Down in southwest China, there are many ethnic minority tribes, with a total of more than a dozen leaders, among which the Yelang tribe is the largest. Heading west, there are quite a few tribes, with the Dian Kingdom being the largest. Moving north from the Dian Kingdom, there are several more tribes, with the Qiongdu tribe being the largest. These tribes all live in wooden houses, farm, and have villages and towns.
Further out, heading east from Tongshi to Yeyu, including Xiu and Kunming, people braid their hair, herd for a living, have no permanent homes, no fixed leaders, and vast territories stretching thousands of miles. Moving northeast from Xiu, there are several more tribes, with Xi and Zuo being the largest. Moving northeast from Zuo, there are again several tribes, with Ranmao being the largest. Some of these tribes have lived here for generations, while others migrate around, all on the western side of Shu. Moving northeast from Ranmao, there are more tribes, with Baima being the largest, all belonging to the Di tribe. These are all barbarian tribes on the southwest border of Bashu.
During the reign of King Chuwei, General Zhuang Jiao led troops along the river, conquering the Ba region, Qianzhong, and even further west. This Zhuang Jiao is a descendant of King Chu Zhuang. When Zhuang Jiao reached Dianchi, an area of three hundred square miles with fertile flat land all around, he used his army to claim the area for Chu. Later, when he wanted to return to report to the King of Chu, he ran into trouble when the Qin Kingdom attacked Chu, taking over the Ba and Qianzhong regions and blocking his way home. Unable to return, he became the king of the Dian Kingdom with his soldiers, changed his clothes, learned the local customs, and became a leader there. During the Qin Dynasty, these tribes were defeated, and the Qin built a barely passable five-foot-wide trail and stuck some officials in those countries. Over ten years later, the Qin Dynasty fell. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, they gave up control of these countries, only guarding the borders of Shu. The people of Bashu secretly went out to do business, buying Yama horses (a type of horse), Botong slaves (slaves from the Bo tribe), and Moxiu cattle (a type of cattle), making the Bashu region very prosperous. This trade brought unimaginable wealth to Bashu.
In the sixth year of Jianyuan, King Huai of Dahang went to attack Dong Yue, but Dong Yue killed King Huai in revenge. After King Huai's death, relying on his prestige, the county magistrate of Fanyang, Tang Meng, secretly went to investigate the situation in Nan Yue.
The Nan Yue people treated Tang Meng with fermented soybean paste produced in Shu, and Tang Meng asked them where this condiment came from. They replied, "It comes from the Zangke River in the northwest direction. The river is several miles across and flows all the way to the city of Panyu." When Tang Meng returned to Chang'an, he asked the Shu merchants and found out that only Shu produced this fermented soybean paste, and many Shu merchants secretly took it to sell in Yelang. Yelang is located by the Zangke River, which is over a hundred paces wide, easily navigable. Nan Yue controlled Yelang with wealth, and Yelang's influence extended westward to Tongshi, but Nan Yue could not control Yelang.
Tang Meng wrote to the emperor, saying, "The King of Nan Yue lives in a yellow house, flying a left-sided banner, with a territory spanning tens of thousands of miles east and west. Although it is said to be a vassal of the Han Dynasty, it is actually an independent feudal state. Now, if we go to attack Nan Yue from Changsha and Yuzhang, the water routes are frequently blocked, making passage difficult. I heard that Yelang has a hundred thousand elite soldiers who can sail through the Zangke River and unexpectedly attack Nan Yue. This is a brilliant plan. If we use the strong power of the Han Dynasty and the rich resources of the Ba Shu region to secure a passage to Yelang and set up officials there, it will be easy to control Nan Yue." The emperor approved Tang Meng's plan.
So the emperor appointed Tang Meng as the Palace Attendant General, giving him a thousand soldiers and enough provisions for over ten thousand people. He was sent from Ba Di, specifically Fu Guan, to meet the King of Yelang, Duo Tong. When Tang Meng arrived in Yelang, he presented many gifts to Duo Tong and impressed upon him the power and fairness of the Han Dynasty. They agreed to establish officials in Yelang and appoint Duo Tong's son as the county governor. The surrounding tribes of Yelang coveted the Han Dynasty's silk fabrics, but they found the roads too difficult to traverse. Ultimately, they agreed to Tang Meng's conditions. Upon his return, the emperor established the Yelang region as Jianwei Commandery.
Then, the Han Dynasty mobilized soldiers from Bashu to build roads from Bodao to the Zangke River. Sima Xiangru from Shu also suggested that counties could be established in the Yi tribal areas of Qiong and Zuo. The emperor sent Sima Xiangru to those places to pacify them, and similarly to Yelang, the Han Dynasty established a Commandant and over ten counties under the jurisdiction of Shu Commandery.
At that time, the counties in western Bashu and the roads in the southwest Yi region were already connected, facilitating the mutual transportation of goods. However, after a few years, the roads were cut off again, and soldiers found themselves tired and hungry. Coupled with the damp and hot climate in the south, many people died. The southwest Yi region rebelled multiple times, and the Han Dynasty sent troops to suppress them, resulting in a waste of manpower and resources without much success. The emperor was distressed by this and sent Gong Sun Hong to investigate. Gong Sun Hong returned and reported that establishing counties in the southwest Yi region was inconvenient. Later, Gong Sun Hong became the Chief Inspector, and at that time, the Han Dynasty was building Shuofang City to defend against the Xiongnu on the banks of the Yellow River. Gong Sun Hong and others suggested that since the southwest Yi region was constantly causing trouble, it would be better to temporarily abandon it and focus on dealing with the Xiongnu. The emperor agreed to this suggestion and revoked the counties in the southwest Yi region, leaving only two counties and a Commandant in the Nan Yi region, leaving Jianwei Commandery to fend for itself.
In 122 BC, the first year of the Yuanshou era, Zhang Qian, the Marquis of Bowang, returned from his mission to Daxia and mentioned that he saw cloth from Shu and walking sticks made of Qiong bamboo in Daxia. He asked where these items came from. People told him, "They come from the Shendu kingdom in the southeast; it's thousands of miles away. Merchants from Shu traded there." Some also heard that it takes about two thousand miles westward from Qiong to reach Shendu. Zhang Qian pointed out that Daxia lay southwest of the Han, its people admired the Han, but trade was blocked by the Xiongnu. If the road from Shu to Shendu could be opened, it would be much more convenient, and there would be no need to worry about the threat of the Xiongnu.
