Rituals have existed since the dawn of humanity. Even jackals, wolves, tigers, and leopards understand the significance of rituals, let alone humans! Therefore, the importance of rituals for humans is akin to the instincts of these wild animals, though they were simpler in ancient times and became more elaborate over time. From ancient times to the present, the large-scale ritual activities conducted by emperors and generals have been clearly recorded in the "Book of Han - Records of Suburban Sacrifices" until the time of Wang Mang. Therefore, this "Record of Sacrifices" I am currently writing only documents the situation after the revival of Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han Dynasty.
In the year 25 AD, Emperor Guangwu Liu Xiu ascended the throne in Haocang City and built an altar to perform sacrifices to heaven and earth, continuing the ancient practices of suburban sacrifices from the Yuan Shi period. The six deities of sacrifice and other gods participated, but ancestors were not yet included in the offerings. The sacrificial animals for heaven and earth were a pair of young calves, and the other offerings were relatively simple. The sacrificial text read: "Emperor of Heaven, Earth Deities, please look down upon us and grant your decree, let me govern the people and be their father and mother; I truly do not dare! All the officials unanimously agreed: Wang Mang usurped the throne and murdered the emperor. I, Liu Xiu, rose in rebellion, defeated Wang Mang's million-strong army at Kunyang, and defeated rebel leaders like Wang Lang, Tong Ma, the Red Eyebrows, and the Green Calves, pacified the world, and all the people of the country have received your grace, which aligns with the will of heaven and has gained the support of the people. The prophecy says: 'Liu Xiu rose up to attack the unjust; in the year of Maojin, he cultivated virtue and became the emperor.' I declined several times—two or three, in fact. All officials said: 'This is a great decree from heaven that cannot be delayed!' So, I had no choice but to accept it with respect!"
In the first month of the year 2 BC, we began to build a sacrificial altar in the southern part of Luoyang City, near the Haodi area. The design is based on the old practices from the Yuan Shi era. The sacrificial altar is circular, with eight layers of steps. In the middle, there is a high platform where offerings are made to Heaven and Earth, facing south with the west at the back. Outside the high platform, there are five emperor's sacrificial altars. The Blue Emperor's altar is in the east, the Red Emperor in the south, the Yellow Emperor in the southwest, the White Emperor in the northwest, and the Black Emperor in the north. The altar is surrounded by walls, both inner and outer walls painted purple to symbolize the Purple Palace; there are four entrances. The sun and moon are positioned at the southern entrance of the inner wall, with the sun in the east and the moon in the west; the North Star is located on the western side of the northern entrance, all placed separately from other deities. Each of the eight layers has 58 steps, totaling 464 blocks. Each emperor's altar has 72 blocks, totaling 365 blocks. Each of the four gates in the inner wall has 54 deity positions, totaling 216 positions. Each of the four gates in the outer wall has 108 deity positions, totaling 432 positions. These positions face outward, away from the altar. Each of the inner gates also has four deity positions for sealing the altar with soil, totaling 32 positions. This makes a total of 1,514 deity positions. The term "camp" mentioned here refers to the walls, and "seal" refers to sealing the altar with soil. The deities worshipped in the inner wall include the Five Planets, palace officials, the Five Officials, and the deities of the Five Sacred Mountains. The deities worshipped in the outer wall include the 28 lunar mansions, other celestial deities, as well as the God of Thunder, the God of Agriculture, the God of Wind, the God of Rain, the Four Seas, the Four Rivers, famous mountains, and great rivers.
In May of the year 7 BC, the emperor summoned the three grand officials and said, "The Han Dynasty should follow the example of Emperor Yao and conduct a grand sacrificial ritual. Discuss with the nobles, scholars, and officials." At this time, the imperial censor Du Lin suggested, "The founding of the Han Dynasty is not directly connected to Emperor Yao, unlike the situations of the Yin Dynasty and Zhou Dynasty. According to tradition, Emperor Gaozu should also be included in the sacrifices. Since the army is still out fighting, it would be better to follow the regulations of the sacrificial ritual from the first year." The emperor accepted his suggestion. This event is recorded in the "Biography of Du Lin."
