In the "Hong Fan," it is said that there are eight aspects of governing a country, and the third is sacrifices. Sacrifices are for expressing filial piety to ancestors and connecting with the heavens and spirits. This includes everyone, from our own people to other groups, as there is no one who does not participate in sacrifices; even animals like jackals and otters have sacrificial ceremonies. Therefore, wise rulers established sacrificial rites. When the people have pure hearts, upright behavior, intelligence, and wisdom, the spirits would favor them. Men held the role of *xi*, and women the role of *wu*, responsible for arranging the positions of the deities and preparing the livestock and vessels for the sacrifices. Those descended from wise leaders, knowledgeable in geography, ritual, and spiritual matters, served as ritual officials; those versed in seasonal sacrifices, the altar's layout, and clan lineages served as ancestral officials. With gods and people each fulfilling their roles, order prevailed. People and spirits, each respecting their proper place, ensured harmony, so the deities would bestow blessings, the people would live in order, disasters would not occur, and all needs would be met.
During the reign of Shaohao, national power weakened, and the Jiuli tribe rebelled, causing the people's spirits to be confused and unable to distinguish each other. Every household had people acting as sorcerers, and the sacrifices were unrestrained, excessively pursuing the response of the deities, but the deities did not respond. Blessings ceased, and disaster struck relentlessly, and the people suffered greatly. After Zhuanxu ascended to the throne, he appointed Nan Zheng to oversee the spiritual realm and Huo Zhengli to govern the people, restoring the old order and preventing mutual infringement.
During the reign of Gonggong, his son was named Julong, who was skilled in governing water and soil, and was deified as the earth god. During the reign of Lishan, his son was named Zhu, who was skilled in planting grains, and was deified as the grain god. Thus, the worship of earth and grain gods has ancient roots.
The Book of Yu says: Emperor Shun used the Xuanji Jade Heng to adjust the seven celestial bodies (sun, moon, and five stars). He imitated the heavens, offered sacrifices to the six categories of ancestors, inspected the mountains and rivers, worshipped the gods, received five auspicious signs, selected auspicious days and times, met with the Four Yues (the four cardinal mountains and their associated regional governors), and issued rewards. In the second month, he made his eastern inspection tour, reaching Mount Tai. There he worshipped, inspected the mountains and rivers, and then met with the eastern vassals. He chose a suitable date, standardized weights and measures, organized the five rites and five music, and used three bolts of silk, two sacrificial animals, and a shroud as sacrifices. In the fifth month, he made his southern inspection tour, reaching Mount Heng (the southern Mount Heng). In the eighth month, he went on a hunting expedition to the west, reaching Mount Hua. In the eleventh month, he made his northern inspection tour, reaching Mount Heng (the northern Mount Heng). The rituals for these inspection tours with hunting were the same as those at Mount Tai. Mount Song is the central mountain, and a hunting expedition is conducted every five years.
After thirteen generations from Yu, during the time of Emperor Kong Jia, his wickedness and superstitious practices angered the gods, causing two dragons to fly away. After another thirteen generations, Shang Tang overthrew King Jie of Xia and attempted to relocate the ancestral shrine (the site of state sacrifices) of the Xia dynasty but failed, resulting in the composition of the poem "Xia She". Later, the Shang moved the Xia ancestral shrine to Mount Lie, replacing the original deity Jishen with Zhou Qi.
After eight generations, during the reign of Emperor Taimu, a giant mulberry tree sprouted overnight in the palace, terrifying Emperor Taimu. "Your lack of virtue is the reason for this," Yizhi explained. Taimu then dedicated himself to self-cultivation, and the mulberry tree died. Yizhi also spoke highly of Wu Xian. Thirteen generations later, Emperor Wuding received the assistance of Fu Shuo, and the Shang dynasty was thus revived, with Wuding also being known as Gaozong. A wild chicken landed on the tripod's ear, its cries startling Wuding. "You must continue to cultivate your virtue!" Zu Ji advised. Wuding followed his advice, and the country prospered. Five generations later, Emperor Yi was struck dead by lightning for his neglect of the gods. Three generations later came King Zhou of Shang, a debauched tyrant who was ultimately destroyed by King Wu of Zhou. These stories show how the Shang initially prioritized ritual sacrifice, only to later grow lax.
Under King Cheng's rule, the kingdom enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity. The Mingtang and Biyong were the emperor's principal sacrificial sites. They offered sacrifices to Houji to honor Heaven, and to King Wen in the Mingtang to honor the ancestors. People throughout the land fulfilled their ritual duties. The Five Great Mountains held the same status as the Three Dukes, and the Four Great Rivers, that of the vassals. Vassals had to sacrifice to the famous mountains and rivers of their own regions, while officials offered sacrifices to the household gods—the door, the hearth, the well, the stove, and the ancestral shrine. Scholars and commoners simply venerated their ancestors. All sacrifices followed strict ritual, while wanton sacrifices were forbidden.
Thirteen generations passed, and the Zhou Dynasty gradually declined, with the system of rites and music becoming lax. King You was a terrible ruler, defeated by the Quanrong, so King Ping had to move the capital to Luoyi. Duke Xiang of Qin once sent troops to rescue the Zhou Dynasty and was made a vassal. Qin was located in the west, and Duke Xiang believed himself to be a descendant of the God Shao Hao, so he built the West Altar and worshipped the White Emperor, using a flashy horse, a yellow ox, and a ram for a three-animal sacrifice.
Fourteen years later, Duke Wen of Qin was hunting between the Jian and Wei Rivers, and the divination showed it was a good spot to build the capital. Duke Wen dreamed of a yellow snake flying down from the sky, with its head stopping at Fuyan. Duke Wen asked Shi Dun, who said, "This is a divine sign for you; you should worship it." So, Duke Wen of Qin built the Fuyan Altar and worshipped the White Emperor with a three-animal sacrifice.
Before the Fuyan Altar was built, there were already Wuyang Wuzhi and Haozhi near Yongzhou, but these altars were all abandoned and neglected. Legend says Yongzhou, high up and ancient, was a gathering place for immortals. That's why altars were built on the outskirts to worship the gods, with other temples clustered nearby. It is said that this place was used during the time of the Yellow Emperor, and even in the later period of the Zhou Dynasty, sacrifices were still made here. However, it's not a widely held belief, and the bigwigs rarely talked about it.
Nine years later, in the ninth year after the construction of the Fuyan Altar, Duke Wen discovered a magical stone, which was placed in a shrine in the north of Chencang Ban City to worship it. This spirit sometimes did not come for a year and sometimes came several times in a year. It usually showed up at night, a flash of light like a shooting star from the east. It'd land on the shrine wall, looking like a strutting rooster, and cooing just like one. They sacrificed an animal to it, calling it Chen Bao.
After the 71st anniversary of Chen Bao Temple's founding, Qin Degong became king and chose to reside in Yongzhou. His descendants later watered their horses at the Yellow River and eventually moved the capital to Yongzhou. Since then, various religious ceremonies in Yongzhou began to flourish. People sacrificed 300 cattle in Fuji (a location in Yongzhou), built an ancestral shrine, and sacrificed dogs at the four city gates to prevent evil spirits and calamities.
Four years later, Qin Xuangong built a shrine in Weinan and made offerings to the Green Emperor (a deity associated with agriculture and fertility).
Thirteen years later, Qin Mugong became king. He fell into a five-day coma, and when he awoke, he said he had dreamed of Heaven, which commanded him to quell the rebellion in the state of Jin. This event was recorded in the palace records. Later generations all said that this was the will of Heaven.
When Mugong had been in power for nine years, Duke Huan of Qi had already become dominant and called on the vassals at Caiqiu, wanting to hold the Fengshan ceremony. Guan Zhong said, "In ancient times, when the Fengshan ceremony was held at Mount Tai, Liangfu made sacrifices, a total of seventy-two families, of which I found twelve families. Numerous emperors, from the legendary Wu Huai to King Cheng of Zhou, performed the Fengshan ceremony at Mount Tai after receiving a mandate from Heaven." Only those who had received Heaven's mandate could perform the Fengshan ceremony.