After hearing Zhang Qian's words, the emperor sent a delegation of over ten men, including Wang Ranzhi, Bai Shichang, and Lü Yueren, to secretly go to the southwest Yi area to find Shendu. When they arrived in Dian, the Dian king, who was the local Qiang chieftain, detained them, hoping they could help find the way to Shendu. After more than four years, however, they remained stuck in Kunming, unable to find the route. The Dian king even asked, "Is the Han larger than my kingdom?" The Marquis of Yelang felt similarly, believing his own domain a vast empire, oblivious to the Han's true scale. When the envoys returned to the court, they reported Dian to be a large and valuable kingdom worthy of alliance. The emperor took this matter very seriously.
Later, a rebellion occurred in the Nan Yue region, so the emperor sent Lord Chi Yi to lead soldiers from Jianwei County to suppress it. The Lord of Qielan feared the long journey and worried that other countries would take advantage of attacking his vulnerable people. Therefore, he rebelled with his followers, killing the envoy of the Han and the governor of Jianwei. The Han were forced to send eight captains with criminals from Bashu to attack Nan Yue. But even after Yue was pacified, the eight captains withdrew before finishing the battle. Colonel Guo Chang and Wei Guang led the troops back, and while they were returning, they conveniently took care of Qielan, which had been blocking the road to Dian, killing countless enemy troops and ultimately pacifying the Nan Yi region, establishing Zangke County. Yelang, previously a vassal of Nan Yue, was next on the list once Nan Yue fell. The Han army came to punish him, and the Lord of Yelang finally surrendered, paying homage to the emperor, who appointed him as the King of Yelang. After Nan Yue was pacified, the Han army also subdued Qielan and Qiong. They killed the Lord of Zha, and fearful of a similar fate, Ranmao and other areas quickly submitted, sending envoys to pledge allegiance and accept Han administration. Therefore, the Han established Yue Xiu County in Qiongdu as its governing place, established Shenli County in Shenli, established Wenshan County in Ranmao, and established Wudu County in Xibaima of Guanghan County. Wang Ran, dispatched south by the court, swiftly subdued the southern barbarians, proudly notifying the King of Dian to come to the capital to see the emperor. King Dian, who commanded an army of tens of thousands, had surrounding tribes such as Laoshen and Mimo, all sharing the same surname as him, colluding with each other and not obeying orders. Laoshen and Mimo were constantly harassing the court's envoys and soldiers.
In the second year of Yuanfeng, the emperor directly sent the army of Ba and Shu to attack Laoshe and Mimo. The army's arrival terrified the King of Dian, who quickly expressed his submission. Because the King of Dian was fortunate to have changed his mind, the emperor did not kill him. The King of Dian and his entire kingdom surrendered, requesting the court to send officials to govern, appoint officials, and pay regular tribute. Therefore, the court established Dian as the Yizhou prefecture, gave the King of Dian an imperial seal, and allowed him to continue managing the people. Of all the southwestern tribal leaders, only the King of Dian and the King of Yelang received royal seals. Although Dian was a small region, it was the most favored.
After twenty-three years, in the first year of Xiaozhao Shiyuan, the people of Liantou and Gufeng in Yizhou rebelled, killing the officials sent by the court. Twenty-four regions, including Zangke, Tanzhi, and Tongbing, rebelled, with over thirty thousand people joining the uprising. The court then sent over ten thousand troops from Ba and Jianwei, led by the Commandant of the Imperial Granaries, to attack Zangke, resulting in a great victory. Three years later, Gufeng and Yeyu rebelled again, and the court sent Shuihengduwei Lv Bi Hu with troops from the commandery to attack. However, Lv Bi Hu's inaction allowed the rebels to kill the governor of Yizhou and attack his own troops. Over four thousand soldiers of the court died in battle or drowned.
The following year, the court sent General Wang Ping and Dahonglu Tian Guangming to lead the troops and decisively defeat the rebels in Yizhou, killing and capturing over fifty thousand people and seizing thousands upon thousands of livestock. The emperor joyfully declared, "Marquis of Goucheng Wang Bo led his tribal leaders and people to fight against the rebels, achieving great merit. I hereby appoint him King of Goucheng! Dahonglu Guangming shall also be rewarded with the title of Marquis of Guannei, with a fief of three hundred households!" Not long after, the Di people of Wudu rebelled again, and the court sent the Commandant of the Imperial Guard Ma Shijian, Marquis Long'e Han Zeng, and Dahonglu Tian Guangming to lead the troops to attack.
During the He Ping era of the Han Dynasty, Yelang King Xing, Guoting King Yu, and Louwo Marquis Yu, among others, started fighting again, attacking each other. The Zangke prefect quickly requested the court to send troops to deal with them, but some people thought the journey was too far and it was not advisable to fight, so they sent Zhang Kuang, a Grand Master of the Palace from Shu County, to mediate.
As a result, those warring kings did not listen at all and even carved wooden figures of Han officials, standing on the side of the road shooting arrows! Du Qin said to the Grand General Wang Feng: "The Grand Master Kuang went to mediate with those rebellious kings and nobles. Despite receiving imperial orders, they resumed their fighting. They are so disrespectful to the Han envoy, not afraid of the authority of the court. The consequences can be imagined! I am afraid that the court will continue to dither and push for mediation, waiting for the prefect to report when the situation changes; in this way, time will be wasted again. When they gather more troops, consolidate their plans, and collude with each other, no one can back down, and in the end, they can only kill each other. Once they realize that they cannot escape their guilt, they will resist the officials and soldiers madly, hiding in sweltering, poisonous jungles. Even with generals like Sun Wu and Wu Qi, and soldiers like Xiang Yu, it would be a suicide mission. Sending troops would cost a fortune—an unimaginable sum!"
So, while they have not yet committed a major mistake and do not suspect that the court wants to punish them, they should secretly order the local officials to train the army, let the Minister of Agriculture prepare food reserves in strategic locations in advance, select a capable prefect to go there, and wait for the cooler autumn months before attacking to eliminate all those unruly barbarian kings. Even if it leaves those lands barren and the people displaced, a wise king wouldn't mind. It's better to simply abolish those counties and cut ties with the barbarian kings. If the achievements established by the late emperor cannot be destroyed, then these problems should be solved early while they are still small, and not wait until the problems escalate before sending troops to attack; otherwise, the common people will suffer!
