After a couple of months, the Chanyu returned to the royal court and ordered a ceasefire, allowing everyone to return to their original homes. Then, he found his brother, Hudu Wusi, who had been hidden among the people, and appointed him as the Left Valley King. He also sent someone to inform a powerful figure in the right wing, hoping that he would kill the King of the Right.
That winter, Du Longqi and the King of the Right jointly enthroned Rizhu King Boxutang as the Tujie Chanyu. They then led an army of tens of thousands to attack the Chanyu to the east. As a result, the Chanyu was defeated and fled. Tujie Chanyu came back victorious, appointing his eldest son as the Left Valley King and his youngest son as the Right Valley King, allowing them to stay in the Chanyu's royal court.
In the following autumn, Tujie Chanyu sent Rizhu King Xianxian's brother, King Aojian of the Right, to lead twenty thousand cavalry as the Wujie Captain. He was stationed in the east to guard against the Chanyu. At this time, the King of Jie in the west and Weili Danghu conspired to falsely accuse the King of the Right, claiming that he wanted to declare himself the Wujie Chanyu. Tujie Chanyu believed this and had the King of the Right and his son killed. Later, Tujie Chanyu realized that he had wrongly accused the King of the Right and had Weili Danghu killed. King of Jie was afraid and fled, declaring himself the Jie Chanyu. Upon hearing this, King Aojian of the Right also crowned himself the Cheli Chanyu. The Wujie Captain also made himself the Wujie Chanyu. And just like that, there were five Chanyus!
Tuqi personally led troops to the east to attack Cheli, and also sent Du Longqi to attack Wujie. Both Wujie and Cheli were defeated and fled to the northwest, joining forces with Hujie, swelling their ranks to forty thousand. Wujie and Hujie both abandoned the title of Chanyu and supported Cheli together. Hearing this, Tuqi sent his top general and a duwei to lead forty thousand cavalry to the east to guard against Huhanxie, while he himself led forty thousand cavalry to the west to attack Cheli. Cheli was defeated and fled to the northwest, so Tuqi withdrew his troops to the southwest and finally stationed at Xidun.
The following year, Huhanxie sent his brother Yugu Liwang to lead troops to attack Tuqi's camp, resulting in the death of over ten thousand people. Upon hearing this news, Tuqi immediately led sixty thousand cavalry to attack Huhanxie. On the way to Shugu, they encountered Huhanxie's forty thousand troops, and a direct battle ensued. Tuqi was defeated and died of rage. Du Longqi then fled back to the Han Dynasty with Tuqi's young son, Yugu Liwang Gumo Lou, while Cheli surrendered to Huhanxie.
Huli Qu, a general under Huhanxie, and his father Huzhilei Wundun, seeing the chaos within the Xiongnu, led tens of thousands of their men to surrender to the Han Dynasty. The Han emperor made Huli Qu the Marquis of Xincheng and Huzhilei Wundun the Marquis of Yiyang. At that time, Li Ling's son installed a man named Wujie Duwei as the new Chanyu, but Huhanxie captured and killed him, reasserting his control over the Xiongnu, though his forces were down to a few tens of thousands.
King Xiuxun, cousin of Tuqi Chanyu, led five or six hundred horsemen to kill Zuo Daqie Qu, then took Zuo Daqie Qu's army under his command and proclaimed himself Runzheng Chanyu in the west. Later, Huhanye Chanyu's brother, King Zuoxian, also declared himself Zhichi Gudu Hou Chanyu in the east. Two years later, Runzheng Chanyu led his army to attack Zhichi Chanyu. Zhichi Chanyu fought against Runzheng Chanyu, killed him, absorbed his troops, and then attacked Huhanye Chanyu. Huhanye Chanyu was defeated, his army fled, and Zhichi Chanyu took over the Khan's court.
After the defeat, Huhanye's minister, Zuo Yizhizi, suggested that he should submit to the Han Dynasty, seek their help, and stabilize the Xiongnu. Huhanye asked everyone, and they all said, "No! We Xiongnu have always conquered through force, built our nation on horseback, and ruled over all others. For a Xiongnu warrior, death in battle is the greatest honor. Brother fights brother for the Khanate; whoever wins, lives or dies, leaves a legacy for generations to come. Although the Han Dynasty is powerful, it has not completely conquered the Xiongnu. Why betray our ancestors, bow to the Han, and become a laughingstock to the world? And how could we lead others then?"
Zuo Yizhi said, "No! Strength and weakness can change. Currently, the Han Dynasty is strong, and countries like Wusun and Chengguo have become subjects of the Han Dynasty. Since the Chanyu Chidi Hou, the Xiongnu's national strength has been weakening day by day, with no hope of recovering lost territory. Although they may seem strong on the surface, they haven't known a day's peace! Now, submitting to the Han Dynasty can ensure survival, while refusal will lead to destruction. What better option is there?" The ministers debated for a long time. The Huhanye Chanyu eventually adopted his suggestion, leading his army close to the Han Dynasty border and sending his son, Prince Yuxian Wang Zhuluqutang, to the Han Dynasty as a hostage. Zhi Zhi Chanyu also sent his son, General Yuda Jiangyuli, as a hostage to the Han Dynasty. This year marked the first year of Emperor Xuan of Han's Ganzhou era.
The following year, Huhanye Chanyu sent envoys to the Han Dynasty, expressing his desire to visit the Emperor in the coming year's first month. The Han dispatched Cavalry Commandant Han Chang to welcome him, gathering two thousand cavalry from seven counties along the way to escort him.
In the first month, the Chanyu visited the Emperor at Ganquan Palace. The Han Emperor treated him with special favor, ranking him above the princes. The Chanyu referred to himself as a subject during the audience, and the Emperor did not address him directly. The Emperor bestowed many gifts upon him, including hats and clothes; a gold seal and a jade-adorned sword; bows, arrows, and ceremonial items; chariots, saddles, and fifteen horses; twenty jin of gold, and two hundred thousand coins, among other things.
After the ceremony, the Han Dynasty sent an escort to accompany the Chanyu back to his residence in Changping. The Emperor himself traveled to Chiyang Palace from Ganquan Palace for rest. Upon arriving in Changping, the Emperor dispensed with the Chanyu's formal audience, but all the ministers on duty at the palace gate could go watch. Loads of tribal leaders and nobles gathered under the Wei Bridge to welcome the Chanyu, cheering along the way. When the Emperor reached the Wei Bridge, everyone shouted "long live." After over a month, the Chanyu returned home.
Before leaving, the Shanyu actively requested to stay near the Guangluo Pass, in case of any emergency to help the Han Dynasty guards of the recently surrendered city. The Han Dynasty then sent Changleweiwei Gao Changhou Dong Zhong and Cheqiwei Han Chang, with sixteen thousand cavalry, and also reinforced the escort with several thousand more troops and mounts from the border counties to escort the Shanyu out of the Shuofang Jilu Pass. The Emperor also ordered Dong Zhong and others to stay behind to protect the Shanyu, help him deal with those who did not obey him, and allocated a total of thirty-four thousand shi of grain to provision the Shanyu. That year, Chizhi Shanyu also sent envoys to pay tribute, and the Han Dynasty extended him considerable courtesies.
The following year, both Shanyus sent envoys to pay tribute, and the Han Dynasty treated the envoy of Huhanye Shanyu even more generously. A year later, Huhanye Shanyu came to pay tribute again, and His Imperial Majesty's gifts matched the previous year's, augmented by an additional 110 sets of clothes, 9000 pieces of silk, and 8000 catties of cotton. The Han Dynasty, being engaged in troop deployments, did not provide a cavalry escort for his return journey.
At first, Chizhi Shanyu thought that Huhanye Shanyu, having surrendered to the Han Dynasty, was in a weak position and could not return to his hometown, so he led his army westward, intending to seize the territories to the west. Then, a brother named Tuyu Shanyu, who originally followed Huhanye Shanyu, also fled to the right land. He rallied the remaining thousands of his brothers' troops and declared himself the Yili Khan. Their paths crossed, leading to a battle where Chizhi Shanyu decisively defeated and killed Yili Shanyu, absorbing his fifty thousand-strong army into his own.