Duke Huan said, "When I went on a northern campaign against the Mountain Rong, I passed by the state of Guzhu; during the western expedition, I halted my chariot and climbed Beier Mountain; during the southern expedition, I reached Zhaoling, climbed Xionger Mountain, and overlooked the Jianghan River. In three large-scale military operations, I met with the princes six times, gathered the lords nine times, pacified the world, and none of the vassals dared to oppose me. What's different about the past three generations who received the Mandate of Heaven?" Guan Zhong saw that Duke Huan was stubborn and could not be persuaded by words, so he used facts to advise him, saying, "In ancient times, the grand ceremony of Fengshan required millet from Haodi and grains from the northern regions to be truly grand; between the Jiang and Huai Rivers, a type of three-stemmed reed should be selected as the sacrificial mat. Tribute should be brought from the East Sea, such as fish, and from the West Sea, such as birds. Only then will there be more than fifteen exotic tributes that come voluntarily without being summoned. Now, phoenixes and qilins do not come, auspicious grains do not grow, while rank weeds grow luxuriantly, and the air is thick with owls. Do you still want to hold the Fengshan ceremony? Isn't it a bit inappropriate?" So Duke Huan abandoned his plans.
In that year, Duke Mu of Qin accepted the exiled Prince Yi Wu of the Jin state. Later, Duke Mu of Qin intervened three times to support the Jin ruler, pacifying the internal strife of Jin. Duke Mu died after reigning for thirty-nine years.
Fifty years later, King Ling of Zhou ascended the throne. At that time, the princes did not pay homage to the Zhou emperor, so Chang Hong promoted omens, set up archery competitions, and those who missed the target were the lords who did not come to pay homage. He used miraculous displays to attract the princes. However, the lords did not pay attention, and the power of the Zhou dynasty weakened. Two generations later, during the reign of King Jing of Zhou, the people of Jin killed Chang Hong.
At that time, the Ji clan ran Lu and held sacrifices on Mount Tai. Confucius criticized this.
After 250 years since the construction of Mi Zhi by Duke Xuan of Qin, Duke Ling of Qin built the Upper Zhi to sacrifice to the Yellow Emperor and built the Lower Zhi to sacrifice to the Flame Emperor at Wuyang.
After forty-eight years, Taishi Dan, a Zhou Dynasty historian, went to see Duke Xian of Qin and said, "The Zhou Dynasty and the Qin State were once united, then separated, and after five hundred years apart, they were destined to reunite. Seventy years after the reunification, a king would appear." Seven years after Taishi Dan's death, golden rain showered Liyang. Duke Xian of Qin believed this was a divine omen, so he built a shrine in Liyang and sacrificed to the White Emperor.
One hundred and ten years later, King Nan of Zhou died, and the Qin got their hands on the Nine Tripods. It is also said that during the forty-two years of King Xian of Zhou, Song's Taiqiu altar was destroyed, and the Nine Tripods sank beneath the waters of the Sishui River in Pengcheng.
Seven years after King Nan of Zhou died, King Zhuangxiang of Qin destroyed the Eastern Zhou, and Zhou sacrifices stopped. Twenty-eight years later, the Qin State unified the country and became emperor.
After Qin Shi Huang ascended the throne, some said, "The Yellow Emperor ruled under the virtue of earth, marked by the appearance of yellow dragons and earthworms. The Xia Dynasty's virtue was wood, symbolized by the Azure Dragon and abundant vegetation. The Shang Dynasty's virtue was metal, evident in silver gushing from the mountains. The Zhou Dynasty's virtue was fire, signified by sightings of red crows. Now the Qin Dynasty is replacing the Zhou Dynasty; it is the era of water virtue. When Duke Wen of Qin was hunting, he once captured a black dragon, which is a sign of water virtue!" So Qin Shi Huang renamed the Yellow River as "River of Virtue," designated October as the beginning of the year, favored black, named things with the number six, adopted the Da Lu musical scale, and governed according to ancient laws.
Three years after Qin Shihuang became emperor, he toured the counties, performed a sacrifice at Mount Zouyi, and praised his own achievements. He brought along seventy Confucian scholars from Qi and Lu and other places to Mount Tai. These scholars pointed out that, traditionally, Feng and Shan ceremonies used simple vehicles for the sacrifices to avoid damaging the soil, rocks, grass, and trees on the mountain. The ground was swept clean for the sacrifice, and the mats were thatch and straw, indicating that the sacrifices should be simple. Finding their conflicting opinions impractical, Qin Shihuang dismissed the scholars. He then had a road built up the south side of Mount Tai, all the way to the summit. Upon reaching the summit, he erected a stele proclaiming his achievements and his right to perform the Fengshan ritual. He largely followed the rituals used by Mount Tai officials when sacrificing to the Yong Emperor, and the contents of the sealed tombs remained a secret.
Halfway up Mount Tai, Qin Shihuang was caught in a storm and sought shelter under a tree. The dismissed scholars, barred from the Fengshan ceremony, heard of the emperor's plight and jeered.
During the time of Qin Shihuang, he took a trip to the eastern coast, held a massive sacrificial ceremony, worshipped famous mountains and rivers, and the legendary Eight Gods, hoping to meet immortals like Xianmen. Legend has it these Eight Gods existed since ancient times, though some say they originated with Jiang Taigong. The state of Qi got its name from its connection to Tianqi (the Heavenly Emperor). The ritual eventually died out, with no one knowing exactly when. Who are these Eight Gods? First is the God of Heaven, worshipped at Tianqi, at the foot of the southern hills outside Linzi. Second is the God of Earth, worshipped on Taishan Liangfu Mountain. Legend says Heaven prefers shade, so Earth altars ('zhi') were built on raised ground beneath mountains; Earth, preferring sun, was worshipped on circular altars in marshes. The third is the God of Soldiers, worshipping Chiyou; the place of worship for Chiyou is in Dongping Lujian Township, which is west of the state of Qi. The fourth and fifth are both Yin Gods, with places of worship at San Mountain and Zhifu Mountain; the sixth is the God of the Moon, worshipped at Laishan; these three mountains are all in the northern part of the state of Qi, near the Bohai Sea. The seventh is the God of the Sun, worshipped at Shengshan; Shengshan extends into the sea, located in the northeastern part of the state of Qi, the easternmost part, directly facing the sunrise. The eighth is the God of the Four Seasons, worshipped at Langye; Langye is in the northeastern part of the state of Qi, representing the beginning of the four seasons. The best offerings were used, but the shamans' additions, subtractions, and use of gui and bi varied widely.
So, starting from the time of Qiwei and Qixuan, there were scholars like Zou Yan who were all about the theory of the rise and fall of the Five Virtues. During the time of Qin Shihuang, Qi scholars sold him on the idea, and he bought it. Guys like Song Wuji, Zheng Boqiao, Yuan Shang, and Xian Mengao all hightailed it to Yan, where they were into that whole immortality-through-alchemy thing, always messing with ghosts and spirits. This whole Yin and Yang, Five Elements thing explaining history was popular among the vassal states, but these coastal Yan and Qi quacks got it all wrong, which led to a whole mess. Suddenly, you had all these weirdos, brown-nosers, and opportunists running around.
Starting with Qiwei, Qixuan, and Yan Zhao, these kings sent out expeditions to search for the three sacred mountains of Penglai, Fangzhang, and Yingzhou. Legend said these three mountains were in the Bohai Sea, just offshore. They said these islands were all white—white animals, white plants, palaces made of gold and silver. From far off, they looked like clouds, but up close, poof! They were underwater. Then, BAM! A huge gust of wind blew them away, and that was that. And that's a story that's haunted rulers ever since.