General Feng recommended Chen Li, the Sima of Jincheng, to be the prefect of Zangke. Chen Li is from Linqiong and previously served as the county magistrate of Lianran, governing very strictly, which made the barbarians fear him. After arriving at Zangke, he notified King Xing of Yelang to obey orders, but Xing did not listen, so Chen Li requested permission from the court to kill him. Before the court replied, he took dozens of officials out of the city for inspection, and when they reached the Qie Tong Pavilion in Xingguo County, he called for King Xing of Yelang to come. King Xing arrived at the pavilion with a sizable army, and several local chieftains accompanied him to meet Chen Li in the pavilion. Chen Li berated him, then, without a second thought, had his head cut off. The local chieftains said, "General, you have killed this villain and eliminated the pests for the people. We are willing to go and tell everyone this news." Chen Li showed them the head of the Yelang King, and all of them immediately surrendered.
King Gou Ting and Marquis Louwo were afraid, so they quickly sent a thousand *hu* (a unit of volume) of grain, as well as cattle and sheep, to reward the soldiers. Chen Li returned to the county, and the wife of King Xing of Yelang, his father-in-law Weng Zhi, and Xing's son Xie Wu secretly gathered the remaining troops and coerced twenty-two neighboring counties into rebellion. In winter, Chen Li petitioned the court, recruited barbarians from various tribes, and divided the troops with the military commander and chief administrator to attack Weng Zhi and others. Weng Zhi built fortifications relying on the terrain, so Chen Li sent out an elite unit to cut off his supply route and used deception to sow discord among his subordinates. The military commander Wan Nian said, "The campaign is proving too costly; we cannot sustain it." So he led an attack without authorization, but was defeated and fled to Chen Li's camp. Chen Li was furious and ordered Wan Nian to be severely reprimanded. Wan Nian returned to battle, and Chen Li led troops to support him. At that time, there was a severe drought, so Chen Li cut off the enemy's water source. Finally, the barbarians killed Weng Zhi together and brought his head to surrender. Chen Li pacified the Western Yi region, and the court summoned him back to the capital. At that time, there were bandits in Ba County, so the court appointed him as the Prefect of Ba County, with a salary of two thousand stones and the title of Grand Minister of the Left. Later, he was transferred to Tianshui as Prefect, where he encouraged the people to farm and grow mulberry trees. His governance was the best in the country, and the court rewarded him with forty jin of gold. He then returned to the court and served as Left Cao Wei General and Protector of the Army Commandant, and he died in office.
Wang Mang usurped the throne of the Han Dynasty and implemented numerous institutional reforms, demoting the King of Juting, Wang Han, to a marquis. King Juting Wang Han felt very wronged, and as a result, the Prefect Zhou Qin of Zangke plotted to kill him. Wang Han's brother, Wang Cheng, killed Zhou Qin in revenge, but the officials and soldiers from the provinces and counties who went to capture him failed. The border barbarians were already restless, and now they rebelled in a swarm, even killing the Prefect of Yizhou, Cheng Long. Wang Mang sent General Feng Mao to lead the troops and laborers from Bashu and Jianwei to suppress the rebellion. In order to raise military funds, the common people were excessively taxed. After three years of fighting, seven-tenths of those who died succumbed to the plague, and the Bashu region was plunged into turmoil. Wang Mang recalled Feng Mao and had him killed, then sent General Ning Shi, Lian Dan, and Xiong Da, the Shepherd of Yong Commandery, to lead the cavalry of Tianshui and Longxi, along with one hundred thousand troops and laborers from Guanghan, Bashu, and Jianwei, plus twenty thousand transport personnel, to fight. At first, they killed thousands of people, but later the logistics fell behind, and the soldiers were hungry and sick, resulting in the deaths of several tens of thousands over three years. The war on this front was not yet over when the barbarian Ren Gui of Yuechi killed the Prefect Mei Gen and declared himself king, known as the King of Qionggu. Following Wang Mang's defeat and the restoration of the Han Dynasty, Ren Gui was executed, and his former title was revoked.
Zhao Tuo, the King of Nanyue, was from Zhengding. After the unification of the Qin Dynasty, the Qin conquered Lingnan, establishing Guilin, Nanhai, and Xiang commanderies. Settlers from the north were moved there to live among the locals. At the age of thirteen, during the reign of the second Qin emperor, the magistrate of Nanhai Commandery, Ren Xiao, was seriously ill and dying. He called Zhao Tuo, the magistrate of Longchuan, and said, "I've heard Chen Sheng and Wu Guang have revolted, and other local bigwigs are declaring independence. Nanhai's remote; we're bound to get bandits and rebels. I want to raise troops to block the passes and prepare for trouble, but I'm too sick. Panyu's a strong position—mountains, rivers, thousands of miles of territory, and plenty of northerners to support us. We could easily become our own kingdom. There's no one else I can trust here, so that's why I'm calling you." After speaking, he handed the seal to Zhao Tuo, asking him to act as the acting magistrate of Nanhai Commandery. After Ren Xiao's death, Zhao Tuo issued a warning to Hengpu, Yangshan, and Huangxi Pass, saying, "The rebel army is coming; quickly block the roads and concentrate troops for self-defense." He gradually replaced the Qin officials with his own men, often using legal means to get rid of them. After the fall of the Qin Dynasty, Zhao Tuo captured Guilin Commandery and Xiang Commandery and declared himself King of Nanyue.
After Emperor Gaozu pacified the world, considering the great sacrifices made by the people of the Central Plains for unification, he did not kill Zhao Tuo. Eleven years later, Liu Bang sent Lu Jia to confer the title of King of Nanyue on Zhao Tuo and gave him the official seal, instructing him to pacify the Baiyue region, not to harm the southern border, and to work with Changsha.
During the reign of Empress Lü, there were suggestions in the court to ban the sale of iron goods at the Lingnan border. Zhao Tuo snapped, "Emperor Gaozu personally appointed me to be in charge of foreign trade. Now Empress Lü is listening to the whispers of his enemies, wanting to cut off trade with the south and ban the sale of iron goods. That's Changsha's doing! He's trying to use the north to wipe out the rest of us so he can claim the credit!"
