In the first year of the "Founding of the Nation" era (AD 9), on the first day of the first month, Wang Mang led dukes, marquises, and high-ranking officials to present the imperial seal and ceremonial attire to the Empress Dowager. They then offered these to the Grand Empress Dowager, declaring compliance with the mandate of Heaven and officially abolishing the Han dynasty's reign.
Initially, Wang Mang's wife, the daughter of the Marquess of Yichun, was made Empress. They had four sons: Yu, Huo, An, and Lin. Two of them had been executed for crimes earlier, and since An was idle and undisciplined, Wang Mang designated Lin as the Crown Prince and gave An the title of "Duke of Xinjia." Wang Mang also granted titles to Yu's six sons: Qian was named Duke of Gonglong, Shou was named Duke of Gongming, Ji was named Duke of Gongcheng, Zong was named Duke of Gongchong, Shi was named Duke of Gongzhao, and Li was named Duke of Gongzhu. At the same time, Wang Mang declared a general amnesty across the empire.
Subsequently, Wang Mang issued an edict to Ruzi Ying (the last emperor of the Han dynasty), saying: "Alas, you! In the past, Heaven aided your ancestor Liu Bang, who ruled for twelve generations and 210 years. But now, the mandate of Heaven has passed to me. Does not the *Book of Songs* say, 'The lords submit to Zhou; Heaven’s mandate is not constant'? I now grant you the title of Duke of Ding’an, and you shall forever serve as a guest of the Xin dynasty. Alas! Cherish Heaven’s grace, fulfill your duties, and do not disobey my orders." He further stated: "The territories of Pingyuan, Ande, Luoyin, Ge, and Zhongqiu, encompassing 10,000 households and an area of 100 square miles, will now form the Duchy of Ding’an. You may establish a temple to your ancestor, Liu Bang, within your domain, placing it alongside the descendants of the Zhou dynasty. You shall follow their calendar and ceremonial colors, and generations of your family will continue to honor the Han dynasty’s ancestors with sacrifices, using your virtue and achievements to sustain their legacy." At the same time, Wang Mang granted the title of "Dowager Duchess of Ding’an" to the former Empress of Emperor Ping. After reading the edict, Wang Mang personally held Ruzi Ying’s hand, weeping as he choked out the words: "In the past, the Duke of Zhou acted as regent for King Cheng but ultimately returned the throne to him. Yet now, I am compelled by Heaven's mandate and cannot do the same!" He lamented for a long time. Then, the imperial tutor escorted Ruzi Ying out of the palace. Ruzi Ying knelt facing north and referred to himself as a subject. All the officials present were deeply moved.
Next, Wang Mang distributed titles to his advisors based on the prophecies of the "Golden Coffer" (a collection of mystical predictions). He appointed the Grand Tutor, Left Assistant, General of Agile Cavalry, and Marquis of Anyang, Wang Shun, as Grand Preceptor and granted him the title of Duke of Anxin. He appointed the Grand Minister of Works, Marquis of Jiude, Ping Yan, as Grand Tutor and granted him the title of Duke of Jiuxin. He appointed the Junior Assistant, Xi He, and Marquis of Hongxiu, Liu Xin, as National Preceptor and granted him the title of Duke of Jiaxin. He appointed Ai Zhang from Zitong, Guanghan, as National General and granted him the title of Duke of Meixin. These four individuals were collectively called the "Four Assistants," and their status was above that of the Three Excellencies. Additionally, he appointed the Grand Protector and Marquis of Chengyang, Zhen Han, as Grand Commandant and granted him the title of Duke of Chengxin. He appointed the Marquis of Pijin, Wang Xun, as Grand Minister of Works and granted him the title of Duke of Zhangxin. He appointed the General of the Guards and Marquis of Chengdu, Wang Yi, as Grand Minister of Agriculture and granted him the title of Duke of Longxin. These three individuals were collectively known as the "Three Excellencies." Furthermore, he appointed the Grand Assistant, Right Defender, and Grand Minister of Works, Marquis of Guangyang, Zhen Feng, as General of Reconstruction and granted him the title of Duke of Guangxin. He appointed Wang Xing of Jingzhao as General of the Guards and granted him the title of Duke of Fengxin. He appointed the General of Light Chariots and Marquis of Chengwu, Sun Jian, as General of the Nation and granted him the title of Duke of Chengxin. He appointed Wang Sheng of Jingzhao as General of the Vanguard and granted him the title of Duke of Chongxin. These four were collectively known as the "Four Generals." In total, there were eleven dukes.