Word reached the Han court that the Han Dynasty sent troops to support the Chanyu of the Hu Hanxie, so Zhi Zhi Chanyu dug in his heels in the east. He realized he couldn't deal with the Xiongnu on his own, so he continued westward, approaching the Wusun, hoping to join forces with them. He sent envoys to the Wusun leader, Xiu Ju Tu. Upon seeing that the Chanyu of the Hu Hanxie was backed by the Han Dynasty, Xiu Ju Tu recognized Zhi Zhi Chanyu as a renegade leader trying to curry favor with the Han. He killed Zhi Zhi Chanyu's envoy, took his head, and sent it to the Han's protector, while dispatching eight thousand cavalry to confront Zhi Zhi Chanyu in battle.
Seeing the large Wusun forces and realizing his envoy never returned, Zhi Zhi Chanyu ordered his troops to strike against the Wusun, defeating them. He then attacked the Wujie to the north, who surrendered. He mobilized his forces again, conquering Jiandun to the west and the Dingling to the north, gobbling up all three in one fell swoop. He frequently sent troops against the Wusun and won every time. His new capital lay seven thousand li east of his court and five thousand li south of Cheshi.
Just as Emperor Yuan of the Han Dynasty had ascended to the throne, the Hu Hanxie Chanyu wrote to him again, saying his people were suffering. The Han ordered the Yunzhong and Wuyuan counties to allocate twenty thousand hu of grain to support him. Zhi Zhi Chanyu felt the trip was too long and resented the Han's support for the Hu Hanxie, so he sent word, wanting his son to go to the Han Dynasty as a hostage. The Han sent Gu Ji to escort his son, but Zhi Zhi Chanyu killed Gu Ji. The Han never heard from Gu Ji again, but later, some surrendered Xiongnu reported that Zhi Zhi Chanyu had killed all who surrendered. When the Hu Hanxie Chanyu arrived in the Han, the officials gave him a thorough grilling upon his arrival.
In the second year, the Han Dynasty sent the chariot commander Han Chang and the Grand Master of Ceremonies Zhang Meng to send the son of the Xiongnu Chanyu as a hostage, checking in on Guji, and formally absolving the Xiongnu Chanyu of any wrongdoing to ease his concerns. Han Chang and Zhang Meng saw the Xiongnu Chanyu and found that his people were increasing, and there was a lot of wildlife on the border. The Xiongnu Chanyu was perfectly capable of defending himself and held no fear of the Zhi Chanyu. Word reached them that many of the Xiongnu Chanyu's advisors urged his return north, fearing he'd be harder to manage. So Han Chang and Zhang Meng formed an alliance with him, with the agreement saying: "From now on, the Han and the Xiongnu are family. No more trickery or fighting. If someone steals, report it, and we'll punish them and make things right. If there's a war, we'll have each other's backs. If either side breaks this, heaven will punish them and their kids for generations." Han Chang and Zhang Meng, together with the Chanyu and his ministers, went to the Nuo River in the Eastern Mountains of the Xiongnu, sacrificed white horses to Heaven, and the Chanyu brought out a ceremonial dagger, gold, and fine wine, along with a skull-shaped drinking cup, a trophy from his victory over the Yuezhi king. They all shared a blood oath.
Han Chang and Zhang Meng returned to report, and the ministers in the court were abuzz with discussion, believing: "The Chanyu Huhanye guards the border like one of our protectorates; even if he wants to return north, he cannot cause any harm. Han Chang and Zhang Meng blasphemously invoked curses on both Han and Xiongnu ancestors without authorization, giving the Chanyu the opportunity to curse the heavens, which is a huge insult to our country—totally unacceptable! We should send envoys to appease Heaven and break the alliance. Han Chang and Zhang Meng overstepped their authority and are gravely culpable." The emperor believed they had made mistakes and ordered them to be punished according to their crimes, but the alliance could not be dissolved. Later, Chanyu Huhanye eventually returned north, more and more people joined him, and his country finally stabilized.
Zhi Zhi Chanyu killed the envoy of the Han Dynasty; he knew he was in the wrong and, having heard that Chanyu Huhanye was becoming more powerful, feared being attacked and wanted to escape to a distant place.
At this time, the Kangju King was constantly harassed by the Wusun, so he discussed with his generals and thought that the Xiongnu were a powerful people, and the Wusun had previously submitted to the Xiongnu. Now that Zhi Zhi Chanyu was trapped outside, we could invite him to settle in our eastern territories, let him attack the Wusun with us, and then support him as king; that would solve our Xiongnu problem. So the Kangju King sent envoys to contact Zhi Zhi Chanyu in Jiankun. Zhi Zhi Chanyu was already afraid, resented the Wusun, and was very happy to hear the Kangju King's plan. He formed an alliance with the Kangju King and led his army to the west. The Kangju King also sent a nobleman with thousands of camels, donkeys, and horses to welcome Zhi Zhi Chanyu. As a result, many of Zhi Zhi Chanyu's soldiers perished from exposure and starvation on the way, and only over three thousand people arrived in Kangju. Later, the Han Dynasty's general Gan Yanshou and deputy general Chen Tang attacked Kangju, killed Zhi Zhi Chanyu, and you can read all about it in the biographies of Gan Yanshou and Chen Tang.
After the death of Zhizhi Chanyu, Huhanye Chanyu was both happy and afraid. He wrote to Emperor Yuan of Han, saying, "I have always wanted to come and see the Emperor, but because Zhizhi Chanyu was in the west, I was worried that he and the Wusun would attack me together, so I have not dared to come to the Han Dynasty. Now that Zhizhi Chanyu has been killed, I hope to be able to come and pay my respects." In the first year of Jingning, Huhanye Chanyu once again visited the court. The treatment given by Emperor Yuan was the same as before, except that the gifts of clothes, silk, and brocade were doubled compared to the meeting at the Yellow Dragon. Huhanye Chanyu himself expressed his desire to form a marriage alliance with the Han Dynasty to show closeness. Emperor Yuan gave the well-born lady Wang Zhaojun to Huhanye Chanyu. Huhanye Chanyu was very happy and wrote that he was willing to defend the border from Shanggu to Dunhuang for generations, requesting that the Han Dynasty withdraw its troops and garrisons from the border, allowing the Emperor and the people to catch their breath. Emperor Yuan ordered the relevant departments to discuss this matter, and everyone thought it was a good idea. However, Langzhong Hou Ying, who was familiar with border affairs, believed that he could not agree to Huhanye Chanyu's request. Emperor Yuan asked Hou Ying what was going on, and Hou Ying said: Since the time of the Zhou and Qin dynasties, the Xiongnu have always been pushy and overbearing, frequently infringing on the border. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, the situation became even worse. I have heard that from the northern border to Liaodong, there are the Yinshan Mountains, stretching east and west for over a thousand li, with thick forests and teeming wildlife. Previously, Chanyu Maodun relied on the terrain of the Yinshan Mountains to manufacture bows and arrows, often coming out to rob and making the Yinshan Mountains his hunting ground.
By the time of Emperor Wu of Han, troops were sent to conquer and seize the Yin Mountains, extending the border north of the Great Wall. Then, border forts and checkpoints were built, along with signal towers and passes; an outer city was constructed, and troops were stationed for defense, which slightly stabilized the border. North of the Yin Mountains, the land is sparse with vegetation, mostly sandy, making it difficult to hide from Xiongnu invasions. If they launched a southern attack, they would have to pass through deep mountains and valleys, making movement inconvenient. It's said among border folk that every time the Xiongnu pass by the Yin Mountains, they can't help but cry. If we were to remove the defenses and troops from the border now, it would be a gift to the Xiongnu, utterly unacceptable!
The Emperor's kindness extends throughout the land, and the heavens have blessed the Xiongnu, allowing them to survive and submit. It's simply the nature of these tribes to be humble when weak and arrogant when strong. In the past, the outer city was dismantled, and guard posts and passes were reduced; now only watchtowers and beacon towers remain. As the ancients wisely said, even in peace, we must remain vigilant, and therefore cannot withdraw our defenses!
Even with China's strict laws and moral teachings, people still commit crimes. Can we really trust them to keep their word? Throughout history, China has always used checkpoints and bridges to control its vassals, to prevent subjects from rebelling. The border forts and stationed troops protect not only against the Xiongnu, but also against the vassal states and their people. It also prevents those who were once Xiongnu from fleeing back to their old masters.