So Zhao Tuo promptly crowned himself Emperor of Nanyue, attacked Changsha Kingdom, beating back several of its counties. Empress Dowager Lü sent General Longlu Hou Zao to suppress him, but they encountered sweltering, humid weather that sickened so many soldiers they couldn't advance. The war dragged on for about a year, ending only after Empress Dowager Lü died.
Taking advantage of this opportunity, Zhao Tuo used his army and cash to buy off Minyue, Xiyue, and Luoyue, bringing them under his control. His kingdom stretched for thousands of miles, and he even used the yellow canopy and left banner, declaring himself emperor and a rival to the Central Plains.
In his first year, Emperor Wen of Han, busy pacifying the empire, let the princes and outlying tribes know he'd inherited the throne from Dai and intended to rule kindly. He personally oversaw the building of Tuo's father's tomb, established garrisons in Zhending, and made annual offerings. Emperor Wen also summoned Tuo's brothers, showering them with high office and riches.
Emperor Wen summoned Prime Minister Ping and asked who could be sent to Nanyue. Ping mentioned that Lu Jia had previously been sent to Nanyue by the late Emperor. Emperor Wen then summoned Lu Jia, appointed him as a senior official, assigned him an attendant as deputy envoy, and wrote a letter to King Zhao Tuo of Nanyue. The letter stated: "Greetings, King Zhao Tuo of Nanyue. Word is you've been busy. I, as a son of lesser standing of Emperor Gaozu, have been sent to a distant land, with a long journey ahead. I have limited knowledge and have never written to you before. After the passing of Emperor Gaozu and Emperor Xiaohui, Empress Dowager Lu took over, but fell ill, causing widespread chaos. The Lü family seized power and threw the whole country into turmoil. I was unable to control the situation alone, so I had no choice but to put someone else on the throne to succeed Emperor Xiaohui. Thanks to our ancestors and loyal subjects, we were able to eliminate the Lü clan. With the nobles and officials acting up, I had to ascend the throne. I recently heard that you wrote to Marquis Longluo, requesting the placement of your brothers and the dismissal of two generals in Changsha. I've already let Marquis Boyang go as you asked, and I've sent someone to check on your brothers in Zhending and fix up your ancestors' tombs."
Some time ago, I heard that you were using troops at the border, and border conflicts continued unabated. At that time, Changsha suffered, and Nanyue was even more severely affected. Although that is your territory, what good does it do you? It would leave countless widows, orphans, and heartbroken families; nine out of ten men would be killed. I really can't bear to see such things happen. I want to settle our tangled border disputes. I asked the ministers, and they said, "This is how the borders were drawn by Emperor Gaozu of Han; I have no authority to change them." The minister also said, "You govern the lands south of the river; that is your responsibility." Although you are called emperor, with two emperors ruling side-by-side with no peaceful communication, this is called conflict; a wise person will not fight without compromise. I hope that both sides can abandon past grievances and restore normal diplomatic relations from now on. So I have sent Lu Jia to quickly convey my intentions to you, hoping you will accept this token of goodwill and that peace will prevail between our nations. I have sent you fifty pieces of top-quality clothing, thirty pieces of medium-quality clothing, and twenty pieces of low-quality clothing, hoping you can be happy and care about your neighboring country.
Lu Jia arrived in Nanyue, and King Zhao Tuo of Nanyue was afraid, quickly prostrated himself in apology and expressed his willingness to forever be a vassal of the Han Dynasty and pay tribute on time. Then, by imperial decree, Zhao Tuo issued a nationwide order, saying, "I have heard that two talented and capable individuals cannot exist at the same time, and two wise individuals cannot coexist. The Emperor of the Han Dynasty is a wise ruler. From now on, the title of Emperor is hereby abolished, and all imperial regalia are to be discarded."
Zhao Tuo's letter read: "Zhao Tuo, a loyal old servant of the southern tribes, bows repeatedly and presents a memorial to the Emperor: I was a former official of Nanyue, and the Emperor Gaozu once bestowed upon me the seal of Zhao Tuo, appointing me as the King of Nanyue, a vassal of the Han dynasty, to pay tribute on time. When Emperor Xiaohui ascended the throne, he remembered our old ties and increased his rewards to me. After Empress Lü came to power, she favored sycophants, listened to slander, and treated the barbarians differently, ordering, 'No gold or iron tools for the Nanyue people; they can have cattle and sheep, but only the males.' I was out of touch with the court, my horses and sheep have aged, I feel that I have not properly honored my ancestors, and have committed a capital offense, so I had my ministers, Zhong Wei Gao and Ping Fan, the Imperial Historian, present a memorial to seek pardon, but received no response. I then heard that my parents' graves had been damaged, and my brothers and clan members had been executed. Officials discussed together, 'We're ignored in court and can't rule ourselves here.' Therefore, I made myself emperor, established my own country, not meaning any harm to the world. When Empress Lü heard of this, she was extremely angry, took away Nanyue's title, and cut off contact with Nanyue. I suspect that the King of Changsha sent people to spread slander, which is why I dared to send troops to attack the border of Changsha. Furthermore, the southern terrain is swampy and humid; to the west is the West Ou kingdom, another small kingdom; to the east is Minyue, another small kingdom; and to the northwest is the kingdom of Changsha, which has a significant barbarian population. Therefore, I presumptuously usurped the title of emperor just for kicks. I control vast territories of over a hundred cities, with a million-strong army, yet I bow to the north, submitting to the Han dynasty. Why is this? I couldn't go against my ancestors' wishes! I have lived in Nanyue for forty-nine years and now have grandchildren. However, I rise early and sleep late every day, have restless nights, cannot eat, do not look at splendid things, do not listen to the sound of bells and drums, all because I cannot serve the Han dynasty! If Your Majesty could pity me now, restore my former title, and restore communication with the envoys of the Han dynasty, my corpse will not decay after death; I promise never to proclaim myself emperor again! I have sent two jade bi discs, ten rhinoceros horns, five hundred purple shells, a thousand green birds, forty pairs of their feathers, a cassia wood box, and two peacocks. Bows repeatedly, reporting to Your Majesty the Emperor."
Not provided.
After Lu Jia returned, he reported the situation to Emperor Wen of Han, who was very pleased. Later, during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han, the kingdom of Nanyue continued to send envoys to bow before the emperor. However, Nanyue still referred to itself as a kingdom domestically; when sending envoys to the Han court, although they claimed to be following the orders of the Han court, they were basically just another vassal state.
