Wang Mang, styled Jujun, was the nephew of Empress Xiaoyuan of the Han Dynasty. Within his family, Empress Xiaoyuan's father and brothers were all enfeoffed as marquises and held important positions during the reigns of Emperor Yuan and Emperor Cheng of Han. In total, the family had nine marquises and five Grand Marshals (details can be found in the "Biography of Empress Yuan"). However, Wang Mang's father, Wang Man, died young and did not have the opportunity to be enfeoffed. Wang Mang's brothers lived extravagantly, relying on their family's power to pursue luxury and indulgence, flaunting their wealth through carriages, music, and women. In contrast, Wang Mang lived in poverty but chose to change his ways, displaying humility and frugality. He studied the *Book of Rites* under the tutelage of Chen Can from Pei Commandery, diligently pursuing his studies and becoming well-versed in various subjects, dressing like a Confucian scholar.
He was extremely filial to his mother and widowed sister-in-law, raising his late brother's orphaned children and treating his family with great care. At the same time, he associated with talented individuals and showed particular respect and courtesy to his elders within the family. During the Yangshuo era, his uncle, Grand Marshal Wang Feng, fell ill. Wang Mang personally attended to him, tasting his medicine, letting his hair hang loose, and appearing haggard from months of sleepless nights and untended clothing. Before Wang Feng passed away, he entrusted Wang Mang to the Empress Dowager and the Emperor. As a result, Wang Mang was appointed as a Yellow Gate Attendant and later promoted to Commander of the Archers. Shortly after, his uncle, Marquis of Chengdu, Wang Shang, petitioned to divide his own fiefdom to reward Wang Mang. Additionally, renowned scholars such as Dai Chong, Jin She, Ji Hong, Yang Bing, and Chen Tang all praised Wang Mang, leading the Emperor to view him as a virtuous talent.
In the first year of Yongshi, Wang Mang was enfeoffed as the Marquis of Xindu, with a fiefdom located in Duxiang of Xinye County, Nanyang Commandery, comprising 1,500 households. He was later promoted to Cavalry Commandant, Gentleman of the Household, and Palace Attendant. While serving in the palace, he was cautious and meticulous, gradually rising in rank while maintaining a humble demeanor. He distributed his carriages, horses, and clothing to his guests, keeping no surplus wealth at home. He also financially supported renowned individuals and formed close relationships with many generals, ministers, and high-ranking officials. This led to increased recommendations for him among court officials, while his reputation spread widely beyond the palace. His fame, though somewhat exaggerated, eventually surpassed that of his uncles. Wang Mang boldly took actions that inspired others and remained unashamed of his conduct.
Wang Mang's older brother, Wang Yong, passed away early, leaving behind a son named Wang Guang. Wang Mang sent Wang Guang to study under a scholar. Whenever Wang Mang took leave, he would bring carriages, sheep, and fine wine to visit Wang Guang's teacher, showing such care and gratitude that it even surpassed that of Wang Guang's classmates. Many students came to witness this, and elder scholars were deeply moved. Wang Guang was younger than Wang Mang's son, Wang Yu, but Wang Mang arranged for them to marry on the same day, hosting a grand wedding banquet filled with guests. During the feast, someone informed Wang Mang that his mother was feeling unwell and needed medicine. Wang Mang left the banquet multiple times to attend to her. On another occasion, Wang Mang privately purchased a maidservant. When his brothers heard about it and began to gossip, Wang Mang explained, "General Zhu Ziyuan has no children, and I heard this maidservant can bear children, so I bought her for him." That very day, Wang Mang sent the maidservant to Zhu Ziyuan. Such acts of concealing the truth and seeking fame were common in Wang Mang's behavior.
At the time, the Empress Dowager's nephew, Chunyu Zhang, was appointed as one of the Nine Ministers due to his exceptional talent, holding a position higher than Wang Mang. Wang Mang seized on Chunyu Zhang's mistakes and reported him to the Grand Marshal, Marquis of Quyang, Wang Gen, leading to Chunyu Zhang being convicted and executed. This earned Wang Mang a reputation for loyalty and integrity (details can be found in the "Biography of Zhang"). Wang Gen later resigned and recommended Wang Mang as his successor. The Emperor then appointed Wang Mang as Grand Marshal. This was in the first year of Suihe, and Wang Mang was 38 years old at the time.
After Wang Mang's promotion, he succeeded his four uncles in assisting with state affairs. To ensure his reputation surpassed theirs, he became even more self-disciplined and diligent. He invited many virtuous and talented individuals to serve as his subordinates, using his fiefdom and salary entirely to host scholars, while living even more frugally. When his mother fell ill, the wives of court officials and marquises came to visit her. Wang Mang's wife greeted them wearing a coarse skirt so short it did not reach the ground, with patches on her knees. Visitors mistook her for a maidservant, and only after asking did they realize she was Wang Mang's wife, leaving them astonished.
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After assisting with state affairs for just over a year, Emperor Cheng passed away, and Emperor Ai ascended the throne, honoring the Empress Dowager as Grand Empress Dowager. The Empress Dowager issued an edict for Wang Mang to return home, avoiding the influence of Emperor Ai's maternal family. Wang Mang submitted a resignation request, but Emperor Ai sent the Chief Steward to deliver a message to him, saying, "The late Emperor entrusted state affairs to you. Now that I can inherit the ancestral temple, I am deeply grateful for your loyal assistance. If you resign due to illness, it will appear as though I cannot fulfill the late Emperor's wishes, and I feel deeply saddened by this." Emperor Ai then sent Chancellor Kong Guang, Grand Minister He Wu, and others to petition the Grand Empress Dowager, requesting Wang Mang to remain in office. The Empress Dowager subsequently ordered Wang Mang to continue managing state affairs.