Recently, the Western Qiang region near the border mingles a lot with the Han people, but officials and common people are greedy, stealing their livestock and even their women and children. Therefore, the Western Qiang people resent us, a legacy of resentment that has been handed down through generations. If we remove the defense of the border, it will breed arrogance, complacency, and conflict, with disastrous results. Many soldiers have died in battle after joining the army and never returned, leaving their families destitute. Once they have the opportunity, they will escape to the Xiongnu to seek refuge with their relatives.
The slaves in the border areas also live in hardship, and many want to escape. They say, "We heard that life is happy on the Xiongnu side, but the defense on the border is so strict, what should we do?" So, people regularly escape across the border from time to time. The bandits are cunning and ruthless, often operating in gangs. If they have nowhere to go, they will escape to the north, making it difficult to control.
Since the construction of the border, it has been over a hundred years. These borders are not all built with earth walls. Some are built using rocks, trees, abandoned firewood, as well as streams, valleys, and water gates, slightly leveled by soldiers and then constructed. It was a massive undertaking, incredibly expensive and difficult to quantify.
I'm worried those advocating this haven't considered the consequences of scrapping all the forced labor and garrisons. If anything went wrong, the border would be breached, the outposts and tunnels destroyed, forcing us to rebuild from scratch. How could centuries of work be undone in an instant?
If the garrison is removed and the surveillance reduced, the Chanyu will think we've abandoned the border, and he will definitely be more grateful to the Han Dynasty, constantly asking for favors. However, if we make a slight mistake, the consequences are unpredictable. This would enrage the barbarians and cripple China. This isn't a long-term solution, nor is it the best way to keep the barbarians in check.
The emperor put his foot down and said, "Stop discussing the withdrawal of troops from the border!" Then he sent a general to explain things in person to the Chanyu: "Chanyu, you have requested in writing to withdraw the troops stationed at the border and have future generations guard the frontier. That's a smart idea, Chanyu. You're thinking long-term, putting the people first, and showing respect for tradition – I really appreciate that! We've got border defenses all over China, not just to keep out invaders, but to keep the peace at home too. That's why we need strong laws – to keep everyone on the same page. I get what you're saying, Chanyu. No worries. You're probably wondering why we're not pulling back, so I've sent the top general to give you the full story." The Chanyu quickly expressed his gratitude: "I'm a bit out of my depth here, Your Majesty. It's awfully kind of you to send someone to explain."
At first, Zuoyizhizi helped the Chanyu plan to submit to the Han Dynasty, and he finally pulled it off. Later, someone jealous of Zuoyizhizi claimed he was exaggerating his achievements. Zuoyizhizi felt uneasy, and the Chanyu also began to doubt him. Afraid of being killed, Zuoyizhizi surrendered to the Han Dynasty with over a thousand people. The Han Dynasty appointed him a marquis, granted him a fief of three hundred households, and allowed him to wear a king's seal and sash. During the Jingning period, the Chanyu came to visit the Emperor of the Han Dynasty and saw Zuoyizhizi again. The Chanyu gratefully said, "Thanks to your advice, the Xiongnu have been peaceful ever since – brilliant work! How can I forget your kindness? I let you down, causing you to leave the Han Dynasty and never return. It’s my fault. Now I want to ask the Emperor to allow you to return to the Xiongnu." Zuoyizhizi replied, "Look, Chanyu, you made peace with the Han because of your own good luck and the gods' favor, not because of me! I've already joined the Han, and going back would be a betrayal. I'm happy to keep serving you from here." No matter how much the Chanyu begged, Zuoyizhizi wouldn't budge.
Wang Zhaojun, her Xiongnu name was Ning Hu E Shi, gave birth to a son named Ituzhiyasi, who later became the King of the Right Wing. Huhanye Chanyu reigned for twenty-eight years and passed away in the second year of the Han Dynasty. At first, Huhanye Chanyu favored the sister of Zuo Yizhi and the daughter of King Huyan. The elder daughter became Zhuangqu E Shi (a title for a Xiongnu queen) and had two sons, the elder son named Qiemoche and the younger son named Nangzhiyasi. The younger daughter became Da E Shi (the chief queen) and had four sons, the elder son named Diaotaomogao, the second son named Qiemeixu, both older than Qiemoche, and the two youngest sons named Xianhele, both younger than Nangzhiyasi. In addition, Huhanye Chanyu had over ten sons with other E Shi. Zhuangqu E Shi had a high status, and Qiemoche was very popular among the people.
When Huhanye Chanyu was near death, he wanted to appoint Qiemoche as his successor. However, his mother Zhuangqu E Shi said, "The Xiongnu have been in turmoil for over ten years, with constant warfare. Thanks to the help of the Han Dynasty, we have been able to stabilize. Now that peace has just returned, the people are still recovering and suffering heavy casualties. Qiemoche is still young, and the people might not support him. I am worried that this will once again endanger the country. Both I and Da E Shi are wives of the Chanyu, and we both have sons. Diaotaomogao would be a better choice." Da E Shi also said, "Although Qiemoche is young, the ministers can assist him in handling state affairs together. Dumping someone with a high position for a lower one will only cause trouble down the road!" In the end, the Chanyu listened to Zhuangqu E Shi's advice, appointed Diaotaomogao as the successor, and agreed to pass the throne to his brother. And so, the throne passed to Diaotaomogao, setting the stage for the next chapter in Xiongnu history.
After the death of the Xiongnu Chanyu Hu Hanxie, Diao Tao Mogao succeeded to the throne and was known as the Fuzhulei Ruodidi Chanyu. After Fuzhulei Ruodidi Chanyu ascended to the throne, he sent his son, a high-ranking prince, to the Han court to serve the emperor. He also appointed Qie Mixu as the Left Noble King, Qie Moche as the Left Gulixi King, and Nangzhayas as the Right Noble King. Fuzhulei Ruodidi Chanyu also married Wang Zhaojun and had two daughters, with the eldest living in Xubu and the youngest living in Dangyu.
In 28 BC, during the first year of Heping, the Xiongnu Chanyu sent Youshi Gaolin Wang Yixiemoyan and others to the Han court to offer New Year's greetings. After the greetings, the Han court sent envoys to escort them back to their country. However, Yixiemoyan said, "If the Han court won't take me in, I'll kill myself—I ain't going back." The envoys reported this to the court, and the court discussed how to handle the situation.
Some ministers believed that, according to past precedent, his surrender should be accepted. However, the Minister of Ceremonies Gu Yong and the Court Gentleman Du Qin proposed a different opinion. They said, "Since the establishment of the Han dynasty, the Xiongnu have always been a threat at the borders, which is why we have offered high rewards to encourage their surrender. Now that the Chanyu has bowed down and become a vassal of the Han dynasty, even sending envoys to congratulate us, it is clear that he has no ill intentions. The Han dynasty's acceptance of his congratulations should be different this time. We've already taken his gifts, so taking in his runaway would be like trading a loyal king for a single guilty man."
In case the Chanyu has just ascended to the throne and is considering seeking refuge with the Han, but is unsure of the pros and cons, he secretly sends Yixie Mo Yan to feign surrender to sound out the situation. Accepting him would break faith with the Chanyu, damage relations, and undermine trust among border officials; or this could be a Hun trick to stir up trouble between the Han and the Xiongnu. If we accept his surrender, we would play right into their hands, giving them an excuse. Border security and military operations are at stake; we can't afford to be reckless. Therefore, we should not accept his surrender in order to show our strength, outsmart the Xiongnu, and earn the Chanyu's trust." The emperor approved their recommendation. Therefore, he sent Zhonglang General Wang Shun to investigate Yixie Mo Yan's surrender. Yixie Mo Yan said, "I was out of my mind; I was just babbling!" And so, he was sent back. He kept his position but refused further contact with Han envoys. The next year, the Chanyu asked for a meeting with the Han. In the first month of the fourth year of Heping, the Chanyu finally arrived at the court and was rewarded with twenty thousand bolts of silk and other fine fabrics, and twenty thousand catties of cotton, along with other rewards as before. The Chanyu ruled for ten years and passed away in the first year of Hongjia. His brother, Qumi Xu, succeeded him and became known as Suo Xie Ruo Di Chanyu. After Suo Xie Chanyu ascended the throne, he sent his son Prince Zhu Liusi to serve the emperor of the Han and appointed Qie Mo Che as the Left King. Suo Xie Chanyu ruled for eight years. In the first year of Yuanyan, he prepared to visit the Han, but fell ill and died on the way after two years of travel. His brother, Qie Mo Che, succeeded him and became known as Che Ya Ruo Di Chanyu. When Che Ya Chanyu took the throne, he sent his son Prince You Yu Tu Qiu Dan Wang Wuyi to serve as an attendant and appointed Nang Zhi Ya Si as the Left King. Che Ya Chanyu was only four years old when he ascended the throne and died in the first year of Suihe.