Wang Xing had originally been a minor gatekeeper, while Wang Sheng was merely a seller of cakes. Wang Mang identified the names of over a dozen individuals from the prophecies, and when he found two people whose appearances matched the descriptions, he promoted them directly from commoners to high-ranking officials, showcasing the "miraculous" fulfillment of Heaven's mandate. The others were appointed as court attendants. On the same day, Wang Mang also granted titles to hundreds of nobles, attendants, and officials in the imperial secretariat. As for members of the Liu clan, they were demoted to the rank of prefects or transferred to serve as remonstrance officials.
Wang Mang renamed the Mingguang Palace as the Ding’an Residence and assigned it as the dwelling for the Dowager Duchess of Ding’an. He also converted the Office of the Grand Herald into the official residence of the Duke of Ding’an, complete with guards and messengers to oversee the household. He forbade the wet nurses from speaking to Ruzi Ying, who was confined within four walls for so long that, as he grew older, he could not even name common domestic animals. Later, Wang Mang arranged for his granddaughter to marry Ruzi Ying.
Wang Mang issued an edict to various officials, stating: "The planet Jupiter governs tranquility, and the Grand Preceptor of the Eastern Mountain is responsible for bringing timely rains. The azure light represents auspicious omens. Mars governs wisdom, and the Grand Tutor of the Southern Mountain is responsible for delivering timely warmth. The red light signifies peace. Venus governs stability, and the National Preceptor of the Western Mountain is responsible for bringing timely sunlight. The white light symbolizes harmony. Mercury governs strategy, and the National General of the Northern Mountain is responsible for delivering timely cold. The black light symbolizes serenity." He assigned these officials their respective duties and issued ceremonial decrees modeled after ancient traditions.
Wang Mang also restructured many official titles. For example, the Grand Commandant was renamed "Siyun," the Grand Minister of Works became "Sizhi," and the Grand Minister of Agriculture became "Siruo." The Minister of Finance was renamed "Xi He," later changed to "Nayan." The Minister of Justice was renamed "Zuoshi," the Minister of Ceremonies became "Zhizong," the Grand Herald was renamed "Dianle," the Minister of the Household became "Gonggong," and the Superintendent of Waterways became "Yuyu." These offices were subordinated to the Three Excellencies. Each office had three senior officials, each of whom oversaw three assistants, resulting in a total of 27 senior officials and 81 assistants managing various affairs.
In addition, the Minister of the Imperial Household was renamed "Sizhong," the Minister of the Imperial Carriages became "Taiyu," the Minister of the Guards became "Taiwei," the Commander of the Capital Guard became "Fenwu," and the Commander of the Central Region became "Junzheng." A new office, the "Grand Surplus Official," was created to oversee the emperor's clothing and carriages, later assuming military authority. This position was ranked among the chief ministers and referred to as one of the "Six Supervisors." Governors of commanderies were renamed "Dayin," commandery commanders became "Taiwei," county magistrates were renamed "Zai," and imperial censors became "Zhifa." The Office of the Imperial Carriages was renamed "Four Gates of the Royal Road."
Wang Mang also renamed many places and ranks. For instance, the Changle Palace was renamed "Eternal Happiness Hall," the Weiyang Palace became "Hall of Long Life," and Chang'an was renamed "Eternal Peace." Official salaries were reclassified into nine ranks, ranging from 100 bushels to 2,000 bushels, and were renamed "common scholar," "junior scholar," "middle scholar," "appointed scholar," "principal scholar," "junior grandee," "middle grandee," "senior grandee," and "minister." Carriages, clothing, and ceremonial etiquette were adjusted according to these ranks.