After pacifying Longxi and Shu territories, Emperor Guangwu of the Han Dynasty broadened the scope of the sacrificial ritual, including Emperor Gaozu in the list of sacrifices. He was positioned slightly above the center of the altar, facing west and backed by the north. Sacrifices were made to Heaven, Earth, Emperor Gaozu, and the Yellow Emperor, each with a calf; the Green Emperor and the Red Emperor shared a calf; the White Emperor and Black Emperor shared a calf, for a total of six calves. The Sun, Moon, and North Star shared one calf; the remaining four groups of deities shared four calves, for a total of five calves. Music was performed, including pieces like "Qingyang," "Zhuming," "Xihua," and "Xuanming," along with dances like "Clouds Rising" and "Nurturing Life." Each of the four gates of the inner altar had eighteen mats, while each of the four gates of the outer camp had thirty-six mats, totaling two hundred and sixteen mats made of rush and bamboo, averaging three deities per mat. The Sun, Moon, and North Star were not provided with steps, fences, or sacrificial vessels. After the sacrifices were completed, the sacrificial offerings were burned on the southern side of the altar.
In the second month of the 30th year of the Jianwu era, the ministers submitted a memorial saying that Your Majesty had been on the throne for thirty years and should go to Mount Tai for the Fengshan ritual. Emperor Guangwu issued a decree saying, "I have been on the throne for thirty years, and the people are complaining loudly. Who am I fooling? Am I really fooling the heavens? I used to say that Mount Tai is not as good as Lin Fang, so why would I tarnish the records of the 72 emperors! Huan Gong wanted to perform the Fengshan ritual, but Guan Zhong opposed it!" He then said, "If envoys from far-off counties come to congratulate me and sing my praises, they should all have their heads shaved and be sent to cultivate the fields." From then on, the ministers dared not mention the Fengshan ritual again. In the third month, the Emperor went to the state of Lu, passing by Mount Tai, and had the Mount Tai officials come out to greet him, and then made sacrifices to Mount Tai and Liangfu Mountain as per the decree. At that time, the Tiger's Elite General, Liang Song, and others discussed, saying, "The Book of Documents states that when the state of Qi sacrifices to Mount Tai, they must first sacrifice to Peilin. This is the customs of the vassals. The rivers and mountains rank higher than dukes, and only the Son of Heaven can make sacrifices. We should avoid such presumptuous behavior and should not sacrifice to Peilin." In the first month of the 32nd year of Jianwu, the Emperor observed a fast and read the He Tu and Luo Shu texts that evening, which stated, "The ninth of the Red Liu lineage, the meeting order of the Dai ancestral temple. If not careful in using it, what good does it do to inherit it! It is truly good to use it, and evil and falsehood will not arise." After reading this, the Emperor felt a deep resonance and issued a decree for Liang Song and others to again examine the He Tu and Luo Shu texts to find accounts of the ninth generation's Fengshan ritual. After Liang Song and others compiled their reports, the Emperor finally agreed to the Fengshan ritual. At first, Emperor Hanwu sought immortality because he trusted the diviners' claims, who said that the Yellow Emperor became immortal after the Fengshan ritual, so he wanted to hold a Fengshan ritual as well. The Fengshan ritual wasn't something that took place frequently, and people at the time had no idea what it entailed.
In the first year of Yuanfeng, the emperor trusted the words of the diviners and made sacrificial offerings for the Fengshan ceremony. He showed them to a group of Confucian scholars, but many of them pointed out that these items were not in line with those from ancient times. As a result, the emperor ignored their advice. In March, the emperor made his way east to Mount Tai, where he set up a stone tablet at the peak. He then continued east to the coast, hoping to find immortals, but came back empty-handed. In April, the grand Fengshan ceremony took place on Mount Tai. The emperor felt uneasy, fearing his actions might be misguided, so he kept it under wraps. These records can be found in the "Book of Han, Sacrificial Rites."
Xu Liang and his colleagues submitted a memorial, proposing to adhere to the Yuanfeng period's rules for the Fengshan ceremony and discussing what items should be used. The relevant officials reported that a square altar made of stone should be built, with each stone being one foot on each side and one foot thick, with inscribed jade tablets placed inside. The jade tablets were five inches thick, one foot three inches long, and five inches wide, stored in a jade box. They also required ten stone tablets, arranged with three on each side (east and west) and two on each side (north and south), each measuring three feet long, one foot wide, and seven inches thick. The stone tablets had three indentations, each four inches deep and five inches long, with a lid on each. The stone tablets were wrapped five times in gold wire and sealed using a mixture of mercury and gold. Additionally, there was a jade seal measuring one inch square, with a total of five jade seals, each measuring five inches square. The four corners of the square altar had corner stones stacked in two layers. The corner stones were one zhang long, one foot thick, and two feet wide, all positioned above the circular altar. Under the circular altar were eighteen corner stones, each three feet high, one foot thick, and two feet wide, resembling small stelae, arranged around the altar, three steps away. Each corner stone also had stone bases buried four feet deep underground. Additionally, a stone tablet measuring nine feet high, three feet five inches wide, and one foot two inches thick was erected on the south side of the altar, more than three zhang away for inscriptions.