In the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, Hu Hai's grandson, Zhao Tuo, became the king of Nanyue. Three years later, King Ying of Minyue led his troops south to attack the Nanyue border. Nanyue sent a letter to Emperor Wu of Han, saying, "We're both your vassal states, so we shouldn't be fighting each other. Minyue just attacked us, and we can't fight back without your say-so." The Emperor was impressed by Nanyue's loyalty, so he sent troops to attack Minyue. Before the army even got there, King Ying was killed by his own brother, Yu Shan, who then surrendered. The Han army called it a day.
Emperor Wu of Han sent Yan Zhu to offer condolences to Nanyue. When King Hu of Nanyue saw Yan Zhu, he repeatedly kowtowed and said, "The emperor actually sent troops to attack Minyue, how's that for gratitude?" He then sent his crown prince, Yingqi, to Chang'an to serve the emperor. He told Yan Zhu, "Our country has just suffered from war, and my envoy's already on his way. I'm planning to head to the capital soon to pay my respects." After Yan Zhu left, the ministers of Nanyue advised Hu, saying, "The Han's attack on Ying scared the bejesus out of us. Moreover, the late king said that serving the emperor must pay attention to etiquette; don't try to butter him up out of fear. If you go to the capital to meet the emperor and do not return, that's a surefire recipe for disaster!" So Hu lied about being sick and ultimately did not go to the capital. Years later, Hu became seriously ill, and Crown Prince Yingqi requested to return to the country. After Hu's death, he was posthumously named King Wen. After Yingqi succeeded to the throne, he hid his grandfather and great-grandfather's imperial seals. While serving as a hostage in Chang'an, Yingqi married a woman from the Jiao family of Handan and had a son named Xing. Upon ascending to the throne, he petitioned to establish the Jiao woman as queen and Xing as crown prince. The Han Dynasty sent envoys multiple times to hint at him, but he continued to do as he pleased, was a bit of a bloodthirsty chap, feared going to the capital to meet the emperor, insisted on governing the country with Han Dynasty laws like other vassals within the country, kept faking illness, and ultimately did not go to the capital to meet the emperor. He just sent his son, Cigong, to Chang'an. After Yingqi's death, he was posthumously named King Ming.
After the crown prince inherited the throne, his mother became the Dowager Queen. Before marrying the King of Nam Viet, the Dowager Queen had an affair with Anguo Shaoji from Baling. After the death of the King of Nam Viet, in the fourth year of Yuanding, the Han Dynasty sent Anguo Shaoji to persuade the King of Nam Viet and the Dowager Queen to visit Chang'an to meet the emperor. They also sent the eloquent official Zhongjun, among others, to deliver the imperial edict, and dispatched the valiant Weichen and his men to ensure the mission's success, stationing troops led by Lu Bode in Guiyang just in case. The young King of Nam Viet's mother, a Chinese woman, renewed her affair with Anguo Shaoji during his visit. The people of Nam Viet all knew about this, so many did not support the Dowager Queen. Afraid of rebellion and wanting to use the Han Dynasty's strength to their advantage, the Dowager Queen persuaded the King of Nam Viet and his favored officials to submit to the Han Dynasty. She took the opportunity of the Han Dynasty envoys to write to the Han Dynasty emperor, requesting to meet the emperor every three years like the other tributary states, and to exempt border tariffs. The Han Dynasty emperor agreed to her request, granting the Prime Minister of Nam Viet, Lu Jia, a silver seal, as well as the seals of the Interior Minister, Grand General, and Grand Tutor, with other official seals to be set by Nam Viet itself. The Han Dynasty also pardoned criminals previously convicted in Nam Viet and allowed Nam Viet to adopt Han Dynasty laws. The Han Dynasty envoys stayed in Nam Viet to help them integrate. The King of Nam Viet and the Dowager Queen began preparing for their journey to the capital.
The Prime Minister of Nanyue, Lv Jia, was very old. He had assisted three Nanyue kings and had more than seventy relatives and friends in official positions. His sons married Nanyue princesses, and his daughters married into the royal family. He also had connections with the King of Cangwu. Lv Jia was incredibly influential in Nanyue; many trusted him more than the king himself. Despite repeatedly warning the Han court against aggression, the emperor did not heed his warnings. Suspecting rebellion, Lv Jia repeatedly refused to meet with the Han envoys. The Han envoys respected him but were not allowed to harm him at that time. Fearing Lv Jia's potential rebellion, the king and queen hoped to use the Han envoys to get rid of him. At a banquet, the queen subtly goaded the Han envoys, hoping to incite them against Lv Jia, but they remained hesitant. Lv Jia, sensing a trap, slipped away. Enraged, the queen wanted to kill Lv Jia on the spot, but the king restrained her. Lv Jia returned home, feigning illness to avoid the king and envoys. He secretly planned a rebellion. The king had no intention of killing Lv Jia, a fact Lv Jia was aware of, so he bided his time for months. The queen desperately wanted Lv Jia and his supporters dead, but lacked the means.
The Emperor heard about this, figured the envoy he'd sent was a total wimp – he'd just run off! What a disgrace! The Emperor also thought that the King of Nanyue and the Queen Mother had already secretly defected to the Han Dynasty; there was no need to send in the whole army, so he wanted to send Zhuang Can with two thousand men to investigate the situation. Zhuang Can was all, "If it's just talks, a few guys'll do. But if we're talking war, two thousand ain't enough!" The Emperor couldn't persuade him, so he had to cancel Zhuang Can's troops.
Then this dude, Han Qianqiu – former Prime Minister of Jibei – pipes up, "Nanyue's army is small potatoes, and the King's ready to roll over. It's just Lu Jia causing all the trouble. Give me three hundred good men, and I'll bring you Lu Jia's head on a platter!" The Emperor then sent Han Qianqiu with the Queen Mother's brother Jue Le and two thousand troops. The minute they hit Nanyue, Lu Jia flipped out and announced to the whole country, "The King's just a kid! The Queen Mother's Chinese, and she's been cozying up to those Han envoys. She's practically begging to surrender, handing over the old King's treasures to suck up to the Emperor. She went to Chang'an with them, and now they're all slaves! All they cared about was the quick buck, and they threw the whole Zhao dynasty under the bus!" Then Lu Jia and his brother led the army, killed the Queen Mother and the King of Nanyue, and also killed all the Han Dynasty envoys. Then Lu Jia told the King of Cangwu and the other counties to crown the King's oldest son – Yue's wife, Shu Yanghou Jiande – as the new King.