Then his younger brother, Nangzhiyasu, succeeded to the throne and was called Wuzhuliu Ruodi Chanyu. During the reign of Wuzhuliu Ruodi, he appointed his second son, Le, as the Left Noble King and his fifth son, Yu, as the Right Noble King. He also sent his son, Yugu Nuwang Wudi Yasi, as a hostage to the Han Dynasty. The Han Dynasty sent a high-ranking general, Xiahou Fan, and a deputy commander, Han Rong, to negotiate with the Xiongnu.
At that time, Wang Gen, the Emperor's uncle and a powerful general, was in charge of the affairs of the Shangshu. It was suggested to Wang Gen, "The Xiongnu's territory extends into the Han Dynasty, reaching as far as Zhangye County, where unique wood grows that can be used directly for making arrow shafts and feathers. If we could obtain this land, it would greatly benefit border defense, the country would gain vast territory, and the general could establish illustrious merits that would be recorded in history." Wang Gen reported this proposal to the Emperor. The Emperor originally wanted to ask the Chanyu for this land, but considering that doing so might backfire and damage national prestige, he hesitated. Wang Gen secretly instructed Xiahou Fan to negotiate with the Chanyu in his own way.
Xiahou Fan arrived at the Xiongnu and kind of subtly said to the Chanyu, "I privately observed that the Xiongnu territory extends into the territory of the Han Dynasty, reaching as far as Zhangye Commandery. Three commandants of the Han Dynasty are stationed on the border, with hundreds of soldiers stationed there, enduring great hardships and long-term guard duty. The Chanyu should submit a memorial offering this land to the Han Dynasty, delineate the border, and reduce the guard duties of the two commandants and hundreds of soldiers to show their gratitude. This way, the Han Dynasty's reward will certainly be great." The Chanyu asked, "Is this the Emperor's will, or a personal request from the envoy?" Xiahou Fan replied, "This is the Emperor's intention, but I was just looking out for the Chanyu." The Chanyu said, "Emperor Xuan and Emperor Yuan both showed mercy to my father, Huhanye Chanyu, and gave the land north of the Great Wall to the Xiongnu. This land is where King Wengui resides. I do not yet know the specific situation and production there; please allow me to send someone to investigate." So Xiahou Fan and Han Rong returned to the Han Dynasty.
Later, the Han Dynasty sent them again to negotiate with the Xiongnu for that piece of land. The Chanyu said, "My father and brothers have passed down the throne for five generations, and the Han have never asked for this land before, so why now? I have asked King Wengui; the western Xiongnu tribes rely on the wood from this mountain for building tents and vehicles, and this is the land of my ancestors; I cannot give it up." After Xiahou Fan got back, he was promoted to the position of Taiyuan Prefect. The Chanyu sent word about Xiahou Fan's land grab to the Han Dynasty court. The court issued a decree stating, "Xiahou Fan falsely claimed an imperial decree to demand land from the Chanyu. He should have been executed, but there was a pardon; he's been demoted to Jinan Prefect and is off the Xiongnu case."
The next year, Wudiyasi died and was sent back to the Xiongnu for burial. Then the Xiongnu sent Prince Jiliu Kun as a hostage to the Han Dynasty.
In the year 5 BC, the prince of the Wusun Kingdom, Bei Yuan Zhi, led a whole crew of guys on horseback to the western border of the Xiongnu, stealing cattle and sheep, and killing many Xiongnu people. When the Chanyu of the Xiongnu heard about this, he sent Wu Yi Ling, the Xiongnu's Left Great Household Official, with five thousand cavalry to attack the Wusun, killing more than eight hundred people, capturing over a thousand, and taking away all the cattle and sheep. Bei Yuan Zhi, fearing for his safety, quickly sent his son Qu Lu to the Xiongnu as a hostage. The Chanyu accepted the hostage and reported the incident to the Han Dynasty. The Han Dynasty then sent Zhonglang General Ding Yelin and Deputy Colonel Gong Chengyin to the Xiongnu, really chewing the Chanyu out and ordering him to release the Wusun hostages. After receiving the order, the Chanyu released Qu Lu.
In the year 3 BC, the Chanyu of the Xiongnu wrote a letter to the Han Dynasty, saying that he wanted to visit the emperor in five years. At that time, Emperor Ai of the Han Dynasty was ill, and some people said that having the Xiongnu show up from the north wasn't a good omen. Since the time of Emperor Huanglong and Jingning, whenever the Chanyu visited the Han Dynasty, major events would occur. The emperor hesitated and asked his ministers for advice. The ministers thought it was a drain on the treasury and advised against agreeing to the Chanyu's request. As the Xiongnu envoy was preparing to return home, Huangmen Lang Yang Xiong advised the emperor in a memorial:
"I have heard that the Six Classics say the smartest thing is to get ready before things go south; and in warfare, winning before the fighting starts is key. These points may seem small, but they're huge – you can't ignore them. Now that the Chanyu has written a letter requesting an audience, if our country does not agree and sends him away, I believe that the Han Dynasty and the Xiongnu will become enemies from now on. Not even the Five Emperors or the Three Kings could handle them; it's clear how difficult they are to deal with. I won't go back too far, but let's look at what happened under the Qin Dynasty to illustrate my point."
Qin Shi Huang was so powerful, and Meng Tian was such a badass, leading more than 400,000 troops, but he didn’t dare to attack Xi He and only built the Great Wall to separate them.
Later, when the Han Dynasty was just established, although Emperor Gaozu was very powerful, 300,000 troops were trapped in Pingcheng, and the soldiers went seven days without food. At that time, there were lots of clever advisors and silver-tongued officials, but nobody knows how they got out of that mess.
Empress Dowager Gao was particularly angry with the Xiongnu, and the ministers discussed countermeasures in court. Fan Kuai proposed to take 100,000 troops to go and mess with the Xiongnu. However, Ji Bu said, "They should chop off Fan Kuai's head! The guy's a babbling idiot who's just kissing up!" The ministers then wrote to appease the Xiongnu, which took care of the problem and calmed everyone down.
During the reign of Emperor Wen of Han, the Xiongnu again harassed the northern border. Xiongnu scouts even reached Yong County and Ganquan, scaring the pants off the capital. Three generals were quickly sent to set up camp at Xiliu, Jimen, and Bashang to guard against them, and it took a couple of months before the troops were withdrawn.
After Emperor Wu of Han became emperor, he tried to trick the Xiongnu into a trap in Mayi, sending General Han Anguo with 300,000 troops to ambush them. However, the Xiongnu discovered the trap and escaped, wasting a ton of money and men, and didn't even catch a single Xiongnu, let alone the Chanyu!
Later, Emperor Wu of Han figured out a long-term plan, sending in a massive army led by Wei Qing and Huo Qubing, and they fought for over a decade. As a result, the Han army crossed the Xi He, smashed the Xiongnu's main camp, beat the crap out of Zhiyan, raided their royal court, chased them all the way to the ends of the earth, held a big ceremony on Langjuxu Mountain, did some rituals on Guyanshan Mountain, got all the way to the Hanhai, and took hundreds of Xiongnu bigwigs prisoner.
Since then, the Xiongnu have been very afraid, more eager to make peace, but always unwilling to bend the knee.
Oh, back then, why did those emperors spend a fortune and let so many innocent common people suffer, just to scare the Xiongnu in the north? They believed that without effort there would be no peace, and without spending money there would be no lasting stability, so they endured it, mobilized hundreds of thousands of troops to attack the Xiongnu, spent the treasury's money to fill up Lushan, and did not regret it.
At first, the Xiongnu were so arrogant, wanting to plunder the Wusun, even daring to have designs on the princess! The Han Dynasty sent five generals and 150,000 cavalry to the south to fight them, and even had the Changluo Marquis (the title for a noble) lead 50,000 Wusun cavalry to attack from the west. In the end, both sides came back with nothing to show for it. It was all for show, just to flex the Han army's muscles and let the Xiongnu know what the Han army was made of, like thunder and a fierce wind. Although there was no significant result, two generals were killed. So, the Xiongnu in the north were dissatisfied, and our China has never been able to sleep peacefully.