The emperor felt that the stone project was too extensive, and he wanted to complete the Enthronement Ceremony in February, so he decreed that Song should use the leftover stones and empty stone tablets from past ceremonies, with only minor modifications. Song submitted a formal objection, saying, "The Enthronement Ceremony is to express gratitude to Heaven, bestow blessings upon future generations, and bring benefits to all the people. Showing respect to Heaven should be especially solemn; the auspicious signs of dedication should be prominently featured. Using old materials from past ceremonies, concealing the jade tablets beneath old stones, might not reflect the profound significance of the heavenly mandate. This Enthronement Ceremony should be unique to reflect the will of Heaven." Therefore, they quickly had Taishan County and Lu Di find stonemasons to procure high-quality blue stones, rather than colorful ones. At that time, they were unable to find craftsmen skilled in jade carving, so they planned to use cinnabar and lacquer for inscription; later they found craftsmen who could carve jade, and the inscriptions were subsequently carved. The inscribed words were hidden in square stones, and the jade tablets were meticulously preserved.
In February, the emperor arrived at Fenggao, sending officials and historians with craftsmen to carve stones on the mountain. The inscription reads:
... (The inscription should be inserted here)
In the 25th year of the Common Era, in February, the emperor embarked on an eastern journey to Mount Tai, held a sacrificial ceremony to pay homage to the mountains, rivers, and various deities, and then went to worship the Eastern Emperor. Accompanying the emperor were Grand Commandant Liang Shang, as well as Zang Gong, Baocheng Marquis, who was acting as Minister of Education, and other descendants of the two guest princes of the Han Dynasty. The descendant of Confucius, Baocheng Marquis, was also in the procession for the worship of the Eastern Emperor, along with twelve vassal kings who came to participate in the ceremony. The "River Diagram Red Talisman" states, "Liu Xiu raised an army to quell the lawless, and the four tribes gathered at Longdouye. In the year 47, fire was the predominant symbol."
The "Hetu Huichang Fu" states: "The Red Emperor in his ninth generation toured the four directions, governing peacefully and prosperously, and was subsequently granted a title. If one truly follows the principles of the Emperor and Confucius, auspicious signs will appear in the sky, and the land will show signs of good fortune. The ninth emperor of the Liu clan held a sacrifice at Mount Tai, and if this opportunity is utilized well, evil will not take hold. The Red Han dynasty thrived for nine generations, and the tour of Mount Tai was a fulfillment of prophecy. Heaven and Earth have supported the Liu clan for nine generations, in accordance with the natural order. The prosperity of the Han Dynasty lies in the rule of the ninth generation king. The enfeoffment on Mount Tai, the inscriptions commemorating achievements, the retreat and reflection at Liangfu Mountain, and the contemplation of the Five Virtues." The "Hetu He Gu Pian" states: "Liu Xiu is the ninth generation of Emperor Liu; he implemented benevolent policies, performed the enfeoffment, and inscribed his achievements." The "Hetu Ti Liu Yu" states: "The emperor of nine generations will manifest sagacity, maintain balance, resist external enemies, bring peace to the Nine Provinces, and unify the world." The "Luoshu Zhen Yaodu" states: "The red color symbolizes the Three Virtues, the flourishing of nine generations, the convergence of auspicious signs, in accordance with the time of emperors, strive to inscribe achievements in stone." The "Xiaojing Gouming Jue" states: "Who will carry out this? The red Liu clan is destined to become emperors, achieving merit three times, uniting nine times for governance, wholeheartedly completing the grand ceremony of enfeoffment." The prophecies of the "Hetu" and "Luoshu," as well as the records of scriptures and divinations, have all been fulfilled.