After Han Qianqiu led the troops in, they captured some small towns. Later, unexpectedly, the Southern Yue even provided Han Qianqiu's forces with supplies and safe passage. However, when they were only forty miles away from Panyu, the Southern Yue army suddenly attacked and wiped out his entire army. The Southern Yue people sealed the letter from the Han Dynasty messenger, placed it on the border, sent a phony apology, and also sent troops to defend important passes. The emperor said, "Although Han Qianqiu was not successful, he was the bravest general in our army. I made his son, Han Yannian, the Marquis of Cheng'an. As for Jue Le, his sister is the Queen Mother and the first to want to join the Han Dynasty. I also named his son, Guangde, Marquis of Zhao." Then the emperor ordered a general amnesty, saying, "My country's weak right now, and the princes are all doing their own thing. They criticize me for not suppressing the rebels. Lu Jia, Jiande, and the rest were running riot. I command the armies of Southern Yue and south of the Yangtze River, a 100,000 strong naval force, to suppress them!"
In the autumn of 112 BC, Lu Bode, appointed General of Fubo, marched south from Guiyang along the Huang River; Chief Commandant Yang Pu, appointed General of Lou Chuan, moved south from Yuzhang along the Hengpu River; the Marquis of Guiyi and the Marquis of Xialai were appointed as the Generals of Ge Chuan and Xia Lai, respectively, with one army moving down the Li River and another reaching Cangwu; at the same time, the Marquis of Chiyi was tasked with utilizing criminals from Bashu and recruiting soldiers from Yelang to march down the Zangke River; all the armies finally met in Panyu.
Next, in the winter of 111 BC, the Admiral led an elite force to first capture Xunxiang, break through the Shimen, and captured numerous Yue warships and supplies. They then pursued their victory, defeating the morale of the Yue army and holding tens of thousands of Yue prisoners, awaiting General Fubo's arrival. General Fubo led a force composed of convicts, but due to the long journey, they arrived later than scheduled, with only a thousand men remaining when they linked up with the Admiral. The two armies then attacked together. Upon arriving at Panyu, the Admiral found Jiande and Jia defending the city. He chose a favorable position in the southeast, while General Fubo stationed in the northwest. In the evening, the Admiral launched a fierce attack, defeating the Yue army and setting the city on fire. The Yue army had heard of General Fubo's fame but did not know the size of his force, causing panic. General Fubo set up camp and sent messengers to offer terms of surrender. He promised rewards, including official seals and robes, and encouraged the soldiers to persuade their comrades to surrender. While the Admiral attacked and burned the city, he also drove the fleeing enemy into General Fubo's camp. The next morning, everyone in Panyu surrendered to General Fubo. Only Lu Jia and Jiande, with hundreds of followers, escaped into the sea at night. General Fubo asked the surrendered soldiers, learned the direction of Lu Jia's escape, and sent troops to pursue. In the end, his Captain Sima Suhong captured Jiande and was created Marquis of Haichang; Du Ji, a Yue commander who captured Lu Jia, became Marquis of Lincai.
Cangwu King Zhao Guang and Yue King share the same surname. Upon hearing that the Han army was approaching, they readily surrendered and were titled Marquis Sui Tao. The magistrate of Jieyang in Yue territory also surrendered to the Han Dynasty and was titled Marquis An Dao. Yue general Bi Qu surrendered with his troops and was titled Marquis Liao. The Guilin prefect persuaded more than 400,000 people in the Ou Luo region to surrender and was titled Marquis Xiangcheng. The armies of Generals Ge Chuan and Xia Lai, and Marquis Chi Yi's Ye Lang troops had not yet reached Panyu, but Nanyue was already under control. Therefore, the Han Dynasty established the territories of Dan'er, Zhuyai, Nanhai, Cangwu, Yulin, Hepu, Jiaozhi, Jiuzhen, and Rinan as nine counties of Nanyue. General Fubo got a promotion for this. General Lou Chuan was promoted to Marquis for his bravery in battle, breaking through enemy strongholds.
Ever since Yituo became king, Nanyue experienced a total of five generations of monarchs. When the last king died, Nanyue had existed for ninety-three years.
They say that the kings of Minyue, Wuzhu, and Yuedonghai were all descendants of King Goujian of Yue, surnamed Zou. After the Qin Dynasty unified the country, they abolished their royal titles and designated their territories as Minzhong Commandery. Later, when the feudal lords rebelled against the Qin, Wuzhu and Yao led their people to seek refuge with the magistrate of Fanyang, Wu Rui—the famous Fan Jun, a powerful local leader—and joined the feudal lords in overthrowing the Qin Dynasty. At that time, Xiang Yu had the final say and did not grant them royal titles, so they did not assist the Chu Kingdom. Later, when the Han Dynasty fought against Xiang Yu, Wuzhu and Yao led the people of Yue to assist the Han Dynasty. Five years into the Han Dynasty, Wuzhu was made King of Minyue again and continued to rule the original Minzhong region, with the capital in Yexian. In the third year of Emperor Xiaohui, the Han Dynasty recognized the Yue lords' contributions during the reign of Emperor Gaozu, and because King Yao was successful and popular with his people, he was titled King of East Sea, with the capital in Dong'ou.
Several generations later, in the third year of Emperor Xiaojing, Wu Wang Bi rebelled and tried to persuade Minyue to join him, but they refused. Only Dong Ou followed King Bi in rebellion. After King Bi was defeated, Dong Ou was not punished by the Han Dynasty because they betrayed King Bi by killing his son, Dantu.
King Bi's son, Ju, escaped to Minyue. He hated Dong Ou for killing his father and urged Minyue to attack Dong Ou. In the third year of Jianyuan, Minyue finally sent troops to besiege Dong Ou. Dong Ou quickly sent messengers to the court for help. The Emperor asked Grand Tutor Tian Fan what to do. Tian Fan said, "Fighting's just par for the course down in Minyue. No need to bother the court with it." Minister Yan disagreed and believed they should help. The Emperor then sent Yan Zhu, the court minister, to lead troops to Kuaiji prefecture (in modern-day Zhejiang province) and then sail to rescue Dong Ou, as detailed in the "Biography of Yan Zhu." Before the Han army arrived, Minyue withdrew their troops.