Finally, Wang Mang established new positions such as "Supervisor of Reverence," "Supervisor of Virtue," "Supervisor of Clarity," "Supervisor of Hearing," and "Supervisor of Justice." He also created positions like "Poetry Recitation Official" and "Banquet Removal Steward" to monitor officials' conduct. In his edict, he stated: "I have heard that sages who wish to manifest their virtue must strictly cultivate themselves to pacify distant lands. Thus, I have established these positions to oversee five categories of duties. I hope you do not conceal faults or act deceitfully. Be clear in your judgments, maintain impartiality, and uphold the path of righteousness." He also ordered the placement of banners for "Promoting Virtue," wooden boards for "Prohibiting Slander," and drums for "Encouraging Remonstrance" along the Royal Road to facilitate public petitions. Additionally, he appointed four remonstrance officials to be stationed at the gates of the Royal Road to listen to the people's grievances.
During the mourning period, members of the Wang family were granted noble titles based on the type of mourning attire they wore: those wearing *qisui* (a type of mourning garment) were made marquises; those wearing *dagong* mourning attire were made earls; those wearing *xiaogong* mourning attire were made viscounts; and those wearing *sima* mourning attire were made barons. The women of the Wang family were all given the title of "Ren." Male members were given titles with the character "Mu" (Harmony), while female members were given titles with the character "Long" (Prosperity), and both were granted official seals. Wang Mang also ordered the vassals to establish titles for their dowager consorts, consorts, and heirs, all of whom were also granted official seals.
He further declared: "There cannot be two suns in the sky, nor two kings on earth. This is an unchanging principle through the ages. Some Han vassals were granted the title of king, and even among the barbarian tribes, some have claimed the title of king. This violates ancient rites and disrupts the unity of the state. Henceforth, all vassal kings will have their titles changed to 'duke,' and among the barbarian tribes, those who have usurped the title of king will also have their titles changed to 'marquis.'"
Wang Mang also said: "The way of emperors is to pass down their legacy through generations, and the blessings of great virtue can endure for a hundred generations. I believe that figures such as the Yellow Emperor, Emperor Shaohao, Emperor Zhuanxu, Emperor Ku, Emperor Yao, Emperor Shun, Yu the Great, Gao Yao, and Yi Yin all possessed sacred virtues and received Heaven's grace. Their achievements were great, and their benevolence widespread. I deeply admire them and have worked to locate their descendants to continue their ancestral sacrifices." The Wang family, being descendants of Emperor Shun, traced their lineage back to Emperor Ku. The Liu family, as descendants of Emperor Yao, traced their heritage back to Emperor Zhuanxu. Thus, Wang Mang granted the following titles: Yao Xun was made Marquis of Chumu to honor the descendants of the Yellow Emperor; Liang Hu was made Earl of Xiuyuan to honor the descendants of Shaohao; Wang Mang's grandson, Duke Gonglong Qian, was designated to honor the descendants of Emperor Ku; Liu Xin was made Earl of Qilie to honor the descendants of Emperor Zhuanxu; Liu Xin's son, Liu Die, was made Marquis of Yixiu to honor the descendants of Emperor Yao; Gui Chang was made Marquis of Shimu to honor the descendants of Emperor Shun; Shan Zun was made Viscount of Baomou to honor the descendants of Gao Yao; and Yi Xuan was made Viscount of Baoheng to honor the descendants of Yi Yin.
The Han dynasty's descendant, Liu Ying, Duke of Ding'an, was designated as a guest of the Xin dynasty. The Zhou dynasty's descendant, Ji Dang, Duke of Wei, was re-titled Duke of Zhangping and also made a guest. The Yin dynasty's descendant, Kong Hong, Duke of Song, was relocated and re-titled Marquis of Zhangzhao, serving in an official capacity. The Xia dynasty's descendant, Si Feng of Liaoxi, was made Marquis of Zhanggong, also serving in an official capacity. The descendants of these four ancient dynasties were honored in the Ming Hall sacrifices alongside Emperor Shun, the ancestral founder of Wang Mang's lineage. The descendants of the Duke of Zhou, Ji Jiu, Viscount of Baolu, and Confucius' descendant, Kong Jun, Viscount of Baocheng, had already been granted titles.