At the time, Emperor Ai's grandmother, Lady Fu, and mother, Lady Ding, were still alive. Gaochang Marquis Dong Hong submitted a proposal suggesting that, based on the principle of "a mother is honored because of her son," Lady Ding should be given an honorary title. Wang Mang and Shi Dan jointly impeached Dong Hong for misleading the court (details can be found in the "Biography of Dan"). Later, during a banquet at Weiyang Palace, attendants set up a curtain and arranged for Lady Fu to sit beside the Grand Empress Dowager. Wang Mang, upon inspecting the arrangements, rebuked the attendants, saying, "The Empress Dowager of Dingtao is merely a concubine from a vassal state. How can she sit alongside the sovereign?" He then ordered the curtain to be removed and the seating rearranged. Lady Fu, upon hearing this, was furious and harbored deep resentment toward Wang Mang.
Wang Mang once again requested to resign. Emperor Ai rewarded him with 500 catties of gold, a carriage, and four horses, allowing him to return home to rest. The ministers and officials praised Wang Mang's resignation, and the Emperor became even more fond of him, sending a Yellow Gate Attendant to deliver food to his residence every ten days. An imperial edict was issued, stating, "The Marquis of Xindu, Wang Mang, has devoted himself to the state and upheld righteousness. I wish to govern the nation alongside him. The Grand Empress Dowager has allowed him to return home, and I deeply regret this." The Emperor later increased Wang Mang's fiefdom by 350 households, promoted him to the rank of Specially Advanced, allowed him to receive the same courtesies as the Three Excellencies on the first and fifteenth days of the month, and granted him the privilege of riding a green carriage in the imperial entourage.
Wang Mang held Chancellor Kong Guang in high regard as a renowned scholar who had served under three rulers and was respected by the Empress Dowager and trusted by the people. Wang Mang thus began to favor Kong Guang, promoting Guang's son-in-law, Zhen Han, to Palace Attendant and Commandant of the Imperial Chariots. Wang Mang blamed the crimes of Emperor Ai's maternal relatives and certain disfavored officials on Kong Guang, requesting that Zhen Han report these matters to Guang. Kong Guang, being naturally cautious, did not dare withhold the information and reported it to the court. Wang Mang then explained the situation to the Empress Dowager, who approved his proposals.
As a result, the Former General He Wu and the Rear General Gongsun Lu accused each other, and the relatives of Ding, Fu, and Dong Xian were all dismissed from their positions and exiled to distant regions. The Marquis of Hongyang, who was the Grand Empress Dowager's younger brother, though not holding office, was treated with respect by Wang Mang out of fear. Wang Mang spoke respectfully to the Grand Empress Dowager to avoid acting recklessly. Subsequently, he prompted Kong Guang to submit a proposal to revisit past injustices, mentioning that the former Marquis of Dingling, Chunyu Zhang, had committed a grave crime of treason, accepted numerous bribes, and misled the court. He also brought up the case of the palace maid Yang Ji, who had an illegitimate child claimed to be the emperor's son, causing rumors about the reinstatement of the Lü clan and the young emperor, which created doubts among the people and would be difficult to justify to future generations. Wang Mang proposed that the Grand Empress Dowager should exile him to another state.
The Grand Empress Dowager refused. Wang Mang argued, “Now that the Han dynasty is in decline, with no one to continue the lineage, the Grand Empress Dowager governs on behalf of the young emperor, which is an awe-inspiring responsibility. It is essential to act justly and first stabilize the realm, yet there is still concern about not being followed. Now, if private favoritism leads to opposition to the ministers' discussions, the court will lean toward corruption, and chaos will begin! He should first be sent away and summoned back later.” The Grand Empress Dowager, unable to resist, reluctantly agreed to exile him. This was how Wang Mang used coercion to achieve his aims.
Thus, those who complied were promoted, while those who opposed were eliminated. Wang Shun and Wang Yi became his confidants, Zhen Feng and Zhen Han wielded power, Ping Yan handled confidential matters, Liu Xin managed documents, and Sun Jian acted as his enforcer. Feng’s son Xun, Xin’s son Fen, Cui Fa of Zhuo Commandery, and Chen Chong of Nanyang were all valued by Wang Mang for their talents. Wang Mang appeared stern and ambitious, subtly displaying his authority. His followers aligned with his intentions and actively submitted proposals, while Wang Mang would kneel, weep, and resolutely decline, aiming to deceive the Grand Empress Dowager while presenting himself to the people as trustworthy.