Later, Dong Ou asked to move to the Central Plains, and they were resettled in the Yangtze and Huai River regions.
Six years back, Minyue went to war with Nanyue. But Nanyue was pretty well-behaved; they didn't dare fight without telling the Emperor first. The Emperor sent out Daxing Wang Hui from Yuzhang and Dasi Nong Han Anguo from Kuaiji – both generals. Before the armies even got to the border, King Ying of Minyue led his troops to occupy strategic locations. Yushan, his brother, huddled with the family and said, "Our king just went to war without asking the Emperor, so he sent troops to punish us. The Han army's huge – even if we got lucky and won, more troops would come, and they'd wipe us out in the end. So, we should kill the king, apologize to the Emperor, and hope he calls off his armies. If we fight and lose, we're all swimming with the fishes!"
Everyone agreed, so they killed him and sent his head to Wang Hui. Daxing Wang Hui said, "I came here to kill this king. Now that his head has been sent, the problem is solved without fighting. Couldn't be better!" So he told Han Anguo's army to stand down and sent a fast courier to the Emperor with the good news. The Emperor called the generals back, saying, "King Ying was the ringleader; only Sun Youjun stayed out of it." He made Jiang Liuchou the new Yueyao King, in charge of the Minyue sacrifices.
Yushan, now a hero for killing King Ying, got a lot of support and secretly crowned himself king. The Emperor heard about this and figured, "Why bother sending more troops? Yushan saved us the trouble by killing Ying!" So, he made Yushan the new Dongyue King, to rule Nanyue alongside the Yueyao King.
In the fifth year of Yuanding, the rebellion in Nanyue broke out again. Yu Shan submitted a memorial requesting to lead eight thousand soldiers on junks to attack Lu Jia and others. When the army reached Jieyang, they were hindered by strong winds and waves at sea. He found himself in a bind and secretly colluded with the people of Nanyue. After the Han army captured Panyu, the general on the junk submitted a memorial requesting to lead troops to attack eastern Guangdong. The emperor figured the guys were beat and did not agree. Therefore, the troops were withdrawn, and all military officers were ordered to stay in Yuzhang Meiling on standby.
In the following autumn, I heard that the general on the junk was coming to punish Yu Shan, and the Han army was stationed on the border, ready to take action. Yu Shan then sent troops to block the Han army's path and gave General Zou Li and others a grand title of "Han-Devouring General." He then led his troops to attack Baisha, Wulin, and Meiling, killing three captains of the Han army. At that time, the envoys sent by the Han dynasty, Zhang Cheng and the former Marquis of Mountain Zhou, were supposed to station troops. However, seeing the situation, they dared not attack and instead hid, eventually being executed for cowardice. Yu Shan also carved a "Wu Emperor" jade seal, declared himself emperor, deceived the common people, and spouted lies.
The emperor then dispatched General Han Shuo from Ju Zhang, arriving by boat from the east; the junk general attacked from Wulin; Lieutenant Wang Wenshu attacked from Meiling; Duke of Yue led warships, and General Xia Lai also attacked from Ruxie and Baisha directions. In the winter of the first year of Yuanfeng, the Han army had advanced into Dongyue. Dongyue originally stationed troops in strategic locations for resistance and even sent General Xunbei to guard Wulin. As a result, they defeated several captains of the junk army and even killed their chief officer. Later, the soldiers of the junk army killed General Xunbei in Qiantang and were subsequently ennobled as the Marquis of Yuer. Before this, the main Han offensive hadn't even begun yet.
So, what happened was that the former ruler of Yue, Wu Yang, was already aligned with the Han Dynasty. When the Han envoy returned to persuade Yu Shan to surrender, Yu Shan refused to listen. When the Henghai Army arrived, Wu Yang led his seven hundred local men in rebellion, attacking the Dong Yue army in Hanyang. At this time, the former ruler of Yue, Ao, and King Ju of Yu Gu conspired together, killed Yu Shan, and then surrendered their army to the Henghai Army. Ju Gu was made Lord of Dong Cheng with a fief of ten thousand households; Ao was made Lord of Kailing; Wu Yang was made Lord of Maoshi; Henghai General Han Shuo was made Lord of Andao; Henghai Colonel Fu was made Lord of Liaoying. This Fu was the son of the King of Chengyang, who had previously been the Lord of Haichang but was deprived of his title for committing a crime. He later joined the army, distinguished himself, and due to his royal connections, regained his title. The remaining Dong Yue generals surrendered their armies upon the Han army's arrival, and they were all made Lords of Wuxi. Another general from Oulu, Zuo Huangtong, killed King Xi Yu and was made Lord of Xiaofu.
The Emperor said, "The terrain of Dong Yue is narrow and full of obstacles, and the people of Min Yue and Dong Yue are both strong and unpredictable," so he ordered all military officers and civilians to be relocated to the Jianghuai region. Thus, the Dong Yue region was depopulated.
So the story goes, King Man of Joseon was originally from Yan State. When he was in Yan State, he often led troops to attack *Zhenfan* and *Joseon*, established officials there, and built defensive fortifications. After Qin State destroyed Yan State, this area became a backwater in the Liaodong region. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, it was considered too far and difficult to defend here, so the original border of Liaodong was repaired again, with the Pèi River, which formed the border, and it was placed under the jurisdiction of Yan State. Following King Lu Wan's rebellion and flight to the Xiongnu, King Man became a fugitive. He raised a team of more than a thousand people, with him were followers from various barbarian tribes, and fled eastward out of the border, crossed the Pèi River, occupied the abandoned cities and border fortifications from the Qin Dynasty period, gradually controlled the barbarian tribes such as *Zhenfan* and *Joseon*, as well as some veterans from Yan and Qi, and established his own kingdom, with the capital at Wangxian.
At this time, Emperor Xiaohui of the Han Dynasty and Empress Dowager Lü had just pacified the world, and the Governor of Liaodong made an agreement with King Man to make him a vassal of the Han Dynasty, responsible for guarding the border, keeping out invaders, and not obstructing barbarian leaders who wanted to visit the emperor. After this was reported to the court, the emperor approved it. Therefore, King Man used his military strength and resources to continuously annex surrounding small cities. *Zhenfan* and *Lintun* all submitted to him, and his kingdom expanded enormously in a short period of time.