Wang Mang further stated: "When I previously served as regent, I constructed the Suburban Palace and established the locations of the ancestral temples and the altar of state. The spirits responded with omens—some descended from the heavens in the form of crows, while others manifested as auspicious yellow auras—confirming the virtues of the Yellow Emperor and Emperor Shun. From the Yellow Emperor to the Marquis of Jinan, the ancestral surnames are divided into five major lineages. The Yellow Emperor had twenty-five sons who were granted twelve different surnames. The ancestors of Emperor Shun received the surname 'Yao,' which was later referred to as 'Gui' during the Tao Tang period, 'Chen' during the Zhou dynasty, 'Tian' in the state of Qi, and 'Wang' in Jinan."
Wang Mang said: "I deeply revere the imperial progenitor, the Yellow Emperor, and the ancestral founder, Emperor Shun. Therefore, I have established ancestral temples in the Ming Hall to honor them. Five ancestral temples have been set up for their distant ancestors, and four temples for their immediate ancestors, with their empresses sharing in the sacrifices. The suburban sacrifices to the Yellow Emperor are offered to Heaven, while sacrifices to the Yellow Emperor's empress are offered to Earth. Additionally, I have appointed Dong Di, Marquis of Xindu, as the Grand Sacrificer to oversee seasonal sacrifices. All sacrifices across the realm will follow this standard. The surnames Yao, Gui, Chen, Tian, and Wang are all descendants of the Yellow Emperor and Emperor Shun and are thus part of my lineage. Does not the *Book of Documents* say, 'Cherish the nine branches of kin'? Therefore, I have ordered these five surnames to be registered as members of the imperial clan, exempting them from taxes and corvée labor for all generations. They are also prohibited from intermarrying with other surnames to maintain the purity of kinship." Wang Mang also granted titles to Chen Chong as Marquis of Tongmu to honor the descendants of King Hu, and Tian Feng as Marquis of Shimu to honor the descendants of King Jing.
Among the governors and commandery administrators across the realm, those who demonstrated loyalty and filial piety, such as Zhai Yi and Zhao Ming, were made barons, while those who defended cities were granted auxiliary titles. Additionally, the descendants of Dai Chong, Jin She, Ji Hong, Yang Bing, and others were also made barons.
Wang Mang dispatched the Commandant of Cavalry, Xiao, and others to oversee the imperial tombs of the Yellow Emperor at Shangdu Qiaozhi; Emperor Shun's tomb at Jiuyi in Lingling; King Hu's tomb in Chen, Huaiyang; King Jing's tomb in Linzi, Qi; King Min's tomb in Ju, Chengyang; the Marquis of Jinan's tomb at Dongpingling, Jinan; and the Marquis of Ru's tomb at Yuancheng, Weijun. Envoys were sent to perform sacrifices at these tombs seasonally. Since the realm had just been pacified, joint sacrifices were performed in the Ming Hall.
The ancestral temple of Emperor Gaozu of Han was designated as the Temple of Literary Ancestors. Wang Mang remarked: "My ancestral founder, Emperor Shun, inherited the mandate from Emperor Yao, while the Han dynasty's progenitor, Emperor Gaozu, also symbolized the transfer of the mandate. I myself received the golden edict in front of Emperor Gaozu's spirit. How could I forget their era while honoring the past? The Han dynasty's ancestors spanned seven generations. Following the rites, I have established ancestral temples for them in the state of Ding'an. Their mausoleums and temples in the capital will remain preserved, and sacrifices will continue as before. In the ninth month of autumn, I personally entered the ancestral temples of Emperor Gaozu, Emperor Yuan, Emperor Cheng, and Emperor Ping of Han. The descendants of the Liu clan were re-registered under household records, managed by the Grand Administrator of Jingzhao. They retained their exemption from labor service until their deaths. Governors were instructed to visit them regularly and ensure they were not mistreated."