Initially, a magistrate from Fengyi Commandery presented a white pheasant as tribute from the barbarians beyond the frontier. In the first month of the first year of Yuanshi, Wang Mang submitted a memorial to the Grand Empress Dowager, requesting to offer the white pheasant to the ancestral temple. The ministers then proposed to the Grand Empress Dowager: “The Grand Marshal Wang Mang should be entrusted with determining policies to secure the ancestral temple. Since Grand Marshal Huo Guang was rewarded with an additional 30,000 households for his contributions to the ancestral temple, elevating him to the same rank as Chancellor Xiao, Wang Mang should receive a similar honor following Huo Guang’s precedent.” The Grand Empress Dowager asked the court officials, “Is this truly because the Grand Marshal has accomplished great deeds, or is it due to familial affection and a desire for special treatment?” The officials unanimously praised Wang Mang, claiming that his virtues had brought about the auspicious appearance of the white pheasant, aligning with the omens of King Cheng of Zhou. They argued that the principles of a sage king dictated that ministers with great merit should receive noble titles, just as the Duke of Zhou was honored during his lifetime. Wang Mang had achieved great merit in stabilizing the nation and safeguarding the Han dynasty, and thus should be granted the title "Duke of Anhan," with an increase in his fiefdom and a noble title in accordance with ancient customs.
The Grand Empress Dowager ordered the Secretariat to handle the matter in detail. Wang Mang submitted a memorial stating, “Together with Kong Guang, Wang Shun, Zhen Feng, and Zhen Han, I contributed to the formulation of policies. I now request that their rewards be discussed separately and not be compared with mine.” Zhen Han submitted a memorial to the Grand Empress Dowager, saying, “‘Impartial and without faction, the kingly way is broad and open.’ For those close to us, we must not let personal feelings obscure justice. The Grand Marshal has made great contributions to the ancestral temple and should not let familial ties prevent his achievements from being recognized. He must not decline this honor.” Wang Mang again submitted a memorial declining the reward. The Grand Empress Dowager ordered an attendant to summon Wang Mang to the eastern chamber of the palace, but Wang Mang claimed illness and refused to enter. The Grand Empress Dowager sent the Chief Steward Xun to summon him, saying, “You have declined due to illness regarding this matter of appointments, but this is a grave responsibility, and you cannot be absent. You must rise immediately.” Wang Mang still insisted on declining. The Grand Empress Dowager then sent the Chamberlain for Attendants, Ruan Cheng, to summon him, but Wang Mang again claimed illness. Those around the Grand Empress Dowager advised her not to force Wang Mang’s will and to proceed with discussing the rewards for Kong Guang and others first. Only then did Wang Mang agree to rise.
The Grand Empress Dowager issued an edict: “Grand Tutor and Marquis of Boshan, Kong Guang, whose family has served as ministers for four generations, is loyal, filial, benevolent, and virtuous, with exemplary conduct. For his contributions to policy-making, his fiefdom is increased by 10,000 households, and he is appointed as Grand Mentor to assist with the Four Assists. The General of Chariots and Cavalry and Marquis of Anyang, Wang Shun, has accumulated benevolence and filial piety, welcomed the King of Zhongshan, and made significant contributions. His fiefdom is increased by 10,000 households, and he is appointed as Grand Protector. The Left General and Minister of the Household, Zhen Feng, whose family has served as ministers for three generations, is loyal, trustworthy, benevolent, and virtuous. For his role in welcoming the King of Zhongshan and safeguarding the ancestral temple, he is enfeoffed as the Marquis of Guangyang with a fiefdom of 5,000 households and appointed as Junior Mentor. All are granted positions in the Four Assists, with corresponding titles and fiefs, and each is awarded a residence in the capital.” After these four received their rewards, Wang Mang still did not rise. The ministers again petitioned, saying, “Though Wang Mang humbly declines, the court must promptly grant him a reward to honor his foundational contributions and prevent disappointment among the officials.” The Grand Empress Dowager then issued an edict: “The Grand Marshal and Marquis of Xindu, Wang Mang, whose family has produced three generations of Three Excellencies, holds the position of the Duke of Zhou and has established policies for the ages. His merits serve as a model for loyal ministers, his influence spreads across the empire, and distant lands admire his righteousness. The Yuechang tribe has sent envoys with white pheasants as tribute. Therefore, 28,000 households from the counties of Zhaoling and Xinsi are added to his fiefdom, his heirs are restored, and his title and fiefdom are made equal to those of Chancellor Xiao. He is appointed as Grand Tutor, empowered to oversee the Four Assists, and granted the title Duke of Anhan.”
Thus, Wang Mang, feeling apprehensive, reluctantly rose to accept the decree. The edict stated: “When the Han dynasty was in peril with no heir, you came to secure it. You have borne the responsibilities of the Four Assists and the Three Excellencies, presided over the court, and achieved great merit in stabilizing the ancestral temple. This is the auspicious sign of the white pheasant and the symbol of King Cheng. Therefore, you are granted the noble title Duke of Anhan to assist the emperor and bring peace to the realm. Do not defy my wishes.” Wang Mang accepted the title of Grand Tutor and Duke of Anhan but declined the increase in his fiefdom, stating that he hoped for the people to prosper before receiving further rewards. The ministers again debated, and the Grand Empress Dowager issued another edict: “Since you wish for the people to prosper first, this will be allowed. Your salary, attendants, and rewards will all be doubled. When the people are prosperous and well-fed, the Grand Minister of Works and Grand Minister of Finance will report back.” Wang Mang again declined but proposed that heirs of the princes and descendants of meritorious officials since Emperor Gaozu should be enfeoffed, with the most prominent becoming marquises or receiving the title of Internal Marquis with fiefs. Current officials should also be rewarded in an orderly manner. The ancestral temple should be honored, with rites and music expanded, while benevolent policies should extend to the common people, widows, and orphans. These matters are recorded in the *Annals of Peace*.