Qin Shi Huang heard that there were immortal mountains in the sea, so he sent people with young boys and girls to search for the elixir of immortality. The alchemists all said the strong winds and waves prevented them from finding it. But Qin Shi Huang wasn't about to give up. The next year, he went to Langya and Hengshan, and the following year he went to Jieshi, continuing to investigate the alchemists who went to the sea in search of the elixir. Five years later, he went south to Xiangshan, climbed Mount Kuaiji (会稽山), and visited the seaside to try his luck, hoping to find the legendary three immortal mountains and the elixir. Still, he found nothing and ultimately died in the sand dunes.
After Qin Er Shi ascended the throne, in the first year he went on an eastern tour of Jieshi, walked along the coast, then went south to Mount Tai, and finally arrived at Kuaiji, where he performed sacrifices everywhere and carved words next to the stone tablet erected by Qin Shi Huang, praising his achievements. But not long after, in the autumn, rebellions broke out across the land, and three years later, Qin Er Shi was killed.
Not long after Qin Shi Huang performed the Fengshan ceremony at Mount Tai, twelve years later, the Qin Dynasty fell. Scholars hated Qin Shi Huang for burning books and burying Confucian scholars, while the common people resented the harsh rule of the Qin Dynasty, so people revolted all over the country. Everyone was saying, "When Qin Shi Huang went to Mount Tai for the Fengshan ceremony, he was attacked by wind and rain; he didn't succeed at all!" Doesn't that show he was a power-hungry tyrant who cared nothing for virtue?
In the past, the capitals of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were all located between the Yellow River and the Luo River, making Mount Song the central peak, while the other four peaks and four rivers were in the Shandong region. After Qin unified China, he built the capital in Xianyang, so the five peaks and four rivers were all in the east. From the Five Emperors to the Qin Dynasty, the rise and fall of dynasties meant that famous mountains and rivers sometimes belonged to vassals and sometimes to the emperor, and the rituals of sacrifice also changed with the times, too numerous to count. After Qin unified China, he standardized the worship of heaven, earth, mountains, rivers, and spirits – finally, some order!
So, east of the Xiaoshan mountains, five famous mountains and two major rivers were officially designated as sacrificial sites. The five mountains were Taishi Mountain (also known as Songshan), Hengshan, Taishan, Kuaiji Mountain, and Xiangshan; the two major rivers are Jishui and Huaihe. During the spring sacrifices, cooked meat and wine were used, and the ice and snow didn't melt until after the sacrifices were completed; during the autumn sacrifices, the rivers ran dry; during the winter sacrifices, the rivers were frozen. A calf was sacrificed at each site, and the other sacrificial items, including ritual vessels, jade bi discs, and bronze coins, varied in specifications.
Meanwhile, to the west of Mount Huashan, there are seven famous mountains and four famous rivers. The seven mountains are Mount Huashan, Mount Baoshan (also known as Mount Xiangshan), Mount Yuexi, Mount Qishan, Mount Wushan, Mount Hongzhong (meaning the Great Tomb), and Mount Dushan (which is the Minshan in the land of Shu). The four rivers are the Yellow River (sacrificed in Linjin), the Mian River (sacrificed in Hanzhong), the Jiao Yuan River (sacrificed in Chaona), and the Yangtze River (sacrificed in the land of Shu). These places, like the eastern ones, also hold sacrificial activities in the spring and autumn seasons, praying for favorable weather and abundant river water. The sacrificial animals used are calves, and the ritual vessels, jade discs, and coins used in the sacrifices are all different. The four mountains—Hongzhong, Qishan, Wushan, and Yuexi—also held new harvest sacrifices, tasting the newly harvested grains. When Chen Baojie sacrificed at the Yellow River, a wine-tasting ceremony was also held.
These sites were all in Yongzhou, right near the emperor's palace, so an extra carriage with four fine horses was added during the sacrifices. The Ba, Chan, Feng, Lao, Jing, Wei, and Chang rivers, though not considered major rivers, were also sacrificed to because of their proximity to Xianyang, but without the extra pomp and circumstance. Smaller rivers and mountains, such as the Qian and Luo rivers, Mingze marsh, Pusan, and Yuexu mountains, also saw sacrifices, but with simpler rituals.
Within the territory of Yongzhou, there are over a hundred temples dedicated to worshipping the sun, moon, and all the stars and constellations in the sky, as well as the wind god, rain god, sea gods, and deities associated with nine and fourteen ministers, among others. In the western part of Yongzhou, there are also dozens of shrines. There is a temple honoring the Zhou emperors in Hu County, and a temple dedicated to the heavenly gods in Xiagui. In the Fenggao region, there are the Zhaoming Temple and the Emperor's Pond (a pond dug by the emperor). There are temples dedicated to the Five Generals Du in Du County and Hao County, along with a Longevity Temple; General Du is also worshipped in temples in Yongzhou and Jian County. General Du was the right general of the ancient Zhou dynasty, and in the territory of the Qin dynasty, he held the lowest rank among the deities. These temples conduct regular worship ceremonies according to the seasons.
Yongzhou's seasonal sacrifices are the most grand when it comes to worshipping the gods. People could see how grand these sacrifices were, and the offerings were incredibly valuable. Therefore, sacrifices were held at the start of spring to pray for blessings, during the spring thaw, in the autumn's dry season, in winter, in May, in the middle months of each quarter, and on the Chenbao Festival. Red livestock is used in spring and summer, while black livestock is used in autumn and winter. Four colts, one wooden dragon chariot, one wooden chariot, and yellow calves and lambs are used for sacrifices, with specified quantities of jade and coins. These offerings were buried whole underground, without the use of sacrificial tools. An annual autumnal sacrifice is held every three years. The Qin dynasty considered October as the beginning of the year, so Emperor Qin Shi Huang would hold the suburban sacrifice in early October each year outside the city, signaling with beacon fires and conducting sacrifices near Xianyang, wearing white clothes and following the usual sacrificial procedures. The sacrifices at Xizhi and Qizhi continued as before, without the emperor's presence.
These sacrificial activities are carried out by the Chief Priest and those responsible for sacrifices according to the season. As for other famous deities of mountains and rivers and the Eight Gods, they were sacrificed to only when the emperor passed through, and were not worshipped after he left. Sacrifices in counties and distant regions are conducted by the common people themselves, without the need for the emperor's appointed priests to preside over them. The priests hold secret incantations, and in the event of disasters or auspicious events, they use these incantations to influence earthly affairs.
After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, during the early stages of Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang's uprising, he killed a large snake. It was said that "the snake is the son of the White Emperor, and the one who killed the snake is the son of the Red Emperor." Later, Liu Bang performed auspicious rites at Fenyu and Pei counties, consolidated his power in Pei County, became the Marquis of Pei, and then sacrificed to Chi You, offering blood sacrifices to the war drums and flags. In October, he reached Baxiang and was proclaimed the King of Han. Therefore, he continued to use October as the beginning of the year and wore red clothes.
The next year, after Liu Bang defeated Xiang Yu in the east and returned to Guanzhong, he asked, "In the past, during the Qin Dynasty, to which emperor god were sacrifices offered?" Someone replied, "Four emperor gods were worshipped, including the White Emperor, the Blue Emperor, the Yellow Emperor, and the Red Emperor." Liu Bang said, "I heard that there should be five emperors in heaven; why are there only four?" No one knew the reason. So Liu Bang said, "Ah, I see! They were waiting for me to complete the five." Liu Bang then established a sacrificial site for the Black Emperor called Beishi. The court presented offerings, but Liu Bang did not personally attend. He retained the Qin Dynasty's sacrificial officials, reestablished the Grand Priest and Grand Chancellor, and continued the same sacrificial practices. He then ordered each county to establish shrines. Liu Bang decreed, "I place great importance on these rituals, and perform them with utmost respect. Now, the worship of the gods and mountain deities must be conducted according to the original time and rituals."