It wasn't until the Yuan Kang and Shenjue periods that the situation improved. The emperor was generous and the policies were sound, and the Xiongnu were in turmoil on their own, with several Chanyus (the Xiongnu title for their leader) vying for supremacy. Huhanye Chanyu led a part of his people to submit to the Han Dynasty, bowing and calling themselves subjects. But the Han Dynasty still had some precautions against them and did not completely lift control. Since then, the Han Dynasty did not stop those who wanted to come as tribute, and did not force those who did not want to come. Why? Because these guys were naturally aggressive, strong as oxen, and stubborn as mules, difficult to persuade with kind words, easy to suspect you at the slightest wrong, very tough, and good luck getting them to play nice.
So, think about it: before the Xiongnu surrender, we have to send troops on a distant expedition, cost a fortune and drain the country, resulting in a bloodbath, breaking through strong cities and defeating the enemy. How difficult is that? After the Xiongnu surrender, we still have to send people to appease them, give them gifts, pay attention to etiquette, and be cautious everywhere—what a huge hassle! In the past, we'd mop up places like Dawan, Wuhuan, Gouzhang, Dangjie, Korea, and Lianyue in a matter of weeks, tops. Poof! They were our counties, and we cleaned up nicely without any trouble afterward. But the Xiongnu in the north are different; they're our sworn enemies! They've been a major headache from ancient times to the present, and the emperors of past dynasties have always taken them seriously. They’re not easy to deal with.
Now the Chanyu has expressed his willingness to surrender, with sincere intentions, wanting to leave his territory and present his thoughts to the court. It's an age-old strategy, and it's what the heavens would want. It'll cost us, but it's a necessary evil! However, we blew him off, saying there’s no definite date, squandering goodwill and sowing the seeds of future conflict! That's a recipe for disaster. We're being friendly while simultaneously pushing him away. He's going to be furious. We broke our promises. We'll make him blame us. He'll never surrender now. We can't bully him into it, and we can't reason with him either. This is seriously worrying.
Smart people see what's coming, clever people hear what's not said. Gotta be ready before things kick off. If we don’t value prevention, without it, strategies like the one at Mayi are impossible, Wei Qing and Huo Qubing's achievements are meaningless, and the five generals' reputation is worthless. If you wait 'til things blow up, even the smartest guys and best talkers can't fix it. Being ready beforehand is way better!
Moreover, in the past, to control the Western Regions and conquer the Cheshi, we built cities and fortresses, set up the Protectorate, and governed thirty-six countries. The money spent each year is countless. Was it all just to prevent the Kangju and Wusun from attacking the west of the White Dragon Ridge? The real goal was to balance the Xiongnu! A hundred years of effort could be wasted due to just one day of negligence, spending a lot of effort but cherishing only a fraction. I'm really worried about this country, you know? Your Majesty, you need to pay attention to this and curb the signs of border unrest before turmoil and war break out.
After the memorial was presented, the emperor finally got it, recalled the Xiongnu envoy, and sent a letter to the Chanyu agreeing to his request. He rewarded him with fifty pieces of fine silk and ten pounds of gold. Before the Chanyu could leave, he got sick and sent word he'd come next year. According to custom, when the Chanyu came to the court, there were over two hundred people, including princes, nobles, and attendants. The Chanyu wrote again, saying, "I have received the grace of the emperor, the people live in peace and prosperity, the country is strong, and I hope to bring five hundred people to the court to show the emperor's great virtue." The emperor just said yes.
In the second year of Yuanshou, the Chanyu came to the court. The Emperor arranged for him to stay at the Putao Palace in Shanglin Garden to avoid the ill omen of Tai Sui. The Emperor specifically ordered everyone to treat the Chanyu with the utmost respect, and the Chanyu was aware of this. The Emperor also rewarded him with 370 sets of clothing, 30,000 rolls of silk and satin, 30,000 catties (approximately 33,000 pounds) of cotton, and other rewards similar to those during the Heping period. After the audience, the Emperor dispatched Zhonglang General Han Kuang to escort the Chanyu back to his country. After the Chanyu left the border, he arrived at Xiutun Jing, crossed the Chetianlu River, and the journey was long. Han Kuang and his men were running low on rations, so the Chanyu provided them with food, delaying their return by more than fifty days.
At first, the Emperor sent Jiliu Kun to follow the Chanyu. When they arrived at the Xiongnu, the Emperor assigned Jiliu Kun's brother, You Daqie Fang, and his wife to serve the Chanyu. After Jiliu Kun returned to his country, the Emperor sent You Daqie Fang's brother, Zuo Rizhu Wangdu, and his wife to serve the Chanyu.
At that time, Emperor Ping of Han was still young, and the Empress Dowager was in charge of the court, while the Marquis of Xindu, Wang Mang, held great power. Wang Mang wanted to demonstrate his power and influence to the Empress Dowager, claiming to be more powerful than his predecessors, so he suggested to the Chanyu to send Wang Zhaojun (also known as Xubu Juciyun) to the palace to serve the Empress Dowager. Therefore, the Empress Dowager often rewarded her with lavish gifts.
The two kings of the Western Regions, Jugu from the Kingdom of Cheshi and Doudou from the Kingdom of Hulai, expressed their displeasure toward the Protector-General of the Han Dynasty because their people and relatives had all defected to the Xiongnu, as detailed in the *Western Regions Annals.*
After the Xiongnu Chanyu occupied the Left Valley Li, he sent envoys to write a letter to the Han Dynasty, saying, "They're mine now." The Han Dynasty sent Zhonglang Generals Han Long and Wang Chang, along with Vice Colonels Zhen Fu and Wang She, and Shizhong Yezhe Bao Chang to the Xiongnu, telling the Chanyu, "We already control the Western Regions. You shouldn't accept them; we're taking them back." The Chanyu replied, "Emperors Xuan and Yuan were good to us and set rules: south of the Great Wall belongs to the Emperor, and north of the Great Wall belongs to the Chanyu. If anyone crosses the border, let us know. If anyone defects, don't take 'em. I know my father, Huhanye Chanyu, received great kindness from the Han Dynasty and before he died, he instructed: 'If anyone from China comes to surrender, don't keep them; send them back to the border to repay the Emperor's kindness.' But these guys are foreigners, so it's cool." The Han Dynasty envoys said, "You guys are tearing yourselves apart! You'd be wiped out if it weren't for us. We saved your hides, your families, and your whole future! Show some gratitude!" The Chanyu apologized and gave the guys back. The Han Dynasty then sent General Wang Meng to the Western Regions to wait for those Xiongnu collaborators to surrender. The Chanyu sent people to return them to their country and requested forgiveness from the Han Dynasty for their crimes. The envoy reported it, but the Emperor said no. So, the Western Region kings got their heads chopped off and put on display. Then the Han Dynasty established four rules:
- Chinese deserters to the Xiongnu
- Wusun defectors to the Xiongnu
- Western Region states surrendering with Han seals to the Xiongnu
- Wuhuan defectors to the Xiongnu
None of them are to be accepted. The Han Dynasty then sent Generals Wang Jun and Wang Chang, along with Vice Colonels Zhen Fu and Wang Xun to the Xiongnu, delivering these four rules in a sealed letter for the Chanyu to follow, and also to get back the old rules Xuan had set.
Back then, Wang Mang was calling the shots, and he decreed that everyone in the country had to use only one name. He sent envoys to the Xiongnu Chanyu, saying, "You should learn from us and change to a single name. The Han will hook you up big time." The Chanyu agreed and wrote, "It's an honor to be a Han vassal. I'm super impressed with your whole peaceful, prosperous thing. My original name was Nangzhiyas, now I have changed my name to Zhi." Wang Mang was stoked and immediately told the Empress Dowager. Then he sent envoys back to the Chanyu with a whole bunch of gifts. The Han issued four edicts. Later, the guys escorting the Wuhuan envoy told the Wuhuan, "Forget paying the Xiongnu for leather and cloth." So, naturally, some Xiongnu tax collectors showed up, along with a bunch of folks looking to trade. The Wuhuan people directly refused, saying, "We are following the emperor's orders and cannot pay taxes to the Xiongnu anymore!" The Xiongnu guys flipped out, grabbed a few Wuhuan chiefs, tied 'em up, and strung 'em up. The chiefs' brothers were furious. They whacked the Xiongnu envoys and their crew, then stole their women, horses, and cattle. When the Xiongnu Chanyu heard, he immediately sent the Left Xian King's army to get revenge and teach those Wuhuan a lesson. The Wuhuan scattered – some hid in the mountains, others bolted east towards the border. The Xiongnu slaughtered a bunch of Wuhuan and took about a thousand women and kids back to their Left Land territory. Then they told the Wuhuan, "Bring horses, livestock, and leather to buy back your people!" Over two thousand Wuhuan relatives showed up with money and livestock to get their people back. The Xiongnu took the money, but kept the prisoners.