Later, Wang Man's grandson, You Qu, succeeded to the throne. He attracted more and more defectors from the Han Dynasty, but he always refused to meet with the Han emperor. Zhenfan and Chenguo wanted to petition the emperor, but they were blocked by him. In the second year of the Han Yuanfeng era, the Han Dynasty sent an envoy, She He, to persuade You Qu, but You Qu refused to heed the emperor's orders. On his departure, as She He reached the Pei River, the King of Puyo sent someone to assassinate the people escorting She He. They then crossed the Pei River, escaped back to the border, and reported to the Han emperor that they had "killed a Joseon general." The emperor found this report convenient, did not investigate further, and even appointed She He as Liaodong's Eastern Commandant. Korea, enraged by She He's death, sent troops to attack, killing She He.
This made the Han emperor furious, so he pressed criminal conscripts into service to attack Korea. In the autumn of that year, the Han Dynasty sent General Yang Pu, commander of the Lou Chuan fleet, with fifty thousand troops sailing through the Bohai Sea from the state of Qi. At the same time, General Xun Zhi from Liaodong went to punish You Qu. You Qu's army defended the mountain pass. As a result, many of General Xun's soldiers deserted, causing army morale to crumble and leading to defeat. Many soldiers fled and were executed. General Yang Pu arrived first with seven thousand troops at the strategic location of Wang Xian. You Qu defended the city and, seeing that the Lou Chuan army was outnumbered, took the initiative to attack, resulting in the defeat and rout of the Lou Chuan army. General Yang Pu lost most of his forces, fled to the mountains, hid for more than ten days, and slowly rallied his scattered troops. The army attacking Korea on the west side of the Pei River also failed to break through.
The Emperor thought the two generals' plan to attack Youqu was useless, so he sent Wei Shan to intimidate Youqu into surrendering. When Youqu saw the envoy, he kept bowing and begging forgiveness, saying, "I am willing to surrender, but I am afraid you will kill me by deceit; now that I see your sincerity, I will surrender." Then he sent his prince to apologize, offering five thousand horses and supplies. Ten thousand armed men were poised to cross the river, but the envoy and the left general suspected this was a trick by Youqu, believing that the prince had already surrendered, so they should let their guard down. Suspecting a trick, the prince turned back. After Wei Shan returned, the emperor had him killed.
The left general routed the upstream forces, then came to the city and surrounded it from the northwest. The navy showed up and set up camp south of the city. Youqu held out for months.
General Zuo was a favorite of the emperor and always at his side. He leads soldiers from the Yan Kingdom, who are a bunch of cocky, battle-hardened vets. The Lou Chuan fleet, all Qi troops, had taken a real beating at sea and got their butts kicked by General You Qu, losing a ton of men. The troops were scared stiff, and their commanders were mortified, so when surrounding General You Qu, they were playing it cool.
General Zuo is eager to attack and was secretly trying to get them to surrender, but no final decision has been made. But try as he might, he couldn't get them to cooperate. General Zuo also tries to persuade the Qi Kingdom to surrender, but they refuse and lean towards the Lou Chuan fleet instead. The two generals hated each other's guts. General Zuo figured the Lou Chuan fleet, having lost a battle and now cozying up to the Qi without surrendering, was planning a rebellion, so he held back.
The emperor sent Wei Shan to talk You Qu into surrendering, but Wei Shan got cold feet and messed things up with General Zuo, blowing the whole thing. With the two generals at each other's throats, the city wasn't budging. Therefore, the former Governor of Jinan, Gongsun Sui, is sent to mediate and given the authority to handle the situation. General Zuo told Gongsun Sui that they should've taken Qi by now, but the Lou Chuan fleet kept blowing them off.
General Zuo laid it all out for Gongsun Sui: if they didn't take Qi now, it'd be a disaster—the Lou Chuan fleet and their army could both get wiped out. Gongsun Sui agrees and uses the emperor's token to summon the Lou Chuan commander to General Zuo's camp for discussions. Zuo set a trap, nabbed the Lou Chuan commander, and took his army. He reported it to the emperor, and then—bam!—Gongsun Sui got the axe.
General Left merged two armies together and immediately went on the offensive against Korea. Prime Ministers Lu Ren, Han Tao, Ni Xi, and General Wang Hao discussed together, saying, "Initially, we wanted to surrender to General Lou Chuan, but now that he has been captured, only General Left is left leading the troops. This is getting out of hand, and the king won't give in." Han Tao, Wang Hao, and Lu Ren eventually surrendered to the Han. Lu Ren later died in battle.
In the summer of the third year of Yuanfeng, Prime Minister Ni Xi sent someone to kill the King of Korea, Right Qu, and then surrendered to the Han with his men. However, Xiancheng had not yet been captured, so Right Qu's minister Cheng Yi rebelled again and attacked the officials of the Han. General Left then sent Right Qu's son Chang and the son of surrendered Prime Minister Lu Ren to inform the people and killed Cheng Yi. In this way, Korea was eventually divided into four counties by the Han: Zhenfan, Lintun, Yuelang, and Xuantu. Can became the Marquis of Huaqing, Tao the Marquis of Qiuzhu, Hao the Marquis of Pingzhou, Chang the Marquis of Ji, and Cui the Marquis of Juyang for his father's death in battle and his own service.
After General Left returned from the war, because they were all backstabbing each other and their plans were terrible, he was eventually executed. General Lou Chuan was also sentenced to death for launching an attack without waiting for General Left's orders when the army reached Liekou, causing a large number of casualties, but he got off with a pardon and became a commoner.
It is said that for generations, the people of Chu and Yue had their own land. When the Zhou Dynasty was in decline, the territory of the Chu State extended five thousand miles, and Goujian was once the king of the Yue State. After the Qin Dynasty destroyed the vassal states, only the Dian kingdom, a remnant of Chu, remained. When the Han fought the southwestern barbarians, only the Dian State still received the emperor's favor. After the Dongyue State was destroyed and its people resettled, even someone like Wang Jugu was still a high-ranking official. These three regions flourished thanks to capable ministers. The southwest was opened up by Tang Meng and Sima Xiangru, the two Yue regions by Yan Zhu and Zhu Maichen, and Korea by She He. They timed it perfectly; with the country thriving, they all succeeded. Real hard workers! That's exactly what the old folks meant by "winning them over with kindness and respect," isn't it?