While Wang Mang spoke of benefiting the people, he sought to centralize power. Knowing that the Grand Empress Dowager was weary of state affairs, he proposed to the court officials: “Previously, officials who were promoted to the rank of 2,000-dan or recommended for exceptional talent by the provinces often proved unworthy of their positions. They should all report to the Duke of Anhan. Furthermore, the Grand Empress Dowager should not personally handle minor matters.” The Grand Empress Dowager then issued an edict: “The emperor is young, and I am currently overseeing the government. As he approaches adulthood, the affairs of state are increasingly burdensome. I am growing old and lack the energy to properly nurture the emperor. Therefore, loyal and virtuous individuals should be selected to serve in the Four Assists, and the officials below should fulfill their duties to ensure lasting peace. Confucius said, ‘Lofty indeed were Shun and Yu, who held the empire but did not claim it as their own!’ From now on, matters that do not involve enfeoffment should not be reported to me. Other affairs will be decided by the Duke of Anhan and the Four Assists. Governors, officials of 2,000-dan rank, and newly appointed exceptional talents should all report to the Duke of Anhan for evaluation of their previous positions and new appointments to determine their suitability.” Wang Mang then personally interviewed these officials, bestowed generous gifts, and dismissed those who did not meet his expectations, wielding authority equivalent to that of the emperor.
Wang Mang sought to use his fabricated reputation to influence the Grand Empress Dowager. He directly told her, “You personally witnessed the extravagance and excess of the Ding and Fu families during Emperor Ai’s reign, while many commoners struggled to have enough food and clothing. You should temporarily wear coarse clothing and reduce your meals to demonstrate concern for the people.” Wang Mang then submitted a memorial offering to donate one million coins and thirty qing of land to the Grand Minister of Agriculture to aid the poor. Seeing this, the court officials all followed his example.
Wang Mang led the court officials in submitting a memorial, saying:
"Your Majesty is now advanced in age, and has long been wearing coarse clothing and reducing your meals. This is truly detrimental to your health, the stability of the ancestral temple, and the nurturing of the young emperor. I, Wang Mang, have repeatedly knelt and begged for your permission to change this, but my requests have not been granted. Now, thanks to Your Majesty's virtuous blessings, we have recently enjoyed favorable weather, timely rain, sweet dew descending from the heavens, and the growth of divine plants such as sacred fungi, millet ears, and red grass—all appearing together as auspicious omens. We, your subjects, are deeply grateful and humbly implore Your Majesty to cherish your health, reduce your worries, resume wearing the imperial robes, and once again partake in the meals prepared by the imperial kitchens. This will allow your ministers to wholeheartedly serve you and support you in your elder years. We hope Your Majesty will consider this!"
Wang Mang then persuaded the Grand Empress Dowager to issue an edict, which stated:
"I have heard that a mother's duty should not extend beyond the palace gates. Now, the state has not yet been stabilized, and the emperor is still young, merely an infant, and unable to govern personally. I am filled with trepidation, fearing for the safety of the ancestral temple. Who else but me could shoulder the great affairs of the state? Thus, Confucius once met with Nanzi, and the Duke of Zhou once temporarily governed the state—these were all expedient measures. I have exerted myself, enduring toil and worry, and have sought to use frugality to counter extravagance. In correcting deviations, I may sometimes exceed the middle path, but if I do not set an example myself, how can I face the people under heaven? Day and night, I pray for bountiful harvests and for every household to prosper. When the emperor comes of age and dons his ceremonial crown, I will then hand over the reins of power to him. At present, I truly cannot indulge in luxury and extravagance. I hope to work together with the officials, united in our efforts!"
Whenever there were floods or droughts, Wang Mang would eat only vegetarian meals, and those close to him would report this to the Grand Empress Dowager. The Grand Empress Dowager sent an envoy to Wang Mang, saying:
"I have heard that you are eating only vegetables out of concern for the suffering of the people. This truly shows your deep care. Now that the autumn harvest has been successful and you have worked so hard, please resume eating meat at regular intervals to maintain your health and continue serving the state."
Wang Mang believed that the Central Plains had already been stabilized, but the four barbarian regions had not yet fully submitted. He therefore sent envoys bearing gold and silk to bribe the Chanyu of the Xiongnu. The envoys also conveyed a message, saying: "It is said that the name of the Chanyu contains two characters that have been mocked by the Chinese. Thus, the Chanyu changed his name to 'Zhi' to show his admiration for the sacred institutions of the Han court." At the same time, Wang Mang sent Wang Zhaojun's granddaughter, Xubu Juci, to the Xiongnu to serve the Chanyu, using this to deceive and curry favor with the Grand Empress Dowager and her attendants.
After Wang Mang rose to a position of great power, he sought to marry his daughter to the emperor to consolidate his authority. He submitted a memorial, saying:
"The emperor has been on the throne for three years, but the Changqiu Palace has not yet been established, and the imperial harem lacks concubines. Previously, the lack of an heir caused instability in the state, and the selection of the empress did not conform to the rites. I request that, in accordance with the Five Classics, proper ceremonies be established, and twelve women be selected to continue the imperial lineage. The candidates should include daughters of the two kings, descendants of the Duke of Zhou and Confucius who hold the rank of marquis, and suitable women of marriageable age residing in Chang'an."