In ancient times, Emperor Yao was wise and astute, and he abdicated the throne in favor of Shun, whose descendants ruled the world. Wang Mang, relying on his status as a relative and the power of the Three Dukes, usurped the throne under the pretense of assisting the young ruler with the help of Zhou Gong and Huo Guang. As a result, he seized power and caused chaos, destroying ancestral temples and leading to the downfall of state rituals for 18 years. Rebellions broke out first in Yangzhou, Xuzhou, and Qingzhou, spreading to Jingzhou, where heroes rose up and many people declared themselves emperors. Northern minority tribes invaded, resulting in a thousand miles of silence, devoid of the sounds of chickens or dogs. Heaven favored the emperor, enabling him to restore the Han dynasty, despite his humble beginnings. The emperor took up arms at the age of 28 and, after more than ten years, finally quelled the rebellions, delivering just punishment to the offenders. The people were able to live peacefully, farm their own land, and dwell in their own homes. The writing system, transportation networks, and customs were standardized. By both land and water, anywhere with human presence paid tribute to the court. The emperor constructed Mingtang, Biyong, Lingtai, and educational institutions, standardized weights and measures, revised the Five Rites of Sacrifice, and specified the jade, silk, livestock, and other items used for sacrifices. Officials performed their duties accordingly, restoring the old system. The emperor ruled for 32 years and passed away at the age of 62. Diligent and caring for the people, he never slackened, facing countless dangers and difficulties, personally inspecting the people, respectfully worshiping the spirits, showing kindness to the elderly, and governing the realm with wisdom and benevolence in accordance with ancient traditions.
The emperor attached great importance to the prophecies of the River Diagram and the Luo Book. In the second month of that year, on Xinmao day, a sacrificial ceremony was held, and the emperor ascended Mount Tai to perform the Fengshan ceremony. On the day of Jiawu, a succession ceremony was held at Liangfushan. This was done to embrace the auspicious signs, benefit the people, bring peace to the world, and pass down to future generations. All officials, county governors, and prefects received blessings and eternal prosperity. Prime Minister Li Si of the Qin Dynasty burned the Book of Songs and the Book of Documents, causing the collapse of music and the deterioration of rituals. Before the first year of Jianwu, many historical texts were lost, the old classics were incomplete, and it was difficult to understand the meaning of the scriptures. Only eighty-one scrolls were compiled from scattered records as evidence, along with ten additional scrolls that were not clear enough. Zigong wanted to eliminate the use of sheep for sacrifices, but Confucius said, "Zigong, you like sheep, I accept rituals." In the future, a sage will come to correct these errors and inscribe them on stone.
On Tuesday morning, the twenty-second day of the second month, the emperor held a grand ceremony to sacrifice to the heavens on the south side of Mount Tai, burning incense and making offerings. The scene was magnificent, akin to the Southern Suburb sacrifice, and many immortals attended. Various princes, royal relatives, and descendants of Confucius, including Bao Chengjun, also came to help. After the ceremony, the emperor prepared to ascend Mount Tai for the Fengshan ceremony. Someone suggested, "Although Mount Tai has already accepted the sacrificial offerings, the emperor should personally ascend to present his accomplishments, so another formal sacrifice should be held." So, a specially made offering was brought to the regular sacrificial site on Mount Tai, following the precedents of agriculture and ancestral worship, to make offerings to the deity of Mount Tai.
At mealtime, the emperor traveled up the mountain in his imperial carriage, changing clothes only after reaching the mountaintop in the afternoon. In the evening, the emperor took his position facing north. The court officials stood in order, ascended the steps from the west side, and then all went up to the altar. The Minister of Works held the imperial edict (the emperor's proclamation) and the emperor's jade seal (inch-and-a-half seal), and the emperor personally pressed the seal into the clay. After the ceremony was completed, the officials from the Ministry of Rites covered the stones on the altar, the Minister of Works stored the imperial edict, replaced the stones, and then sealed it with a five-inch seal. After all the ceremonies were completed, the emperor performed two acts of kneeling, and the officials all chanted "long live the emperor" in unison. Finally, the emperor ordered the erection of a stele, and then descended the mountain.
On Friday, February 25th, the emperor conducted a ceremony to honor the earth in Liangyin, offering sacrifices to the god of the land, and also to the Empress Dowager, with the deities of mountains and rivers also in attendance, similar to the sacrifices held in the northern suburbs during the Yuan Shi era.
On Tuesday, April 6th, the emperor issued a general amnesty throughout the country, and changed the 32nd year of Jianwu to the first year of Jianwu Zhongyuan, and also exempted the current year's taxes and fodder from the regions of Bo, Fenggao, and Yingwu. After selecting an auspicious day, these decisions were engraved on a jade edict, placed in a box, stored in a gold coffer, and sealed with the jade seal. On Thursday, April 8th, the emperor sent the Grand Commandant to offer sacrifices at the Gaomiao. The Grand Commandant carried the gold coffer, reported this matter to the Gaomiao, and then concealed the gold coffer in the stone chamber beneath the ancestral shrine of Gaomiao, directly beneath the spirit tablet of the founder.