In the year when Wang Mang usurped the throne, which was also the first year of the Xin Dynasty, he sent out five envoys led by Wang Jun, along with Zhen Fu, Wang Sa, Chen Rao, Bo Chang, and Ding Ye, preparing lavish gifts of gold and silver to present to the Xiongnu Chanyu. Wang Mang wanted the Chanyu to know that he was appointed by the heavens to replace the Han Dynasty, so he intended to exchange the Chanyu's old seal. The old seal was engraved with the five characters "Xiongnu Chanyu Seal," which Wang Mang changed to "New Xiongnu Chanyu Seal."
When the envoys arrived at the Xiongnu, they presented the new seal and cord to the Chanyu and ordered him to surrender the old seal. The Chanyu bowed in acceptance. Just as the envoys were about to receive the seal, the Chanyu was about to hand it over. At that moment, a close female relative of the Chanyu, Xi Hou Su, advised him, saying, "Have you not seen what characters are engraved on the new seal yet? It's best not to give it up just yet." Upon hearing this, the Chanyu stopped and refused to hand over the old seal. The envoys were invited into the Chanyu's tent to sit down, and the Chanyu wanted to offer them wine and blessings. Wang Jun, one of the envoys, said, "The old seal and cord should be handed over at the right time." The Chanyu replied, "Alright." He then tried to present the old seal and cord again. Su interjected, "You haven't seen what characters are engraved on the new seal yet, so don't hand it over just yet." The Chanyu, angered, exclaimed, "They've changed the inscription!" He then took off the old seal and cord and surrendered them to the envoys.
The envoys were given new seals and sashes, but did not open them. The banquet lasted until nightfall. General Chen Rao said to the other generals, "Look, Gu Xi Hou (a title) almost got the Chanyu (Xiongnu leader) to back out. If he sees these new seals are different, he'll demand the old ones back. We won't be able to talk him out of it. We got these seals with a lot of trouble; losing them would be a disaster! Let's just smash the old ones and be done with it." The other generals hesitated, and no one responded. Chen Rao, a man from the Yan Kingdom, was resolute and brave. He immediately picked up an axe and smashed the old seal.
The next day, the Chanyu sent General You Gu Dou Hou (a title) to tell the envoys, "The seal given by the Han Dynasty to the Chanyu should say '玺' (seal), not '章' (chapter), and it shouldn't have '汉' (Han) on it. Only lesser seals have those characters. Changing '玺' to '新' (new) makes it look like just any old official seal. I hope to receive the old seal." The envoys showed the broken old seal to General You Gu Dou Hou and said, "The new dynasty's mandate is heaven-sent. We destroyed the old seal as ordered. The Chanyu needs to accept the new order." After reporting back, the Chanyu, having received many bribes, had no choice but to send his brother, Prince You Xian Wang Yu, with gifts of horses and cattle to apologize and beg for the return of the old seal.
The army returned to the place where King Xianzhu of the Left Li lived and saw many Wuhuan people, so they asked Xian what was going on. Xian explained the situation in detail. The general barked, "No taking in surrendering Wuhuan! Get 'em outta here!" Xian said, "I want to secretly inform the Chanyu first, and after getting his response, then send them back." The Chanyu sent Xian back to ask, "Inside or outside the border?" The general did not dare to make a decision and quickly reported to the higher-ups. The response from above was to send them back from outside the border.
The Chanyu first fell out with the Han over Xiahou Fan's land. Later, since they couldn't collect taxes from the Wuhuan, they just started looting the Wuhuan, making things worse. And to top it all off, he forged the seal, really ticking off the Wuhuan. So the Chanyu sent a dozen or so commanders, with ten thousand cavalry, supposedly to escort the Wuhuan, to muster near Shuofang. The Shuofang prefect immediately reported it.
The following year, Xuzhili, Cheshi's king, tried to surrender to the Xiongnu, but our commander Du Qin whacked him. Xuzhili's brother Hulanzhi led more than two thousand people, looted property, and surrendered to the Xiongnu, which the Chanyu accepted. Then Hulanzhi and the Xiongnu teamed up to invade Cheshi, killing the king's eldest son and wounding the commander's second-in-command before escaping back to the Xiongnu.
Chen Liang, Zhongdai, Han Xuan, Ren Shang – these Wujixiaowei officers saw all the uprisings in the West, heard the Xiongnu were about to roll in, and figured, "Screw this, we're not dying with them!" They grabbed a few hundred men, offed their boss, Dao Hu, and sent word to the Xiongnu's Nanli Khan, Nanjiangjun.
The Xiongnu's Southern General led two thousand cavalry into the Western Regions to welcome Chen Liang and company. Chen Liang and his group strong-armed over two thousand Wujixiaowei soldiers, their families, and dependents—men, women, and children—into going with them to Xiongnu territory. Han Xuan and Ren Shang stayed with the Southern General, while Chen Liang and Zhong went directly to the King's Court of the Chanyu, where they were settled separately near the Lingwu River. The Chanyu appointed Chen Liang and Zhong as Wuhuan Generals, allowing them to live by his side and often inviting them to feasts. Western Regions Protector Duan Qin reported that the Southern General of the Xiongnu, Yui Zizhi Zi (Yizhi), led his troops to attack various countries.
Upon hearing this, Wang Mang ordered the Xiongnu split into fifteen separate khanates and sent Zhonglang General Lin Bao and Deputy Xiaowei Dai Ji to lead ten thousand cavalry with many treasures to the Yunzhong Pass, to lure Huhanye Chanyu's sons and install each as a separate Chanyu. He also sent envoys to coax the surrender of Huyuli Khan Xian, his son Deng, and their supporters, promising to appoint Xian as a filial Chanyu, rewarding him with a chariot and drum carriage, one thousand catties of gold, one thousand bolts of silk, and ten ornate halberds; appointing his supporters as Chanyus loyal to him and rewarding them with five hundred catties of gold. They were then escorted to Chang'an. Wang Mang appointed Lin Bao as the Duke of Xuanwei and made him General of Tiger Teeth; he appointed Dai Ji as the Duke of Yangwei and made him General of Tiger Armor.
Upon hearing this, the Xiongnu Chanyu was furious, saying, "Our ancestors received Emperor Xuan's favor; how can we betray that now? The current emperor is not a descendant of Emperor Xuan of Han; what right does *he* have to be emperor?" He then sent the Left Bone Marquis, the Right Yizhizi King Hulusi, and the Left Virtuous King Le to attack the Yunchong Yishou Pass, killing many officials and civilians. This happened in the third year of Wang Mang's reign.
Later, the Xiongnu chieftain ordered the commanders of the left and right divisions and the kings of various border areas to lead troops into the pass to plunder. This time, the scale was very large, with over ten thousand seasoned bandits, several thousand of medium scale, and several hundred of smaller scale. They killed the prefects and commanders of Yanmen and Shuofang, looted innumerable people and livestock, leaving the border regions devastated.
Newly crowned Wang Mang, relying on the full national treasury, wanted to establish prestige and therefore appointed twelve generals, drafting elite troops and hardened warriors from various counties to be stationed in key border areas, continuously transporting military supplies to the border. The planned total military strength reached three hundred thousand, with three months' worth of provisions prepared, planning a ten-pronged attack, ruthlessly hunting down the Xiongnu, driving them to Dingling (a place name), then installing Huhanye Chanyu's fifteen sons as kings.
One of Wang Mang's generals, Yan You, came out to advise:
"I've heard that the Xiongnu have plagued us for ages, but I've never heard of a successful campaign against them. Later, the Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasties all fought against the Xiongnu, but none of them found a good strategy. The Zhou had a middling strategy at best, the Han a poor one, and the Qin none at all."