After the matter was delegated to the relevant departments, the list of selected women included many from the Wang family. Wang Mang, fearing that these women might compete with his daughter, submitted another memorial, saying:
"I am unworthy, and my daughter lacks the qualifications and virtues to be considered alongside the other women." The Grand Empress Dowager, believing him to be sincere, issued an edict stating:
"The Wang family is my maternal family and does not need to participate in the selection."
However, the common people, scholars, and officials above the rank of *langguan* submitted petitions daily, numbering in the thousands, requesting that Wang Mang's daughter be chosen as empress. Some high-ranking officials and scholars presented their cases in the court, while others knelt at the palace gates, saying:
"The imperial edicts are so grand, and the Duke of Anhan's merits are unparalleled. Now is the time to establish an empress. Why should the Duke's daughter be excluded? What will happen to the people under heaven? We humbly request that the Duke's daughter be chosen as the mother of the realm!"
Wang Mang sent his subordinates to dissuade the officials and scholars, but the petitions only increased. The Grand Empress Dowager, left with no choice, allowed the officials to proceed with selecting Wang Mang's daughter. Wang Mang again requested: "The selection should be conducted widely among all women." The officials argued: "No other women should be chosen to disrupt the orthodox lineage." Wang Mang then requested that someone first meet his daughter. The Grand Empress Dowager sent the Chamberlain for the Palace Treasury, the Director of the Imperial Clan, and the Prefect of the Secretariat to conduct the betrothal ceremony according to the rites. After meeting Wang Mang's daughter, they reported back, saying:
"The Duke's daughter has been raised with virtue, possesses a dignified and beautiful demeanor, and is well-suited to assume the great position and oversee the ancestral sacrifices."
An edict was issued, instructing the Minister over the Masses and the Minister over Works to offer sacrifices to the ancestral temple and perform divinations. The results indicated: "The omens show that metal and water mutually generate one another, and the hexagrams indicate that the parents will attain their rightful positions. This is a sign of 'strength and prosperity' and an auspicious 'meeting of fortune.'"
The Marquis of Xinxing, Tong, submitted a memorial, saying:
"According to the *Spring and Autumn Annals*, when the Son of Heaven was to marry from the state of Ji, he first enfeoffed a son of Ji as a marquis. The Duke of Anhan's fiefdom does not yet conform to ancient precedents."
The matter was referred to the relevant departments for discussion, and they submitted a memorial, saying:
"In ancient times, the Son of Heaven would grant the father of the empress a fief spanning one hundred *li* to show respect without subjugation, thereby honoring the ancestral temple and demonstrating the highest filial piety. The Marquis of Xinxing's suggestion aligns with the rites and may be adopted. We request that 25,600 *qing* of land in Xinye be added to Wang Mang's fief, making it a full one hundred *li*."
Wang Mang declined, saying:
"My children are unworthy of matching the supreme position. If my daughter is fortunate enough to be chosen as empress, my current fief is sufficient for paying tribute and does not require additional rewards. I am willing to return the added fief." The Grand Empress Dowager agreed to his request.
The relevant departments submitted a memorial, saying:
"According to tradition, the betrothal gift for an empress includes 20,000 catties of gold, equivalent to 200 million coins." Wang Mang firmly declined and accepted only 40 million, distributing 33 million among the families of the eleven women accompanying the dowry. The court officials then submitted another memorial, saying:
"The current betrothal gift for the empress already exceeds the standard for concubines." An edict was issued to increase the betrothal gift by another 23 million, making a total of 30 million. Wang Mang again distributed 10 million among the impoverished members of his extended family.
At the time, Chen Chong, serving as the Supervisor of the Minister over the Masses, was close to Zhang Song, the grandson of Zhang Chang. Zhang Song, a highly learned man, drafted a memorial praising Wang Mang's virtues for Chen Chong. Chen Chong submitted the memorial, which read:
"I have privately observed the Duke of Anhan. Since his entry into public service, he encountered a time of societal decadence. Despite receiving the favor of the two palaces, enjoying a prominent family background, and having abundant wealth, he has shown no arrogance. He restrains himself and practices benevolence, adheres to the rites, corrects societal customs, and stands apart from the vulgar. He wears coarse clothing, eats simple food, rides modest carriages, and has only one wife. His household is known for its filial piety and friendship. He lives simply, delights in the Way, is gentle and humble, and cares for old friends and mentors with loyalty and kindness.
Confucius once said, 'Better to be poor and find joy in it than to be rich and love the rites.' The Duke of Anhan exemplifies this."
"When he served as Palace Attendant, the Marquis of Dingling, Chunyu Zhang, committed a grave crime of treason. He showed no favoritism and proposed his execution. Just as the Duke of Zhou punished Guan and Cai, and Ji Zi poisoned Shu Ya, the Duke of Anhan is a model of such virtue."
Therefore, Emperor Cheng of Han appointed Wang Mang as Grand Marshal (*Da Sima*), entrusting him with the authority to govern the state. When Emperor Ai ascended the throne, Gaochang Marquis Dong Hong, in an attempt to curry favor with the Empress Dowager, proposed the concept of the "Two Authorities" (*Liang Tong*), seeking to glorify the Empress Dowager's status. Wang Mang personally impeached Dong Hong, correcting this error and safeguarding the fundamental principles of the state. He also submitted a proposal that the Empress Dowager of Dingtao should not share the emperor's imperial tent, thereby clarifying the structure of the state. The *Book of Songs* states: "Soft yet not weak, firm yet not harsh; neither oppressing the weak nor fearing the strong." This perfectly describes Wang Mang.