Wang Mang also stated: "When I was in the Great Grove, I deeply contemplated the calamities of the Han dynasty's three cycles of seven generations. The red virtue (representing the Han dynasty) has run its course. I sought ways to preserve the Liu clan but ultimately could not reverse Heaven's will. Confucius, in the *Spring and Autumn Annals*, established the laws of succession for later kings. From the 14th year of Duke Ai of Lu, marking the end of an era, to the present day, this corresponds exactly to the 14th year of Duke Ai. The red virtue's mandate has been exhausted and cannot be forcibly extended. Heaven has revealed the great mandate of the yellow virtue, entrusting the realm to me. Now, the people all say that Heaven has replaced the Han dynasty with the Xin dynasty, abolishing the Liu clan and elevating the Wang clan. The character 'Liu' (刘) is composed of 'mao' (卯), 'gold' (金), and 'knife' (刀), yet the auspiciousness of the mao day and the sharpness of the metal blade can no longer prevail. After consulting with my ministers, we unanimously agree that Heaven's will and the people's hearts are clear. Thus, we abolish the use of 'gangmao' as an ornament and prohibit the circulation of 'knife coins.' In accordance with Heaven's will and the people's desires, we have minted new small coins with a diameter of six fen and a weight of one zhu, inscribed with 'Small Coin Worth One,' to circulate alongside the previous large coins valued at fifty. To prevent private minting, individuals are prohibited from possessing copper or charcoal."
In April of this year, Liu Kuai, the Marquis of Xuxiang, gathered several thousand people and rebelled in his fiefdom. Liu Kuai's elder brother, Liu Yin, who was originally the King of Jiaodong during the Han dynasty, had been re-titled as the Duke of Fuchong. Liu Kuai launched an attack on Jimo, but Liu Yin closed the city gates and defended himself, even voluntarily imprisoning himself in the city jail. Officials and commoners united to resist Liu Kuai, and ultimately, Liu Kuai was defeated, fled, and died in Changguang. Wang Mang said, "My ancestor, the Marquis Min of Jinan, was once besieged by the Yan army and retreated from Linzi in Qi to Ju. At that time, Tian Dan, a member of the clan, used clever strategies to kill the Yan general and restore the state of Qi. Today, the scholars and officials of Jimo have similarly united to eliminate the rebels. I greatly commend their loyalty and also sympathize with the innocent victims. Therefore, I pardon Liu Yin and others, except for Liu Kuai's wife and close relatives. No one else will be held accountable. I also offer condolences to the injured and deceased, granting each deceased victim 50,000 coins for funeral expenses. Liu Yin, understanding righteousness and detesting Liu Kuai's crimes, voluntarily submitted himself for punishment. His fiefdom consists of 10,000 people and spans an area of 100 square li." At the same time, Wang Mang rewarded over ten officials involved in the suppression.
Wang Mang stated, "In ancient times, the well-field system ensured that every eight households shared a plot of land, with each household allocated 100 mu. A tenth of the harvest was paid as tax. This system brought wealth to the state, peace to the people, and constant praise. It was the governing method of Tang Yao and Yu Shun, and the system followed by the Three Dynasties (Xia, Shang, and Zhou). However, the Qin dynasty, lacking virtue, increased taxes to satisfy its own extravagance and exploited the people for private gain, destroying the sages' system and abolishing the well-field system. This led to land annexation and greed. The strong amassed over a thousand mu of land, while the weak had no place even to drive a stake. Markets for slaves were even established, treating people like cattle and horses, violating the principle that humanity is the most precious of all things. The *Book of Documents* says, 'I will punish those who do not obey.' Only those who break the law should face punishment. Yet, although the Han dynasty reduced land taxes to a nominal one-thirtieth, in reality, it was closer to one-fifth. The people labored year-round but could not make ends meet. The wealthy lived in luxury, while the poor suffered from hunger and cold, ultimately leading to crime and frequent punishments."