During the time of King Zhou Xuan, the rebellious Xianyun led troops to invade, reaching Jingyang. King Zhou Xuan sent troops to drive the Xiongnu out of the country and then returned. He felt that the Xiongnu invasion was like mosquitoes biting people—a simple matter to deal with. Therefore, it was widely praised that King Zhou Xuan was wise; this is considered a moderate strategy. Emperor Han Wu, on the other hand, carefully selected generals, trained the army, and moved with minimal baggage as he penetrated enemy territory. Although he won battles, the Xiongnu kept retaliating, fighting for over thirty years, which caused heavy losses to our country and severely damaged the Xiongnu. Although everyone agreed that Emperor Han Wu was powerful, this was actually a bad strategy. Emperor Qin Shi Huang couldn't bear a small shame but underestimated the labor of the people. He built the Great Wall over thousands of miles, starting from the seaside to transport materials. Although the territory was consolidated, the country was drained of its treasury and eventually perished; this was a catastrophic miscalculation.
Now the world is facing serious droughts, with several years of poor harvests, especially severe in the northwest border. You need to deploy three hundred thousand troops, prepare for three hundred days of food and supplies, and support the Haidai area in the east and the Jianghuai area in the south to be fully prepared. Calculating the distance, it may not even be possible to assemble within a year. The first troops to arrive can only sleep rough, exhausted and without combat power; this is the first challenge. The border areas are already empty, unable to keep the troops fed. Transporting from the country's interior isn't well coordinated; this is the second challenge.
One person's rations for 300 days require enough grain for 18 hu, which cannot be carried by manpower alone. You need another 20 hu just for the oxen! That's a crazy amount of weight! The Xiongnu territory is all sand and alkali land, with scarce water and grass. We've learned from past campaigns that the oxen won't last more than a hundred days – they'll be completely done for. The Xiongnu region is especially cold in autumn and winter, and windy in spring and summer. We'd need tons of blankets, cooking gear, and firewood – it's all just too much weight. And with just rough food and water, through all four seasons... disease is a real threat. Therefore, in the past, when fighting the Xiongnu, it was at most for 100 days, not because we didn't want to fight longer, but because we just couldn't keep it up any longer.
With the supply train following along, our fast troops can't keep up with those Xiongnu – they just run away. Even if we encounter the Xiongnu, the supply train becomes a burden. And if we get into a tight spot, we're stuck in a line, easy pickings for the Xiongnu to attack from both sides. And even with all this effort, we might not even win! I'm really worried about this, you know? Now that the troops have been dispatched, the first troops should be allowed to penetrate enemy territory, strike the Xiongnu hard, and let them taste the bitterness.
Wang Mang ignored the warnings and kept the army in that valley, causing nationwide panic. After taking the title of "Xiao Chanyu" conferred by Wang Mang, Xian hightailed it back to the Xiongnu and told the Chanyu all about Wang Mang's threats. The Chanyu thought "Yu Su Zhi Zhi Hou" was a pathetically low position. Then the old Chanyu died, and Wang Mang made Deng Dai Zhu the new "Shun Chanyu."
General Chen Qin and General Wang Xun stationed at Gexie Pass in Yunzhong County. At that time, the Xiongnu frequently raided the border, killing generals, officials, and soldiers, looting the populace and stealing their livestock, causing extremely heavy losses. The captured Xiongnu prisoners all confessed that Jiao, the son of Xian, the Xiaohou Chanyu, had led multiple raids. The generals reported this to the imperial court. Four years later, Wang Mang had Xian's son, Deng, publicly executed in Chang'an.
Initially, since the reign of Emperor Xuan of Han, there had been no wars in the northern border for decades, with the people living in peace and prosperity, the population flourishing, and the land teeming with cattle and horses. However, Wang Mang provoked the Xiongnu into conflict, leading to countless casualties among the border people, with many taken as captives. In addition, the armies of twelve tribes were stationed at the border for so long that the soldiers were exhausted. Within a few years, the northern border became desolate, with corpses scattered across the wilderness.
Wuzhuliu Chanyu was in power for 21 years and died five years later. The Xiongnu prime minister, the Yugu Duohou, Xubudang, was the son-in-law of Wang Zhaojun's daughter, Yimojuyun. Yimojuyun had always wanted to marry into the Han Dynasty and had a good relationship with Xian. Observing Xian's successive appointments by Wang Mang, he bypassed others and installed Xian as Chanyu.
When Wulei Chanyu died, he appointed his younger brother Yu as Left Guli King. Wuzhuliu Chanyu's son, Sutu Huben, had been Left Xian King, but now his uncle, Lu Hun (son of Tu Qie's wife), became Right Xian King. Since the Left Xian King had died several times under Wuzhuliu Chanyu, the title was considered unlucky, and it was renamed "Hu Yu." The Hu Yu was second in line to the throne, making him the likely heir. Xian resented Wuzhuliu Chanyu for his demotion and for preventing him from inheriting the throne, so, once he became Chanyu, he demoted the Hu Yu to Left Tuqie King. Ciyun and Xubu Dang then talked Xian into marrying into the Han Dynasty.
Back in 15 BC, Wang Mang sent Yun and Dang to the Xiongnu lands west of the river to talk to the border officials about seeing the Marquis. This Marquis was named Wang She, the nephew of Wang Zhaojun. The central military commander reported this matter to Wang Mang. Wang Mang then sent Wang She and his brother, Zhandehou Sa, commander of the cavalry, to the Xiongnu to congratulate the new Chanyu on taking power, bringing lots of gold, clothes, and silk, while also falsely claiming that an attendant of the Han court, Zeng, was still in the Xiongnu. At the same time, they also tried to bribe Chen Liang, Zhong Dai, and others. The Chanyu captured these four individuals, along with the 27 members of the family of the bandit Zhiyin, who had previously killed the captain Dao Hu, chained them up, handed them over to the emissaries, and also sent forty people, among them cook Weiguxi Wangfu, to escort Wang She and Sa back. Wang Mang had Chen Liang and the others burned alive, disbanded all the garrisons, keeping only the guerrilla commander. The Chanyu, greedy for Wang Mang's bribes, pretended to be friendly with the Han, but secretly kept raiding. Later, after the emissaries returned, they learned that Zeng had died long ago, which made the Chanyu very angry, so he led the Xiongnu people to invade the Han Dynasty from the left side, and the raids never stopped. When the emissaries asked the Chanyu why he did this, he replied, "The Wuhuan and some bad Xiongnu were raiding the border, just like you Han have your share of thieves! I just took over, I don't have much power yet, and I'm doing my best to stop them. I wouldn't dare do anything else."
In May of 14 BC, Wang Mang sent Wang She and five elite commanders to escort Wei Guxi Wang and deliver the bodies of the previously killed attendants Deng and other nobles and followers, all transported in simple carriages. Upon reaching the border, the Chanyu sent Yun, along with Daqie Shes, son of Dang, and others to welcome them. After Wang Xian and his group arrived, they lavished the Chanyu with gold, silver, and jewels, and also persuaded him to change the Xiongnu's name to "Gongnu." The Chanyu agreed and accepted, granting them seals and titles. Dang, the Fenggu Hou, was made Marquis of Hou'an, and his son She became the Hou of Hou'an. The Chanyu was greedy for Wang Mang's gold, so he agreed on the surface, but the Xiongnu kept raiding. Wang Xian and Wang She paid a ransom for Chen Liang and others, which they then distributed to Yun and Dang. In December, they returned to the Han border, and Wang Mang was very happy, rewarding Wang She with two million coins and also granting rewards to Fu An and others.
The Chanyu Xian reigned for five years and died in 9 BC. His brother Zuo Xian Wang Yu succeeded him and was called Hudu and Shidao Gaoru Dijan Chanyu. The Xiongnu adopted the title "Gaoru," meaning "filial piety," because they admired the Han emperors' use of "孝" (xiào) in their posthumous titles.
After Huduohershi became Shanyu, he grew greedy for rewards and sent his younger brother, King Xiedu, along with She, Qu, and Yun (the brothers of the two princesses), to pay tribute in Chang'an. Wang Mang sent the Marquis of Heqin, He Jin, to the border to meet with She, Qu, and Yun, and then used military force to bring them to Chang'an. The younger son of one of the princesses escaped from the border and returned to the Xiongnu. When the princesses arrived in Chang'an, Wang Mang appointed one of them as Xubu Shanyu and planned to send troops to help her ascend to power. However, the military deployment did not go smoothly, and the Xiongnu became even angrier, invading the northern border together and causing destruction. Later, one of the princesses died of illness, and Wang Mang married his daughter, Lu Dai, to An Gong She to curry favor with them, still intending to send troops to support them. However, the Han army's killing of Wang Mang also resulted in the deaths of She and Qu.