Wang Mang consistently adhered to humility and deference, often relinquishing power and position to others. The Empress Dowager of Dingtao once intended to usurp titles, but out of fear of Wang Mang's stern and direct impeachment, she dared not act recklessly. Flatterers, such as Zhu Bo and others, were also deterred by the precedent set by Dong Hong's impeachment. However, collusion between officials and corrupt individuals eventually led to the usurpation of titles. These individuals excluded virtuous and capable officials and harmed members of the imperial family. Wang Mang was subsequently slandered and forced to resign, retreating to his fiefdom. With the collapse of court governance, the nation's laws and order fell into disarray, bringing the state to the brink of disaster. The *Book of Songs* states: "When virtuous people depart, the state declines and withers." This aptly describes Wang Mang.
At that time, there was no designated heir in the palace. Dong Xian held sole power, and the Fu family, supported by their daughter as the Empress Dowager, became an influential force. Knowing they had already offended the people and harbored enmity with the King of Zhongshan, they conspired together. They fabricated a will, granting lavish rewards and punishments, eliminating threats, promoting their confidants, and even revisiting old cases to frame others. They summoned distant members of the imperial clan, gradually expanding their power and making their intentions increasingly clear. However, thanks to Wang Mang's return to the court, he swiftly dismissed Dong Xian and his faction. During this period, Wang Mang displayed unprecedented authority and decisiveness. With a commanding presence, he struck with decisive force, taking advantage of the fact that Dong Xian's power was not yet consolidated and his plans had not been fully implemented. Wang Mang acted swiftly to dismantle the opposing faction. Even if there had been warriors like Meng Ben or Xia Yu, they would have been unable to resist; even strategists like Chuli Zi or Guiguzi would have been too late to respond. Consequently, Dong Xian, overwhelmed by fear, ultimately hanged himself. The matter was resolved so quickly and decisively that few had time to react, and within a short moment, the court was restored to stability. None of this would have been possible without the emperor's appointment of Wang Mang and Wang Mang's personal intervention to quell the crisis. The *Book of Songs* states: "Only the noble Shangfu could soar like an eagle, assisting King Wu." Confucius also said: "Quick action leads to success." This is praise for Wang Mang.
Wang Mang then submitted a memorial recommending former Chancellor of Sishui, Feng, and Magistrate of Lai, Han, to work alongside Minister over the Masses Wang Guang and General of Chariots and Cavalry Wang Shun to restore order to the state. Due to their outstanding contributions, they were granted rewards and became renowned ministers of the state. The *Book of Documents* states: "To know people is wisdom." This is an evaluation of Wang Mang.
The court officials unanimously praised Wang Mang's virtues and achievements, comparing him to the Duke of Zhou. They proposed bestowing him with the title "Duke of Anhan" and increasing his fiefdom by two counties. However, Wang Mang firmly declined and refused to accept the honor. The *Zuo Commentary* records: "Shen Baoxu refused rewards for saving the State of Chu, and Yan Pingzhong declined titles for assisting the State of Qi." Confucius also said: "If one can govern a state with ritual and humility, what difficulty is there?" This perfectly describes Wang Mang.
When the court was selecting consorts for the emperor, Wang Mang's daughter was listed as the top candidate. Wang Mang repeatedly declined, accepting the decree only when he had no other choice. The natural bond between father and daughter made it inevitable that he would wish for her prosperity, even surpassing his own achievements. The empress's esteemed position was nearly equal to that of the emperor, making such an opportunity extremely rare. However, Wang Mang always prioritized the greater interests of the state. Even in the face of such immense favor, he remained humble and deferential, declining repeatedly. The *Book of Documents* states: "Shun yielded the throne due to his great virtue." This aptly describes Wang Mang.
Since accepting his appointment, Wang Mang conducted himself with utmost caution, continuously cultivating his virtues. Through his refined and modest conduct, he influenced the vassal states, and with his frugal and restrained lifestyle, he corrected societal customs. He reduced his family wealth, led by example in making donations, and personally managed state affairs, treating court officials with fairness. He educated his children to respect scholarship, thereby promoting the nation's moral and cultural development. In his household, servants wore coarse clothing, horses were not fed fine grain, and their food and living conditions were no better than those of ordinary citizens. The *Book of Songs* states: "The gentleman is refined and elegant, like a bird resting in a tree." Confucius also said: "Eat without seeking fullness, live without seeking comfort." This perfectly describes Wang Mang.
He restrained himself, lived frugally, and even had to purchase grain for his household, refraining from stockpiling reserves. He also submitted a memorial requesting the return of the lands granted to him by Emperor Ai, donating his wealth and land to set an example for the nation. As a result, both commoners and nobles followed his lead, voluntarily making donations. Some contributed money, while others offered land to aid the poor and support those in need. In ancient times, Ziyu of Chu donated his wealth in the morning and was left with nothing by evening; Gong Yi of Lu refrained from eating even the vegetables in his own garden. This perfectly describes Wang Mang.