Wang Mang continued, "When I was in the Great Grove, I began implementing the well-field system, and even auspicious signs such as harmonious grain appeared. However, the effort was temporarily halted due to rebellions. Now, I am renaming all the land in the realm as 'royal fields' and slaves as 'private dependents,' prohibiting their sale. Households with fewer than eight males but possessing more than one well's worth of land must distribute the excess land to their extended families, neighbors, and local communities. For those without land, allocations will be made according to regulations. Anyone who dares to violate the sacred well-field system or incites unrest will be exiled to the frontier to prevent further harm, just as was done during Emperor Shun's time."
At the time, the people were accustomed to using the Han dynasty's five-zhu coins, but the new coins minted by Wang Mang were inconsistent in size, difficult to recognize, and frequently changed. The people distrusted them and continued to use five-zhu coins in private transactions. Rumors even spread that the large coins would soon be abolished, and no one was willing to use Wang Mang's currency. Enraged by this, Wang Mang issued another decree: "Anyone found in possession of five-zhu coins or spreading rumors about the abolition of the large coins will be punished as severely as those who violate the well-field system and exiled to the frontier." This led to widespread unemployment among farmers and merchants, economic collapse, and even public weeping in the streets. The number of people punished for trading land, slaves, or minting coins privately—ranging from nobles and officials to commoners—was too numerous to count.
In the autumn, Wang Mang dispatched five generals, including Wang Qi, along with twelve officials, to distribute forty-two volumes of "prophetic documents" throughout the realm. These documents were divided into three categories: "Virtuous Omens" (five items), "Prophecies" (twenty-five volumes), and "Fortunate Signs" (twelve items), totaling forty-two. The "Virtuous Omens" described auspicious events, such as the appearance of yellow dragons during the reigns of Emperor Wen and Emperor Xuan in Chengji and Xindu, as well as the growth of branches and leaves on the catalpa tree at the tomb of Wang Mang's ancestor, Wang Bo. The "Prophecies" mentioned mysterious objects like well stones and golden caskets. The "Fortunate Signs" included phenomena such as "hens turning into roosters." Although these writings appeared to be ancient and elegant, they were actually fabricated, with the core message being that Wang Mang was destined to replace the Han dynasty and become the ruler of the world.
In summary, the prophetic documents declared: "When an emperor receives the mandate of Heaven, virtuous omens and auspicious signs will appear, in harmony with the five heavenly mandates, and these will be confirmed by fortunate signs. Only then can great achievements be established, blessings passed down to future generations, and the mandate of Heaven enjoyed eternally. Thus, the rise of the Xin dynasty began after the thirty-seventh generation of the Han dynasty. The mandate of the Xin dynasty originated in Xindu, received its auspicious signs in Huangzhi, was founded in Wugong, confirmed in Zitong, and completed in Badang, with twelve fortunate signs verifying it. This demonstrates Heaven's profound and steadfast favor for the Xin dynasty."
The prophecies further stated, "The cinnabar stone of Wugong appeared at the end of Emperor Ping's reign, symbolizing the exhaustion of the Han dynasty's fire virtue and the rise of the earth virtue. Heaven favored the Xin dynasty, revealing the mandate through the cinnabar stone. The emperor (Wang Mang), in humility, governed as regent but did not fully align with Heaven's will. Thus, in July, Heaven sent another sign, granting three literary horses. The emperor again declined to ascend the throne, and Heaven subsequently bestowed iron contracts, stone turtles, Shun's talismans, jade tablets, black seals, the stone inscription of Maoling, the black dragon stone, the divine well, the great divine stone, bronze talismans, and silk maps—twelve auspicious signs in total. These signs became increasingly evident, and by the twelfth, it was officially declared that Wang Mang was the new emperor."
Wang Mang, reflecting on the majesty of Heaven, abandoned the title of "Acting Emperor" and adopted the title "Provisional Emperor," changing the era name to "Initial Beginning" to signify his acceptance of Heaven's mandate and alignment with the will of the Supreme Deity. However, this still did not fully satisfy the intent of the heavenly prophecies. On the same day, another heavenly sign appeared. The court attendant Wang Xu, standing before the Wanglu Hall, saw a man dressed in a white cloth robe with a red square collar and a small crown. The man said to him, "Today, Heaven and humanity are united, entrusting the people of the world to the emperor." After speaking, the man turned and left. When Wang Xu walked a dozen steps and looked back, the man had vanished.