Four years later, the world was peaceful, so the emperor ordered the imperial censor Feng to manage the Fenyu shrine, performing sacrificial rituals on time, using sheep and pigs for spring sacrifices. He also ordered the establishment of a sacrificial site for Chiyou in Chang'an, where officials and shamanesses responsible for sacrifices were appointed. These shamanesses were responsible for different sacrificial rituals: the shamanesses of Liang worshipped Heaven, Earth, Celestial Water, the household shrine, and the ancestral hall; the shamanesses of Jin worshipped the Five Emperors, the Eastern Lord, the Lord of the Clouds, the witch society, the witch shrine, and the sacrificial rituals related to the clan; the shamanesses of Qin worshipped the Master Du, the witch protector, and the ancestral sacrificial rituals; the shamanesses of Jing worshipped the lower hall, the witch ancestor, the judge of fate, and the Shi Mi; the Nine Heavens shamanesses worshipped the Nine Heavens, and these sacrifices were performed in the palace on time. The river witches worshipped the River God in Linjin, and the Nanshan shamanesses performed rituals at Nanshan and for the Second Emperor. Each sacrificial ritual had a fixed date.
Two years later, it was said that after the Zhou Dynasty rose, a sacrificial site for Houji was established, and to this day, people all over the country are worshipping him. So Emperor Gaozu ordered the imperial censor: "Order all parts of the country to establish sacrificial sites for the Lingxing, and sacrifice cows every year according to the seasons."
In the spring of the tenth year of Emperor Gaozu's reign, the supervising officials clearly stipulated that each county should sacrifice sheep and pigs to the god Ji in February and December each year, and the local communities should conduct sacrifices according to their own circumstances. The emperor approved.
In the thirteenth year of Emperor Wendi's reign, he issued a decree stating: "The officials who conducted clandestine rituals have too much power, which I dislike, so remove them all!"
Initially, sacred mountains and rivers were under the jurisdiction of the vassals, who were responsible for the sacrifices themselves, and the court officials did not interfere. Following the abolition of the states of Qi and Huainan, the Grand Sacrificer was instructed to resume the timely performance of these rituals according to established practice.
In the second year, due to a good harvest, the emperor ordered the officials in charge of the sacrifices to increase the number of sacrificial vehicles for the Yong and Wu altars by one each, including the chariots, horses, and equipment; for the Xi and Qi altars, one additional chariot and four horses were added, along with the equipment; the jade offerings for the rituals dedicated to the He, Jiao, and Han Rivers were increased by two each; other sacrificial activities also expanded the sacrificial sites, and the quantities of ceremonial jades, coins, and vessels were correspondingly increased.
A man from the State of Lu, Gong Sunchen, presented a memorial to the emperor, saying: "The Qin Dynasty initially received the virtue of the water element, and now the Han Dynasty has inherited the Qin Dynasty. According to the principles of yin and yang and the five elements, the Han Dynasty should correspond to the virtue of the earth element, and the symbol of earth virtue is the appearance of a yellow dragon. Therefore, the calendar and clothing colors should be changed to yellow." At that time, the Prime Minister Zhang Cang was well-versed in the calendar, and he believed that the Han Dynasty was currently in the period of the water element, as evidenced by the flooding of the Yellow River. In the winter of that year, in the tenth month, the ice on the Yellow River was black on the outside and red on the inside, which all corresponds to the water element. Gong Sunchen argued against this, and the matter was set aside.
In the following year, the yellow dragon really appeared in Chengji! Emperor Wen quickly summoned Gong Sunchen, appointed him as a scholar, and asked him to explain the principles of earth virtue in detail with other scholars, and to draft a plan to modify the calendar and clothing colors. In the summer of that year, the emperor issued a decree saying: "An amazing sight has appeared in Chengji, which does not harm the people. This heralds national prosperity and peace! I intend to personally go to the outskirts to sacrifice to the gods of heaven and earth. Let the officials discuss it, and do not conceal it just because I am working hard." The court officials responded: "In ancient times, the emperor had to personally go to the outskirts in the summer to sacrifice to the heavens, which is why it is called the outskirts sacrifice." So, that April, Emperor Wen went to the outskirts of Yongzhou and sacrificed at the Wu altars, wearing red robes.
Xinyuan Ping of Zhao divined auspicious and inauspicious omens by observing celestial phenomena. He reported to the emperor, "A heavenly manifestation has appeared in the northeast direction of Chang'an City, displaying five colors, like a person wearing a crown. It is said the northeast is the abode of the gods, while the west is their burial place. This is a sign from heaven, and we should build temples to worship the heavens, to heed the heavenly signs." Thus, the Five Emperors Temple was constructed in Weiyang, featuring a grand hall with five gates, each corresponding to a different emperor's color. The sacrificial items and rituals were the same as those in Yongzhou.
In the second year of summer, in the fourth month, Emperor Wen personally presided over the sacrifice at Ba Wei, worshipping the Five Emperors of Weiyang on the outskirts. The Five Emperors Temple was located near the Wei River, with the north side of the temple connected to the Bachi Canal. During the sacrifice, torches were lit, creating a spectacular scene with flames reaching the sky. Xinyuan Ping was rewarded with the title of Grand Minister and bestowed a large amount of gold and silver treasures. The emperor then commissioned scholars to study the Six Classics, compose the "Royal System," and begin planning for the imperial hunt and the Fengshan ceremony.
While passing through Changmen Gate, Emperor Wen glimpsed five figures to the north and decided to build the Five Emperors Altar there, using five different types of livestock for sacrifice.
The following year, a man named Ping sent someone to present a jade cup to the emperor. Ping had informed the emperor beforehand, saying, "Your Majesty, a great jade is on its way!" The emperor looked and indeed someone presented a jade cup with the words "Long Life to the Emperor" engraved on it. Ping then said, "I predict that the sun will soon return to its zenith." After a while, the sun was back in the middle of the sky. Therefore, the emperor renamed the seventeenth year as Year One and ordered a nationwide celebration. Ping continued, "The nine tripods were lost in the Si River. Now that the Yellow River has burst its banks and connected with the Si River, I foresee a golden glow in the northeast direction of Fenyin. I believe the nine tripods may have surfaced there! We must seize this heavenly omen, or it will vanish." The emperor then sent people to the south of Fenyin, near the Yellow River, to build temples to ensure the Zhou tripods' emergence. As a result, someone accused Ping of speaking falsely. After an investigation by the authorities, Ping was killed. Since then, Emperor Wen lost interest in reforms, new clothes, and worshipping the spirits. The sacrifices at Weiyang and Changmen were handled by temple officials, who performed the rites on time, as Emperor Wen did not attend.
Years later, the Xiongnu invaded the border multiple times, forcing the Han Dynasty to raise troops for defense. Subsequently, there were several years of poor harvests. After a few years, Emperor Xiaojing ascended the throne. In the sixteenth year, the temple officials carried out the sacrifices as scheduled, without incident.
When Emperor Wu ascended the throne, he paid special attention to sacrifices to the spirits and deities. The Han Dynasty had been established for sixty or seventy years, with peace throughout the land. The ministers in the court were hoping for the emperor to hold the grand Feng and Shan sacrifices (a major ritual signifying the Mandate of Heaven), reform the calendar and clothing, and other matters of state. However, Emperor Wu admired Confucianism and recruited men of talent. Zhao Wan, Wang Zang, and others, relying on their knowledge, became high-ranking officials. They wanted to emulate the ancients by building a Mingtang in the southern part of the city to summon the feudal lords and plan for the Feng and Shan sacrifices, calendar reform, clothing changes, and more, but it was not completed. Empress Dowager Dou, a staunch opponent of Confucianism, secretly investigated Zhao Wan and others for corruption and bribery. As a result, Zhao Wan and Wang Zang were punished and took their own lives, and all their previous efforts came to naught. Six years later, Empress Dowager Dou passed away. The following year, Emperor Wu began to summon knowledgeable individuals.