Wang Mang opened his residence to welcome virtuous individuals, even engaging with commoners. He personally reviewed state affairs, managed numerous matters, and met with local officials to assess their character and abilities, distinguishing the loyal and virtuous from the corrupt. The *Book of Songs* states: "Diligent from dawn to dusk, never idle, serving the ruler with utmost devotion." The *Book of Changes* states: "Diligent all day, vigilant at night, as if facing danger." This perfectly describes Wang Mang.
He served as one of the Three Excellencies for three consecutive generations, presided over the funerals of two emperors, and held the position of *Zhongzai* (Grand Steward), stabilizing the nation's governance. Memorials from officials and citizens across the empire were submitted without any omissions. The *Book of Documents* states: "Entering the great mountains, facing wind, rain, thunder, and lightning, yet not losing one's way." This aptly describes Wang Mang.
These achievements were rare even in ancient times, feats that even figures like Yu the Great and Hou Ji would struggle to accomplish. Yet Wang Mang consistently upheld these virtues, demonstrating unwavering dedication. It can be said that he was without fault. As a result, within just three years, his virtuous governance spread like divine intervention, and auspicious omens appeared continuously. Could this not be attributed to the emperor's ability to recognize talent and appoint worthy ministers? Thus, this is not only the ruler's fortune but also the minister's glory. The *Book of Documents* records that Yu the Great received the Black Jade Tablet, and the Duke of Zhou presided over sacrifices at the suburban altar, fulfilling the mandate of Heaven without claiming the credit for themselves. Evaluating Wang Mang's virtues, he can be considered a model for the world; observing his achievements, he is a cornerstone for future generations. Yet, despite his accomplishments, he has not received corresponding rewards, and despite his merits, he has not been properly recognized. This goes against the principle of rewarding meritorious ministers and aligning with the will of Heaven.
Emperor Gaozu of Han rewarded his meritorious officials by granting Chancellor Xiao He a fief larger than any other and giving him special privileges, such as not addressing him by name during court discussions and exempting him from walking quickly when ascending the palace steps. He also granted titles to over ten of Xiao He's relatives. Emperor Wen of Han rewarded Marquis of Jiang, Zhou Bo, by adding 10,000 households to his fief and granting him 5,000 catties of gold. Emperor Wu of Han rewarded Wei Qing by granting him a fief of 30,000 households and even bestowing marquis titles on his three infant sons. Emperor Xuan of Han honored Huo Guang by expanding his fief, granting titles to three of his relatives, and even extending the rewards to his nephews and grandsons.
In comparison, the Marquis of Jiang, Zhou Bo, merely relied on the stable situation of the Han dynasty and achieved success through temporary power. Huo Guang, although meritorious, made mistakes in judgment while holding high office and benefiting from significant military victories. Wei Qing and Gongsun Rong, despite their achievements, only contributed to minor campaigns, yet they received extraordinary rewards. When compared to Wang Mang, whether in terms of accomplishments or virtues, Wang Mang far surpasses them. However, Wang Mang has not received rewards comparable to those of Wei Qing and others, which is truly perplexing!
I have heard that there is no fixed standard for measuring merit, so rewards should not be limited; there is no definitive starting point for virtue, so recognition should not be withheld. Thus, King Cheng of Zhou treated the Duke of Zhou with exceptional generosity, granting him a fief of 700 *li* that exceeded the usual limit of 100 *li*, breaking the traditional rules of the Nine Bestowments (*Jiu Xi*). He also granted him the people of Shang and Yan, as well as the six clans of Yin. Additionally, he bestowed upon the Duke of Zhou symbols of royal authority, such as the grand carriage and banners, ceremonial jade artifacts like the *Fanruo* of the House of Fu and the *Huang* of Xiahou, and provided him with officials, livestock, and all the necessary items for sacrifices. The *Book of Songs* states: "Without merit, there is no reward; without virtue, there is no recognition." Rewards for merit and virtue should follow this principle; otherwise, it is not true recognition.
Moreover, the Duke of Zhou's six sons were all enfeoffed as lords. The *Book of Songs* says: "Without merit, there is no reward; without virtue, there is no recognition." This is the proper way to reward merit and virtue. If it is not done this way, it cannot be called a reward. Looking at more recent examples, Emperor Gaozu established the rule that no one outside the Liu clan could be enfeoffed as a king. Yet, Fan Jun was enfeoffed as the King of Changsha, and an imperial edict praised his loyalty. This is also clearly recorded as a precedent, showing that Emperor Gaozu's great trust was not constrained by rigid rules.
The *Spring and Autumn Annals* records that Duke Dao of Jin adopted Wei Jiang's proposal, leading the various states of the Central Plains to submit to Jin's authority. Zhengbo presented musical instruments as tribute, and Duke Dao gave half of them to Wei Jiang. Although Wei Jiang repeatedly declined, Duke Dao said: "Without you, I would not have been able to cross the Yellow River. Rewards are part of the state's system and cannot be abolished. You must accept them." Wei Jiang then accepted the reward, receiving gold and stone instruments as part of the tribute. The *Spring and Autumn Annals* praises this, commending Wei Jiang for his loyalty and modesty in declining credit, and Duke Dao for his ability to recognize talent and reward appropriately.