In the winter of the second year of Gengshi, the Han Dynasty sent a high-ranking military officer, Gui Dehou Sa, and the Grand Marshal, Chen Zun, to visit the Xiongnu. According to the old customs of the Han Dynasty, they were given the seal and ribbon of the Shanyu, as well as the seal and ribbon of kings and nobles, and sent back the remaining relatives, nobles, and attendants of the two princesses. The Shanyu was very proud and told Chen Zun and Gui Dehou Sa, "The Xiongnu and Han had a long and complex relationship, often described as brotherly. When there was chaos within the Xiongnu, Emperor Xiaoxuan helped Huduan Shanyu ascend to power, so we submitted to and respected the Han Dynasty. Now that the Han Dynasty is also in chaos, with Wang Mang usurping the throne, the Xiongnu has attacked Wang Mang, leaving his borders weak and fueling popular longing for the Han Dynasty's return. Wang Mang ultimately failed, and the Han Dynasty revived, which is why we deserve renewed respect!" Chen Zun and the others argued with the Shanyu, but he insisted on this view. They only returned to their country in the summer of the following year. Meanwhile, the Red Eyebrow Army attacked Chang'an, and the Gengshi regime failed.
Ancient texts warned against the "barbarians outsmarting the Han," the Book of Songs describes how "the Rong and Di were a menace," and the "Spring and Autumn Annals" mentions how "civilization was threatened by the barbarians on all sides." Barbarian invasions have been an old problem! Since the Han Dynasty, those loyal ministers and good generals—who among them didn’t strategize in the court to deal with the Xiongnu, debating endlessly?
Under Emperor Gaozu, there was Liu Jing; during Empress Lü's reign, there were Fan Kuai and Ji Bu; during Emperor Wen's time, there were Jia Yi and Chao Cuo; and during Emperor Jing's rule, there were Wang Hui, Han Anguo, Zhu Maichen, Gongsun Hong, and Dong Zhongshu. These officials held diverse opinions, but overall, their suggestions can be summed up in two categories: one group of civil officials advocated for peace, while the other group of military generals pushed for conquest. They only saw the immediate benefits and dangers, without grasping the fundamental issue of the Xiongnu.
From the Han Dynasty to now, a longer time than the Spring and Autumn Period, dealing with the Xiongnu has truly seen it all: making peace, going to war, groveling, bullying, and bribing. The situation was ever-changing, and power shifted back and forth. So, let's unpack this.
The first to propose peace was Liu Jing. At that time, the world had just been unified, having just experienced the painful lesson of the Battle of Pingcheng. Therefore, his suggestion was adopted to make peace with the Xiongnu, sending gifts to the Chanyu, hoping to maintain border peace. During the reign of Emperor Hui and Empress Gao, the peace policy continued, but the Xiongnu kept raiding and looting, and the Chanyu became even more arrogant. During Emperor Wen's reign, there was also trade with the Xiongnu, and even Han princesses were married off, with more gifts sent each year, but the Xiongnu still repeatedly violated agreements, and the border was frequently disturbed.
So when Emperor Wen, nearing middle age, felt a growing sense of urgency, he personally donned armor, mounted a horse, and commanded elite troops from six counties. He honed their horsemanship, archery, and battle formations in the imperial hunting ground, gathered the finest soldiers from across the nation, stationed forces in Guangwu, sought Feng Tang's counsel, discussed the selection of generals, and sighed, lamenting the lack of capable ministers of old. This demonstrated the futility of relying solely on marriage alliances; it was a very obvious lesson.
Dong Zhongshu witnessed the changes in four generations of court politics yet still wished to adhere to the old governing strategy, even strengthening it. His idea was: "Justice can move gentlemen, while interests can tempt the greedy. People like the Xiongnu cannot be persuaded with benevolence and righteousness; they can only be enticed with substantial rewards and made to swear to heaven. Thus, we must offer them generous concessions to confuse their minds, make an oath before heaven to solidify the agreement, and have them take their beloved sons as hostages to restrain their actions. Even if the Xiongnu want to be fickle, what can they do? Lose vast riches? Deceive Heaven? Kill their own sons? The consequences would be dire! Tax revenue and bribes were insufficient to fund the military, and fortifications were no match for a strong alliance. Ensuring the border people—parents, children, and all—lived in comfort and plenty, the Xiongnu would fear to approach the Great Wall, and the Central Plains would know peace. This, undeniably, was the better course of action."
A careful analysis of Dong Zhongshu's proposals, combined with the actual situation at the time, reveals that his methods were unrealistic given the circumstances and proved ultimately flawed. During the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, although victories were achieved in battles, the losses in men and horses were substantial, nearly offsetting the gains. Although the Henan region was developed and the Shuofang Commandery was established, they also abandoned over 900 li of territory north of Zhaoyang. The Xiongnu were notoriously rebellious. How could they be expected to offer their sons as hostages? Therefore, Dong Zhongshu's suggestions were completely impractical. Without setting hostages, merely relying on empty promises and arranged marriages would only repeat the failed experiences of Emperor Wen of Han and would instead encourage the Xiongnu's consistent deceitful behavior. They failed to appoint competent military commanders to the border regions. Fortifications and equipment were neglected. Weapons were inadequate. Instead of investing in defense, they relied on squeezing taxes and bribes from the populace to fund costly tributes to the Xiongnu. Their faith in empty promises was naive. They foolishly hoped the Xiongnu would simply stay away.
By the time of Emperor Xuan of Han, building on Emperor Wu's successes against the Xiongnu, a century of decline had left the Xiongnu teetering on the brink of collapse. The Han dynasty seized the opportunity, adopted appropriate strategies, and used a combination of kindness and force. This policy of carrots and sticks eventually led to the Chanyu's submission. He sent his son as a hostage to the Han dynasty. For three generations, the Xiongnu remained vassals of the Han. Peace reigned along the border; the land flourished; and three generations lived without the threat of war.
So, after the Han Dynasty had been around for sixty-odd years, when Wang Mang usurped the throne, things started getting hairy along the borders. The Xiongnu chieftain felt pretty cheesed off, and the relationship with the Han Dynasty completely deteriorated. Wang Mang was a real jerk; he killed the chieftain's son, and the border clashes went completely haywire. Earlier, when Chanyu Huhanye came to visit the Emperor of the Han Dynasty, the court discussed how to receive him. Xiao Wangzhi said, "These barbarians are all over the place; we should treat them with courtesy and get them to submit willingly, rather than force them. Even if their grandkids run off and hide, as long as they send envoys, we don't treat them as traitors." When Emperor Xiaoyuan was in charge, someone proposed to cancel the defense of the border areas, but Hou Ying thought it was not feasible, showing that he knew you gotta be ready for anything, even when things are good, and he thought long-term. Later, those Xiongnu chieftains would abandon their own sons just to grab some loot, regardless of gains and losses. They plundered tens of thousands of items each year, while the gifts we sent were worth only a thousand gold—that's a rip-off. Dong Zhongshu missed the mark on this one. You can't just think short-term; you gotta think long-term too, or you won't get anything done. Yan You made some good points about the Qin and Han wars. Those old-time emperors knew how to run a country: dividing up the land, setting up provinces, figuring out taxes, and keeping things running smoothly. Some focused on the law, others on education—different strokes for different folks, you know?
Therefore, in the "Spring and Autumn Annals," the Huaxia region and the Yi and Di are distinguished. The Yi and Di are greedy and love money, wearing their hair loose and clothes unlike ours. They are fierce and savage, completely different from us Chinese in their dress, customs, diet, and language. They live in the cold wilderness of the north, rely on hunting for a living, and their living areas are separated by valleys and deserts, a world apart from the Central Plains region. Therefore, the sage kings treat them as if they were animals, not making treaties with them or attacking them proactively. Treaties with them were easily broken and costly, while attacking them would waste men and money and attract more enemies. Their land cannot be cultivated, their people refuse to submit, so we can only keep them at arm's length, preventing their inward migration, maintaining a distance and not getting too close. Our political influence and laws did not extend to them. If they came to pay tribute, we would receive them with rituals; even if they were fickle, they were made to understand their wrongdoing. This was the usual approach of sage kings towards the barbarians.