The next year, Emperor Wu went to Yongdi for the first time and performed sacrifices outside the city. After that, he regularly offered sacrifices in the suburbs every three years. At that time, Emperor Wu was looking for a divine being and stayed at the Tishi Mansion in Shanglin Park. This divine being was a woman from Changling who died while nursing and appeared after her death. A shrine was erected for her at home, and many people went to worship. Pingyuan Jun (a prominent nobleman) also went to worship, and later his descendants became very prominent. After Emperor Wu ascended the throne, he showed double the reverence at the divine being's shrine, but he had only heard of her deeds and had not seen her in person.
It is said that at that time, Li Shaojun also brought recipes for appeasing the Kitchen God and recipes for health and longevity to see the emperor, who really took a shine to him. Li Shaojun hailed from the Shenze Marquisate and specialized in studying these recipes. Nobody knew his age or where he came from. He claimed he could control the elements and live forever. He traveled around, showing his recipes to various lords, and had no wife or children. Word got around that he could control the elements and live forever, so everyone was showering him with gifts, and he amassed a fortune. Seeing how wealthy he was without apparent means, and not knowing his background, people believed his claims even more and started vying for his attention.
Li Shaojun was a whiz at concocting recipes and always had some clever trick up his sleeve. At a party thrown by the Marquis of Wu'an, there was a fella who was pushing ninety. Li Shaojun casually mentioned having gone archery with the old man's grandfather at a certain place, a place the old man remembered visiting as a child. Everyone's jaws dropped! Another time, at the palace, the Emperor showed Li Shaojun an ancient bronze and asked him about it. Li Shaojun said, "That was put in the Emperor's cypress chamber during the tenth year of Duke Huan of Qi's reign." When the inscriptions were checked, it was indeed an object from the period of Duke Huan of Qi. The whole palace was buzzing—they thought he must be some kind of immortal who'd lived for centuries!
Li Shaojun said to the emperor, "Worshipping the Kitchen God can get all sorts of stuff. After getting these things, you can refine cinnabar into gold. Golden cutlery means immortality. Once you achieve immortality, you can see the immortals of Penglai out at sea. Then, through the whole shebang, you can become immortal, just like the Yellow Emperor did. When I traveled on the sea before, I met An Qisheng, who gave me a jujube as big as a watermelon. An Qisheng is an immortal who can enter the realm of Penglai. He can show himself to people if he wants to, or disappear if he doesn't want to be seen." After hearing this, the emperor personally worshipped the Kitchen God and sent people to the sea more than ten times to find the immortals of Penglai and An Qisheng, and started refining gold using cinnabar and other medicines.
After a long time, Li Shaojun died of illness. The emperor believed he had become immortal, so he gave his recipe to his trusted advisor, Huang Chuishi Kuan Shu, to keep safe. From then on, the kooky mystics from the Yan Kingdom and Qi Kingdom at sea came more often to talk to the emperor about all sorts of supernatural things.
Oh, there was a man named Haoren who kept yakking about how sacrifices should be made to the Taiyi God, claiming that the Taiyi God was a big shot with five emperor buddies. In ancient times, the emperor would sacrifice to the Taiyi God in the southeast suburbs during the spring and autumn seasons, offering a cow each day for a total of seven days, and opening eight gates to hell at the sacrificial site. So, the emperor told the high priest to build a sacrificial site for the Taiyi God in the southeast suburbs of Chang'an, and according to Haoren's words, continued to make sacrifices in this way.
Later, someone submitted a memorandum saying that in ancient times, the emperor would only sacrifice to the three great gods, Tianyi, Diyi, and Taiyi, once every three years, using only one ox. The emperor agreed, so he allowed the Chief Priest to conduct the sacrifices at the Taiyi shrine according to this account. Later, someone else said that in ancient times, during the spring sacrifices, the emperor would sacrifice to the Yellow Emperor with an owl and a broken mirror; to the God of Sheep with a sheep; to the Horse God with a dappled grey stallion; to Taiyi and the Mountain God of Gaoshan with a cow; to the God of Wuyi with dried fish; and to the emissaries of Yin and Yang with a cow. So, the sacrificial officials were instructed to conduct the sacrifices accordingly, with the sacrifice to Taiyi still taking place next to the original shrine.
Two years later, during a suburban sacrifice, the emperor caught a unicorn that looked like a roe deer. The person in charge of the sacrifice said, "Your Majesty, your devotion has pleased Heaven! This unicorn—a qilin, surely!—is a divine gift!" So, the unicorn was offered to the Five Altars, and during the sacrifice at the Five Altars, an additional cow was sacrificed. The emperor also rewarded the vassal lords with silver, saying it was to align with the celestial signs. The King of Jibei thought the emperor was going to perform the Feng and Shan sacrifices, so he offered Mount Tai and its surrounding cities in a petition, and the emperor compensated him with land from other counties. The King of Changshan committed a crime and was demoted, so the emperor appointed his brother as the King of Zhending, inheriting the previous king's sacrifices, and changed Changshan into a county. Thus, the emperor now controlled all five sacred mountains.
In the second year, there was a man from the Qi state named Shaoweng, who used a peculiar magic to please the emperor. The emperor favored Lady Li, and after her passing, Shaoweng used his magic to create illusions of Lady Li and the Kitchen God at night. The emperor then appointed Shaoweng as General Wen Cheng, showering him with honors and treating him like royalty. General Wen Cheng said, "Your Majesty, if you want to commune with the gods, this palace—its architecture, its very clothes—is all wrong! The gods won't come near it!" So he painted a picture of a cloud chariot, using auspicious days to banish evil spirits. He also built the Ganquan Palace, with a high platform in the middle of the palace showing pictures of Heaven, Earth, Taiyi, and all sorts of gods and ghosts, and set up sacrificial items to worship the gods. After about a year, his magic fizzled, and the gods stopped showing up. Later, he fed a cow with rice wrapped in silk books, and when the cow was slaughtered, they found the silk books with strange contents. The emperor recognized his writing, and that was the end of General Wen Cheng. The whole thing was hushed up.
After that, Emperor Wu also had magnificent structures built, such as Bailiang Terrace, bronze pillars, and the Dew-Collecting Immortal statues.
Not long after, Empress Wencheng died. The following year, Emperor Han Wu fell seriously ill, and every charlatan and physician was called in, trying every possible method. At this time, a person named You Shui told the emperor that there was a powerful shaman in Shangjun, supposedly able to talk to spirits and cure his illness. The Emperor had him summoned and built him an altar at Ganquan Palace. When the emperor was seriously ill, he even sent someone to ask the shaman about his condition. The shaman said, "Don't you worry, Your Majesty, the illness will soon be cured. After the illness is cured, Your Majesty should come to Ganquan Palace to see me." As a result, the emperor's illness was indeed cured. After he got up, he happily went to Ganquan Palace, and his illness was completely gone. So the Emperor declared a general amnesty and built the shaman a Longevity Palace. The big cheese among them was Taiyi, with Taijin, Siming, and the rest. These shamans were usually invisible, only their voices could be heard. Their voices were like those of ordinary people, sometimes coming, sometimes going, and when they came, the wind would blow. The shamans lived in tents, spoke during the day, but mostly at night. The emperor had to perform a purification ceremony before entering. The shaman became their manager, looking after their food, clothes, and passing on their messages. The Emperor also built a Longevity Palace and a Northern Palace, raised feather flags, set up sacrificial items, and solemnly worshipped the shamans. The Emperor had the shamans' pronouncements recorded, calling the collection "Huafa." It was all pretty basic stuff, the kind anyone knew, but the Emperor lapped it up. It was all hush-hush, nobody outside the palace knew a thing. Three years later, someone suggested using auspicious names like Tianrui instead of numbers like One or Two. So, "Jian" for year one, "Guang" for year two (because of a comet), and "Shou" for year three (thanks to that unicorn).