Now, Your Majesty already recognizes Wang Mang's virtues as comparable to those of the Duke of Zhou, yet you have not rewarded him as King Cheng rewarded the Duke of Zhou. Instead, you allow Wang Mang to repeatedly decline and defer, ignoring the clear principles laid out in the *Spring and Autumn Annals*. How, then, can the people praise this? How will future generations record it? This is not the proper way to govern a state. In my humble opinion, Wang Mang's fief should be expanded to match that of the Duke of Zhou; his descendants should be established in positions equivalent to those of Boqin, the Duke of Zhou's son; the ceremonial gifts granted to Wang Mang should match those given to the Duke of Zhou; and Wang Mang's heirs should receive fiefs comparable to those of the Duke of Zhou's six sons. In this way, the ministers will naturally become more loyal, and the people will sincerely feel gratitude for the emperor's benevolence. With loyal ministers and grateful citizens, what affairs of the state cannot be achieved? I hope Your Majesty will deeply reflect on the trust of your ancestors, revere Heaven's mandate, emulate the prosperous eras of Yu Shun and the Duke of Zhou, and grant Wang Mang rewards comparable to those given to Boqin, showing no hesitation in recognizing a minister of Duke of Zhou-like merit. In this way, Heaven's mandate will endure, future generations will have a model to follow, and the entire realm will rejoice.
The Empress Dowager referred this matter to the ministers for discussion. While the ministers were deliberating, the Lü Kuan case suddenly erupted.
At first, Wang Mang sought to consolidate power for himself. He said to the Empress Dowager, "Previously, when Emperor Ai ascended the throne, he abandoned grace and righteousness, excessively favoring the Ding and Fu families among the maternal relatives, which disrupted the state and nearly endangered the dynasty. Now, the new emperor is young and has inherited the great mandate as the successor of Emperor Cheng. Therefore, we should establish clear principles of unity to serve as a warning for future generations and a model for posterity." Consequently, he sent Zhen Feng to deliver the imperial seal and ribbon to confer the title of "Dowager of Zhongshan Xiao King" upon the emperor's mother, Lady Wei. He also granted the emperor's uncles, Wei Bao and Wei Xuan, the titles of *Marquis Within the Passes*, but ordered them to remain in Zhongshan and forbade them from entering the capital.
Wang Mang's son, Wang Yu, disagreed with his father's decision to isolate the Wei family. He feared that when the emperor grew older, he would resent Wang Mang for this. Secretly, Wang Yu sent people to correspond with Wei Bao and others, instructing them to have the emperor's mother submit a petition requesting permission to enter the capital. These events are detailed in the *Biography of Empress Wei*. However, Wang Mang rejected the petition. Wang Yu then discussed the matter with his tutor, Wu Zhang, and his brother-in-law, Lü Kuan. Wu Zhang believed that Wang Mang could not be persuaded directly, but since he was superstitious about ghosts and spirits, they could fabricate some supernatural occurrences to frighten him into relinquishing power to the Wei family. Following this plan, Wang Yu instructed Lü Kuan to sprinkle blood at the gate of Wang Mang's residence at night. However, the act was discovered by the gatekeepers. Wang Mang arrested Wang Yu, imprisoned him, and forced him to commit suicide by drinking poison.
At the time, Wang Yu's wife was pregnant and was held in custody. After she gave birth, Wang Mang executed her as well. Wang Mang submitted a memorial stating, "Wang Yu was misled by Lü Kuan and others, spreading slanderous rumors to deceive the people. His crimes are no different from those of Guan and Cai. I dare not conceal this and request permission to execute him." Zhen Han and others advised the Empress Dowager to issue an edict, which stated: "Tang Yao had his unworthy son Dan Zhu, and King Wen of Zhou had Guan and Cai. Even sages cannot change the nature of their foolish sons. Wang Mang, occupying the position of the Duke of Zhou and assisting a ruler akin to King Cheng, has imposed punishment on his own son as if he were dealing with Guan and Cai. By not allowing familial affection to undermine the principles of hierarchy, I deeply commend him. In the past, the Duke of Zhou executed the rebellious lords of four states, thereby establishing great governance and enforcing laws. Wang Mang should focus on assisting the state, with the hope of achieving peace under Heaven."
Using this opportunity, Wang Mang eradicated the Wei family entirely and launched a thorough investigation into Lü Kuan's case. Many powerful individuals across various commanderies and states who had previously criticized Wang Mang were implicated, including Princess Jingwu, King Liu Li of Liang, Marquis Liu Li of Hongyang, and Marquis Liu Ren of Ping'a. Wang Mang dispatched envoys to force them to commit suicide, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of people. The nation was shaken to its core.
The Grand Marshal Protector of the Army, Bao, submitted a memorial, stating: "The Duke of Anhan, though deeply loving his son Wang Yu, did not let personal feelings override his duty to the imperial family when his son committed crimes akin to those of Guan and Cai. He was so grieved by this that he wrote eight essays to admonish his descendants. These writings should be disseminated to all commanderies and states so that scholars can use them as teaching material." After deliberation among the ministers, it was decided to order all officials across the empire to study and memorize Wang Mang's admonitions, which were to be recorded in official archives and placed alongside the *Classic of Filial Piety*.
In the spring of the fourth year, the court held a suburban sacrifice (*jiaosi*), offering sacrifices to Heaven with Emperor Gaozu as the deity paired with Heaven and Emperor Wen as the deity paired with the Supreme God. On the *dingwei* day in April, Wang Mang's daughter was established as empress, and the court declared a general amnesty across the empire. Subsequently, eight officials, including the *Grand Minister Over the Masses*’s Director, Chen Chong, were dispatched to various regions to investigate local customs and public sentiment.
