit to the court. Emperor Guangwu granted him the title of Chief of Guiyi. In the sixth year of Emperor Yongyuan, Zao Tou, the leader of the Dazangyi Qiang on the border of Shu Commandery, led more than five hundred thousand people to submit to the court. The court appointed Zao Tou as the Chief of Yijun and bestowed upon him a seal and ceremonial ribbon. In the first year of Emperor An's Yongchu, six Qiang tribes, with a total of 17,280 people on the border of Shu Commandery, submitted to the court. The following year, eight Qiang tribes, numbering 36,900, on the border of Shu Commandery also submitted. That winter, two thousand four hundred people from the Canlang Qiang outside Guanghan Commandery submitted again. In the second year of Emperor Huan's Jianhe, more than a thousand Baima Qiang people attacked the vassal state of Guanghan, killing local officials. The Inspector of Yizhou led a military force to quell and defeat them.
In Huangzhong, there was a group of Yuezhi Hu people, who were descendants of the ancient Great Yuezhi and used to mainly reside around Zhangye and Jiuquan. Later, the king of Yuezhi was killed by the Xiongnu Modun Chanyu, and the remaining Yuezhi people scattered and fled, with some even fleeing as far west as the Congling Mountains. The weaker members of the group fled to the southern mountains, seeking refuge with the Qiang tribes and intermarrying with them, living together.
When General Huo Qubing defeated the Xiongnu, reclaimed the Xihedao area, and developed the Huangzhong region, some Yuezhi people chose to surrender and settled among the Han. Although they were nominally attached to the court, in reality, they sought to curry favor with both sides and followed whoever was stronger. When conflict arose, they sided with the Han army, depending on the circumstances. Their clothing, diet, customs, and language closely resembled those of the Qiang people, and similar to the Qiang, they identified their lineage by using their father's name and their mother's surname.
They were mainly divided into seven large tribes, totaling over nine thousand fighters, scattered in the Huangzhong and Lingju areas. In Zhangye, there were also several hundred households, referred to as the "Yicong Hu." In the first year of Zhongping, they rebelled with Beigong Boyu and others, killed the Qiang Protector Ling Zheng and the Jincheng Prefect Chen Yi, and then burned, killed, and looted everywhere, throwing the Longyou area into chaos.
It's worth noting that the Qiang and Rong tribes, these so-called barbarians, have been causing trouble for us since the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. During the Han Dynasty, when fighting against the Xiongnu, the Xiongnu were still relatively weak, but after the Han Dynasty flourished, border conflicts grew larger. The court's regulations failed to control these tribes, and the tribes were completely untrustworthy. Some surrendered Qiang and Rong were harshly oppressed by powerful landlords, while others were exploited to exhaustion by their masters. If the border was peaceful for a period of time, they would be eager to rebel; at the slightest sign of trouble, they would scatter in fear. So by the time of the Yongchu era, various Qiang and Rong tribes began to revolt. They colluded with each other, formed alliances, recruited bandits from the mountains, gathered people to revolt, armed themselves with tree branches, and carried firewood as tools. For a while, war chariots raised dust, rampaging through the Sanfu region; they declared themselves kings, wreaking havoc in the Beidi region. They fought to the borders of Zhao and Wei in the east, and to the borders of Hanzhong and Shu in the south. They occupied the frontier and Huangzhong areas, blocked the roads through the Long Mountains, burned tombs, looted cities, sustained significant losses, and daily war reports were dispatched to the court.
The people of Bingzhou and Liangzhou faced countless deaths and injuries, as all able-bodied men perished on the battlefield and women were captured. Graves were dug up, bodies exposed, and the people lived in a state of misery. Since the uprising of the Western Rong, no barbarian tribe has been as brazen and aggressive in their invasion of our Central Plains. Even when Empress He Xi was in power, her authority was insufficient to deter these marauders. The court ministers feared that the war would result in significant losses and were only interested in avoiding conflict. Some suggested abandoning the hard-to-defend border regions, while others worried that ignoring the situation would let the barbarians fester like a cancer. The advisors were hesitant, and the generals were filled with doubts. As a result, the court forcibly relocated the people from the four counties of Xihe to different counties in Guanzhong, demolishing their homes and uprooting their trees to sever their ties to their homeland. Their possessions were set ablaze to ensure they could not return to their ancestral lands.
Therefore, generals such as Deng Zhi, Ren Shang, Ma Xian, Huang Fu Gui, Zhang Huan, etc., all offered their strategies and accepted the imperial decree to suppress the enemy, rushing around providing assistance everywhere. The flames of war spread to several states, incurring substantial expenses every day. To reward the troops, the court had to raise taxes, borrow money from vassal kings, and even take out precious gold, silver, silk, and collect a large amount of food, salt, iron, and other supplies. The costs associated with bribing the enemy, pacifying the rebellion, and transporting military supplies totaled in the tens of millions. Although they achieved some victories, killing enemy leaders, defeating some tribes, capturing countless prisoners, and livestock everywhere, the war was far from over, and the rebellion persisted. Thus, the costs outweighed the benefits, rendering their efforts futile. The soldiers fought bravely on the battlefield year after year, yet achieving little. Officials were exhausted, and brave warriors died in anger.
After Duan Quan took over, he was solely responsible for military affairs. He fully harnessed the courage of the Shanxi soldiers, understood the habits and characteristics of the Qiang Rong people, and used all means to deal with them. Leading the charge, risking his life, facing countless hardships and challenges, he finally quelled the rebellion of the Western Qiang and resolved the eastern invaders. The number of enemies killed was staggering, their heads scattered on the high mountains, their bodies scattered on the steep cliffs, impossible to tally. Those who managed to escape were exceedingly rare. Zhang Huan, however, naively claimed, "The Qiang Rong are all of the same ethnicity; they should not be exterminated. Bloodshed everywhere will destroy harmony and bring disaster." What a naive perspective! Although the Qiang people were a foreign threat, they also represented a threat from within. If they are not completely eradicated, it is like harboring a lingering threat! Unfortunately, just as the enemy was subdued, the fortunes of the Han Dynasty began to wane.
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It is said that in the past, those powerful emperors clearly divided the world, understanding that the customs of the minority ethnic groups in remote areas were different from those in the Central Plains, making it difficult to manage them with a single set of methods. Therefore, they let them stay far away, only accepting tribute in name, just to keep up appearances. This was nowhere near as effective as the Han Dynasty's strategies for dealing with the Xiongnu!
Why do I say this? Look, when the Xianbei and Qiang invaded the border, Zhao Chongguo moved them to the inland; when the Jiandang Qiang rebelled, Ma Wenyuan moved them to the Sui and Bian regions. These generals were only focused on short-term peace, thinking they had truly tamed them, only considering quick fixes, but forgetting about long-term planning. How is this a long-term strategy? That's why Weizi cried over the ivory chopsticks, and Xin Youcai let out a long sigh in Yichuan!
Praise: The Jin dynasty was strong, giving rise to the Western Qiang. The Di nobles were divided, and the Yin strength was used. Qian Liu in the north of Long falsely claimed Jingyang. While they worked hard on internal matters, their troops were worn out from fighting outside.