In the second year, Emperor Wu of Han held a sacrifice to Heaven outside the city walls in Yongzhou, saying, "Now I personally sacrifice to Heaven, but the Earth Goddess has not been sacrificed. That wouldn't do." Therefore, the relevant departments, Tai Shi Ling Tan, and Ci Guan Kuanshu discussed together, "The offerings for sacrificing to Heaven and Earth are cattle, silk, and grain. Now Your Majesty wants to personally sacrifice to the Earth Goddess. Five circular altars should be built in a marsh, each for a sacrifice of a yellow calf, and the offerings should be buried after the ceremony. The officiants should wear yellow." Therefore, Emperor Wu of Han headed east to Fenyin. There was a man named Gongsun Pangyang in Fenyin who saw a crimson glow by the Fen River, so Emperor Wu of Han built a shrine to the Earth Goddess by the river in Fenyin, following the advice of Kuanshu and others, and personally went to worship, with the same pomp and circumstance as sacrificing to Heaven. After the sacrifice, Emperor Wu of Han went to Xingyang, passed through Luoyang on the return journey, and appointed Zhou Hou by imperial decree to be in charge of the sacrifice. This incident is recorded in the "Wu Ji." Emperor Wu of Han began to inspect the counties and gradually headed towards Mount Tai.
In the spring, Marquis Lecheng wrote a letter to the emperor accusing a person named Luan Da. Luan Da, a palace servant from Jiaodong, used to have the same teacher as General Wencheng and later became the king's chief weapons officer for the King of Jiaodong. Marquis Lecheng's sister was the queen of King Kang, but unfortunately, she had no children. After King Kang died, the son of another concubine inherited the throne, while Queen Kang, who was a bit of a wild child and did not get along with the new king, even risked her life for breaking the law. Queen Kang heard that General Wencheng had died and wanted to please the emperor, so she sent Luan Da to the capital through Marquis Lecheng to request an audience with the emperor to discuss the art of alchemy. The emperor had previously killed General Wencheng and later regretted not thoroughly understanding his alchemy techniques. After meeting Luan Da, the emperor was thrilled. Luan Da was tall, handsome, silver-tongued, and full of hot air, and the emperor believed in him completely.
Luan Da said to the emperor, "I often encounter immortals like An Qisheng and Xianmen when I'm at sea, but they think I am too lowly and don't believe me. They also think that Prince Kang is just a vassal and not worthy of them making immortality pills for. I have recommended them to Prince Kang many times, but he doesn't listen to me either. My teacher once said, 'Gold can be artificially made, we can fix a broken Yellow River dam, the elixir of immortality can be found, and immortals can be invited.' But I am afraid of ending up like General Bu Wen. None of those alchemists will say a word; who dares to mention refining elixirs?" The emperor said, "That guy Wen Cheng died because he ate horse liver. If you can really refine an elixir, I'd give you anything!" Luan Da said, "My teacher doesn't actively seek others, but others seek him. Your Majesty, if you really want 'em, you need to send top-ranking envoys, ideally from the royal family, and treat them like VIPs, give 'em the royal treatment. The envoys must also carry tokens to talk to the immortals. It all depends on how much respect you show 'em." So the emperor decided to test these "minor spells" Luan Da mentioned. He had them play a game of chess – and the pieces started bumping into each other all by themselves!
At that time, the emperor was worried about the breach of the Yellow River and the delayed delivery of gold. So he appointed Da as the Five Blessings General. About a month later, Da received four seals: the Celestial General's Seal, the Terrestrial General's Seal, and the Grand Passage General's Seal. The emperor also issued a decree to the imperial censor, saying, "In the past, Da Yu dredged nine rivers and managed four tributaries, but recently the Yellow River has flooded, and the people have been busy repairing the embankments endlessly. I have been emperor for twenty-eight years; if Heaven has sent anyone to tame the Yellow River, it's him. The Book of Changes says, 'The flying dragon in the sky' and 'The wild goose gradually lands'; my thoughts are probably similar to his. Let's appoint Da as the Marquis of Great Harmony Le Tong and give him a fief of two thousand households." The emperor also rewarded him with the mansion of a marquis, one thousand servants, and sent people to deliver carriages, horses, tents, and various objects to make his family live more comfortably. The emperor also married Princess Wei Chang to him, providing a dowry of one hundred thousand catties of gold, and changed the name of the princess's fief to Dangli Princess's Domain.
The emperor treated the Five Blessings General like a brother, often sending envoys to comfort him, and officials along the way also provided assistance. From the Grand General to the Prime Minister, everyone went to his house to hold banquets and give gifts. The emperor specially carved a jade seal called "General of the Heavenly Way" and had someone wear a feathered robe, stand on a white mat in the evening, and wait for the Five Blessings General to also wear a feathered robe and stand on the white mat to receive the seal. This indicated the high status of the Five Blessings General, not that of an ordinary subject. Those who wore the "Heavenly Way" seal were even considered messengers to the heavens. So the Five Blessings General often worshipped at home in the evening, hoping to communicate with the deities. Later, he packed his belongings and set out to the east to find his teacher.
After a few months, he returned with six seals, his power shaking the world. Even the coastal states of Yan and Qi emulated him, spreading the belief that only mastery of his unique techniques could lead to immortality.
In the month of June in the summer, there was a shaman named Wu Jin in Fenying. He saw something resembling a hook on the ground next to the camp where he was performing a ritual for the earth goddess Houtu on behalf of the King of Wei. Upon digging it up, he found a large cauldron! This cauldron was different from ordinary ones, with no patterns or inscriptions on it; its unusual appearance was noteworthy. Wu Jin immediately informed the local authorities, who in turn notified Governor Sheng of Hedong, who then relayed the news to the imperial court. The emperor sent people to investigate, and after verifying the cauldron's authenticity, performed a ritual according to etiquette. The cauldron was then transported to the Ganquan Palace. The emperor personally escorted the cauldron all the way to Chang'an. During the journey, upon reaching Zhongshan, the weather was clear and warm, and a remarkable sight greeted them: yellow clouds filled the sky! At that moment, a deer appeared, which the emperor himself shot and offered as a sacrifice to the auspicious omen.
When they arrived in Chang'an, the officials of the court began to discuss this amazing tripod. The emperor said, "In previous years, the Yellow River flooded and the harvest was poor, so I conducted rituals to pray for the blessing of the people's abundant harvest. We haven't even had a chance to thank Heaven for the harvest, and now this tripod shows up?" The ministers spoke one after another, saying, "It is said that the ancient Tai Emperor once cast a divine tripod, with the character 'one' representing unity, symbolizing that all things in heaven and earth depend on it. The Yellow Emperor also cast three precious tripods, symbolizing heaven, earth, and humanity. Yu the Great collected gold from the Nine Provinces and cast nine tripods, symbolizing the Nine Provinces. These tripods were all used to worship the gods. The empty foot of the tripod is called 'ge', symbolizing the three virtues, used to bear the grace of heaven. When the Xia Dynasty fell, the nine tripods ended up in Shang; then Shang fell, and they went to Zhou; then Zhou, and they went to Qin; and finally, when the Qin fell and Song's state altar was destroyed, the nine tripods vanished. The Zhou Odes say, 'From the hall to the altar, from sheep to oxen, the tripods and the three-legged cooking vessels are neatly arranged,' 'Not arrogant or impatient, respectfully accepting the grace of heaven.' Now this tripod appears in the Ganquan Palace, glowing with an otherworldly light and carrying endless auspiciousness. With those auspicious yellow and white clouds over Zhongshan, it felt like a sign from Heaven itself; the emperor personally shot a deer, offering sacrifices at the altar to repay the grace of heaven. Only a Heaven-blessed emperor could understand this, and be truly in tune with the divine will. This tripod should be enshrined in the ancestral temple, hidden in the imperial palace, to manifest the fulfillment of the mandate of heaven." The emperor just nodded, "Right then!"
Word got around that some folks were trying to find Penglai Island out at sea, sayin' it wasn't far, but they couldn't find it. Probably 'cause they couldn't see the island's lucky mojo. So the Emperor sent some guys to keep an eye on the skies and look for Penglai's good vibes.
Come autumn, the Emperor was plannin' a big sacrifice in Yongdi, a real fancy suburban deal. Somebody piped up, "The Five Emperors were all underlings to the Great Taiyi God, so we gotta worship *him*, and the Emperor should run the whole suburban shebang himself." The Emperor hemmed and hawed, couldn't decide what to do.
This fella Gongsun Qing from Qi said, "I got the Ding of Zhou this year. The first day of winter solstice in the Xinsi year – same as back in the Yellow Emperor's day!" He had a letter sayin', "'The Yellow Emperor got the Ding and the secret sauce, see? That was the first day of winter solstice in the Jiyou year. He'd cracked the code of the universe, end of one cycle, start of another.' So the Yellow Emperor did his sun-worshipping thing, figured out the calendar, and every twenty years, bam! – another winter solstice on the first. He did this twenty times, three hundred and eighty years, then poof! – he kicked the bucket."
Gongsun Qing, loyal as he was, wanted to give the letter to the Emperor. The Emperor's guys read it, thought it was a load of hooey, and blew him off. "The Ding's story's already settled," they said. "What's the point?"
Gongsun Qing had a favored eunuch deliver the letter. The emperor was delighted after reading it and summoned Gongsun Qing for questioning. Gongsun Qing replied, "I received this letter from Shen Gong, who is dead." The emperor asked, "Who is Shen Gong?" Gongsun Qing explained, "He is from the state of Qi and had dealings with Anqisheng. He received rumors from the Yellow Emperor but did not leave any written records, only this letter about the treasure tripod. The letter described the Han Dynasty's rise as a return to the Yellow Emperor's era and mentioned that 'the wise emperor of the Han Dynasty will appear in the grandsons and great-grandsons of Gaozu.' It also stated, 'When the treasure tripod appears, it can communicate with the spirits and perform the Fengshan ceremony (a ritual sacrifice to Heaven and Earth). In history, seventy-two emperors have performed the Fengshan ceremony, but only the Yellow Emperor did so on Mount Tai.' Shen Gong asserted, 'The emperor of the Han Dynasty should also go to Mount Tai for the Fengshan ceremony, as it can enable him to ascend to immortality like the Yellow Emperor.'
The Yellow Emperor commanded thousands of vassals, with seven thousand of them blessed by the spirits. There are eight famous mountains in the world, three of which are in barbarian lands and five in China. The five mountains in China are Mount Hua, Mount Shou, Mount Taishi, Mount Tai, and Mount Donglai. These five mountains are where the Yellow Emperor often played and met with the spirits. While engaged in warfare, the Yellow Emperor studied immortal arts, fearing that the people would not accept him as their leader. As a result, he killed those who did not believe in ghosts and spirits. After more than a hundred years, he was able to communicate with the spirits. The Yellow Emperor worshiped the Emperor in Yindi for three months. The Guoyu region was known as Dahong. After his death, he was buried in Yindi, which is why Hongzhong is his tomb. Later, the Yellow Emperor met with the spirits at Ganquan. Ganquan is Mingting, and the so-called Hanmen refers to the valley mouth.
The Yellow Emperor mined copper on Mount Shou and cast the treasure tripod beneath Mount Jing. After the treasure tripod was completed, a dragon lowered its whiskers to welcome the Yellow Emperor. He rode on the dragon, followed by more than seventy officials and court ladies, and the dragon flew into the sky. Those who did not have time to board the dragon grabbed its whiskers, which broke off, causing them to fall along with the Yellow Emperor's bow. The people looked up as the Yellow Emperor ascended to the sky, holding his bow and the dragon's whiskers, crying out. So the place became known as Dinghu, and the bow, Wuhao.
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The emperor said, "Wow! If only I could be like the Yellow Emperor, I'd give up my wife and kids!" The emperor then appointed Gong Sunqing as an official and sent him to Mount Taiyi to offer sacrifices to the spirits.
He traveled to the outskirts of Yongzhou, then on to Longxi, climbing Mount Kongtong before reaching Ganquan. Now, the altar was finally finished, and the Taiyi Altar is larger than the one in Bo, with three tiers of steps. The Altar of the Five Emperors surrounds the Taiyi Altar, each facing its proper direction. The altar of the Yellow Emperor is in the southwest, and eight paths to the spirit world have been opened. The offerings for Taiyi are similar to those for the Yongzhou sacrifices, with the addition of sweet rice wine and date cakes, and a cow was also sacrificed for meat. The altar of the Five Emperors only has offerings, sweet wine, and offerings. The ground surrounding the altar is used to place sacrificial food, offerings to the gods and attendants, and the Big Dipper. After the sacrifice, they burned the leftover meat. The cow is white, with a white deer centered on the cow, a pig in the middle of the deer, and water and wine beside it. Cows are used for offerings to the sun, while sheep and pigs are used for offerings to the moon. When offering to Taiyi, the head priest and his helper wear purple embroidered robes, while for the Five Emperors, they wear clothes of the appropriate color for each direction: red for the east (sun) and white for the west (moon).
On the winter solstice, the first day of the eleventh month, which also happened to be the first day of the lunar month, the sky was clear and the emperor made his first trip outside the city to offer sacrifice to Taiyi. Every morning, he worshipped the sun, and every evening, he worshipped the moon, with the prescribed bows. The Taiyi rites followed the Yongzhou protocol for suburban sacrifices. The prayer proclaimed: "Heaven initially bestowed the Mandate of Heaven upon the Emperor through the sacred cauldron and celestial decree. Each new moon marks a cycle renewed, and the Emperor humbly gives thanks." The emperor wore yellow clothes during the worship. The altar blazed with fire, and cooking utensils for sacrificial offerings were placed around the altar. "A radiant glow emanated from the altar," the officials reported. The court reported, "The emperor worshipped Taiyi for the first time in the outskirts, in Yunyang. Officials presented ritual jade and offerings. That night, a celestial glow appeared, followed by a plume of yellow vapor ascending to the heavens during the day." The Grand Historian Tan He and the temple officials Kuan Shu and others said, "This is a divine omen, promising a bountiful harvest and prosperity. A Taiyi altar should be built here to manifest Heaven's will. The Grand Priest shall oversee the sacrifices, to be performed between autumn and the twelfth month, with the Emperor himself conducting the rites triennially outside the city walls." In the autumn of that year, the emperor prayed to Taiyi before attacking Nan Yue. He commissioned flags depicting the sun, moon, Big Dipper, and Ascending Dragon, using thorny branches of the Vitex negundo plant to symbolize the three star gods of Taiyi, as the sacrificial flag for Taiyi, named "Spirit Flag." If praying for war, the Grand Historian would point to the country to be attacked. However, General Wuli, defying orders, absconded to Mount Tai to perform his devotions. The emperor sent people to investigate, but they found nothing. Wuli falsely claimed to have seen his teacher; his deception was exposed, and inconsistencies abounded. The emperor, therefore, ordered Wuli's execution.
It is said that in the winter of that year, Gong Sunqing was performing a ritual to honor the gods in Henan, claiming that he saw traces of immortals on the walls of Goushi City, and even spotted a bird resembling a pheasant flying back and forth on the city wall. The emperor personally went to Goushi to see the traces and asked Gong Sunqing, "Is this your way of emulating Wen Cheng and Wu Li?" Gong Sunqing replied, "You can't curry favor with immortals; you have to seek them out. Achieving immortality isn't a quick process; if the mind is not calm, the gods will not come. It might sound far-fetched, talking about immortals, but as long as you persist for a few years, you may succeed." So counties across the land started repairing roads and renovating palaces, pavilions, and mountain temples in anticipation of the emperor's visit.
In the spring, the kingdom of Nanyue was destroyed, and a favored courtier named Li Yannian, who was skilled in music, was appreciated by the emperor. The emperor liked him very much and asked the ministers, "We have music at folk sacrifices, but not at the state sacrifices – is that right?" The ministers replied, "Ancient sacrifices always included music; it's the proper way to honor the gods." Someone added, "Legend says Emperor Tai had a court lady play a fifty-string zither, but the music was too mournful, so he had it shortened to twenty-five strings." After the pacification of Nanyue, when the emperor sacrificed to Taiyi and Houtu, he began to use music and dance. He also brought in some singing girls, and from then on, the twenty-five-string zither and the konghou became common.
In the second winter, the emperor said, "Back in the day, they always trained their armies before performing the sacrifices." He led a massive cavalry force north to Shaofang, and after returning, he sacrificed at the tomb of the Yellow Emperor at Qiaoshan, then allowed the army to rest. The emperor asked, "I heard the Yellow Emperor didn't die. What's the deal with this tomb then?" Someone replied, "The Yellow Emperor ascended to become an immortal, so they buried his clothes and hat." After arriving at Ganquan Palace, the emperor prepared to offer sacrifices at Mount Tai, and first sacrificed to Taiyi at the foot of Mount Tai.
After the emperor received the precious tripod, he discussed the Fengshan ceremony with the ministers and Confucian scholars. Everyone felt that the Fengshan ceremony should be grand and rare; it had never been done on such a grand scale. The scholars searched through books such as the "Book of Documents," "Zhou Rites," and "Regulations of the Kings" to find records of Fengshan, sacrifices, and the ritual archery of bull-shooting. There was a man from the Qi state named Ding Gong, who was already over ninety years old. He said, "Only deceased emperors of old could claim the honor of a Fengshan sacrifice, and it can only be counted after death. Even Qin Shihuang failed to successfully perform Fengshan. Your Majesty, if you truly want to perform Fengshan, just go up a little higher. If the omens are favorable, proceed with the Fengshan ceremony!" After hearing this, the emperor had the scholars practice bull shooting and began preparing for the Fengshan ceremony. Several years passed, and it was almost time to set off.
The emperor, having heard from Gongsun Qing and the other diviners that when the Yellow Emperor performed Fengshan in the past, there were strange phenomena and divine powers, wanted to emulate the Yellow Emperor, go to Penglai Mountain to seek immortals, and become as great as the Nine Emperors to achieve immortal fame, while also borrowing some Confucian sayings to embellish it. However, the scholars were unable to offer any satisfactory explanation of the Fengshan ceremony, and they were constrained by ancient books such as the "Book of Songs" and "Book of Documents," so they did not dare to express their opinions casually. The emperor showed the sacrificial vessels used for Fengshan to the scholars, and some scholars said, "This differs from ancient practice!" Xu Yan also said, "The rites observed by the Imperial Ministry of Rites are inferior to those of Lu." Zhou Ba even drew a picture of the Fengshan ceremony, which led to Xu Yan and Zhou Ba's demotion, and the dismissal of all the Confucian scholars.
In March, the emperor went on an eastern tour to Goushi and solemnly ascended the Taishi Peak of Mount Song. As the officials accompanying him on the mountain reported hearing someone shout "Long live the Emperor!" they asked the emperor, who did not respond; when they asked the officials below, they also did not respond. The emperor then ordered an increase in the scale of the sacrifices at Taishi Peak, prohibited the felling of trees on the mountain, and established a privileged community of 300 households at the mountain's base, dedicated solely to the rituals. Afterwards, the emperor went to Mount Tai, where the grass and trees had not yet grown, and had a stele erected at the summit of Mount Tai.
The emperor then continued his eastern tour to the seaside, where he held a ceremony to worship the eight gods. Thousands of people from the Qi state submitted memorials to the emperor, spinning tales of the supernatural, prompting the emperor to increase the number of ships and send thousands of people to the sea to search for immortals on Penglai Mountain. Gongsun Qing, bearing the emperor's jade seal, always walked ahead to explore the way. When they arrived at Donglai, he claimed to have seen a giant at night, taller than a dozen men stacked on top of each other, but it disappeared when he approached, leaving behind huge footprints resembling those of a bird or beast. Some ministers claimed to have seen an old man walking a dog, saying "I want to meet the important person," and then vanished as if into thin air. Although the emperor saw the huge footprints, he was still skeptical until he heard about the sightings of the old man from the ministers, which convinced him that it must be an immortal. The emperor stayed by the seaside, traveling in a carriage with the diviners, and sent people everywhere to search for immortals; thousands were sent out in total.
In April, the emperor arrived at Fenggao. He found the emperor's sacrifices and other matters mentioned by those Confucian scholars and diviners to be unworkable.
The emperor arrived at Liangfu and offered sacrifices to the land god. On the day of Yimao, the emperor ordered his retinue and scholars to wear leather caps and ceremonial headdresses and to hold a ceremony of shooting cattle. Then he constructed a sacrificial mound to the east of Mount Tai, with a ceremony similar to the worship of the Taiyi god. The sealed area measured twelve feet square and was nine feet high, with a jade tablet inscribed with secret messages buried beneath it. After the ceremony, the emperor, accompanied by court officials and the Marquis of Taichezi, ascended Mount Tai and also constructed a mound there, all of which were kept secret. The next day, the emperor descended the mountain via the Yin Dao. On the day of Bingchen, a ceremony to worship the goddess Hou Tu was held on the Sacred Mountain to the northeast of Mount Tai. The emperor personally participated in the worship, wearing yellow clothes and playing music. Local people used simple thatched huts as shrines, mixing five colors of soil to add to the sacrificial mound. Rare and exotic animals and birds brought from afar were also used for sacrifices, but not animals like rhinoceroses, elephants, or water buffalo. All participants departed only after leaving Mount Tai. On the evening after the sealing ceremony was completed, a light appeared, and white clouds emerged from the sealed land during the day.
After returning from Mount Tai, the emperor sat in the Mingtang, and the courtiers lined up to offer him birthday wishes. The emperor declared the new era "Fengyuan," which was recorded in the "Wuji." The book also states, "Back in the day, the emperor would go on a hunting expedition every five years, taking the opportunity to visit Mount Tai, where the lords would stay at the foot of the mountain to pay their respects. Therefore, the emperor ordered the lords to each build mansions at the foot of Mount Tai."
After the Emperor performed the Fengshan ceremony at Mount Tai, the weather became amazing. The diviners said that the immortals on Penglai Immortal Mountain could actually be found. Hearing this, the Emperor was ecstatic, thinking he might finally meet some immortals, so he set off to the east to search for them. However, his driver, Hou, suddenly croaked—dead within a day! The Emperor then left, traveling along the coast to the north, passing Jieshi, inspecting Liaoxi, and continuing along the northern border to Jiuyuan. By May, the Emperor finally reached Ganquan after an epic 18,000-li journey.
In the autumn of that year, a star appeared in the Dongjing constellation, followed by another star appearing in the Sanneng constellation over ten days later. Wang Shuo, the royal astronomer, reported, "I saw a comet—looked like a melon—pop in and out of sight!" The court officials declared, "Heaven's rewarding you, Your Majesty! For establishing the Fengshan ceremony!"
In the winter of the following year, the Emperor made sacrifices to the Five Emperors in Yongdi. Upon returning, he also made sacrifices to the Taiyi God. The praise went like this: "The virtue star shines brightly, heralding auspiciousness; the longevity star appears, shining brilliantly; the trust star manifests, and the Emperor reverently performs the sacrifices."
In the spring, Gongsun Qing claimed to have met immortals on Donglai Mountain, who'd asked to meet the Emperor. Thrilled, the Emperor hotfooted it to Goushi City and made Gongsun Qing a high-ranking official on the spot! The Emperor himself then went to Donglai, staying for days, hoping for a glimpse of the immortals—but all he found were some rather large footprints. Then, he sent thousands of those diviners off to Donglai—to find the immortals and bring back some herbs while they were at it!
That year, a terrible drought hit. His trip had really hurt the emperor's reputation, so he went to Wuli Sand, a place known for its spiritual significance, to pray and offered sacrifices at Mount Tai. Returning to Huzi, he personally ordered the digging of a canal and dredging of the river, staying there for two days and performing another sacrifice before departing.