On the evening of the *bingyin* day, a golden casket containing a celestial edict appeared in the ancestral temple of Emperor Gaozu of Han. The inscription read: "Gaozu received the heavenly mandate and now passes the state to the new emperor." The next morning, the loyal and filial Marquis Liu Hong reported this event. Wang Mang summoned his ministers to discuss it, but before a decision could be made, the human-shaped statue on the divine stone spoke, saying, "Quickly have the new emperor go to the ancestral temple of Emperor Gaozu to receive the heavenly mandate without delay!" Wang Mang then rode to the temple of Emperor Gaozu and formally accepted the mandate. This occurred on the *dingmao* day. The character *ding* represents fire, symbolizing the Han dynasty's fire virtue, while *mao* is part of the character for "Liu" (刘), signifying the end of the Han dynasty's fire virtue and the transfer of the mandate to the Xin dynasty.
Despite Wang Mang's repeated humility and reluctance, the twelve heavenly signs left no room for refusal. Filled with both reverence and fear, he also felt regret for the fall of the Han dynasty and helplessness toward his ministers. For three consecutive nights, he did not sleep, nor did he eat for three days, repeatedly summoning dukes, marquises, and ministers to seek their advice. They all unanimously agreed, "We must obey Heaven's mandate." Thus, Wang Mang formally changed the era name, established a new regime, and declared the beginning of the "Xin Dynasty." After the establishment of the Xin dynasty, the spirits rejoiced, auspicious signs continued to appear, and blessings followed one after another. The *Book of Songs* states: "Bring blessings to the people, receive fortune from Heaven; protect and uphold the mandate, as Heaven affirms it." This perfectly described the Xin dynasty.
The Five Commanders of Might were tasked with carrying the prophetic documents and seals to various regions, where they changed the titles and names of officials from marquises and below to the new titles of the Xin dynasty, while also retrieving the old seals of the Han dynasty. Even the Xiongnu, Western Regions, and borderland tribes were issued new Xin dynasty seals, and their old seals were confiscated. Officials were granted promotions by two ranks, commoners were promoted by one rank, and women were rewarded with sheep and wine for a hundred households. For the tribes, items such as cloth and silk were distributed based on their circumstances. At the same time, a general amnesty was declared across the empire.
When the Five Commanders of Might traveled, they rode in chariots symbolizing the Mandate of Heaven, known as the Qianwen Chariots, pulled by six Kun horses. The chariots were adorned with feathers of the zhidi bird, and their attire was exceptionally ornate. Each commander was accompanied by five deputies, positioned to the left, right, front, rear, and center, with their clothing, chariots, and horses' colors corresponding to the directions they represented. The commanders carried symbolic tallies and referred to themselves as "Envoys of Taiyi" (the Supreme Unity), while the deputies carried banners and referred to themselves as "Envoys of the Five Emperors." In his official decree, Wang Mang stated, "Under Heaven, in all four directions, there is no place we will not reach." The eastern envoy reached Xuantu, Lelang, Goguryeo, and Buyeo; the southern envoy crossed the borders into Yizhou and demoted the King of Juting to the rank of marquis; the western envoy reached the Western Regions and demoted their kings to marquises; and the northern envoy arrived at the Xiongnu Chanyu court, where the Chanyu was granted a new seal, with the Han dynasty's character for "seal" (*xi*, 玺) replaced by the Xin dynasty's character for "emblem" (*zhang*, 章).
The Xiongnu Chanyu demanded to keep the old seal, but Chen Rao, one of the envoys, smashed it on the spot. This incident is recorded in the *Records of the Xiongnu.* The Chanyu was furious, and later, regions such as Juting and the Western Regions also rebelled as a result. Upon returning to the capital, Chen Rao was rewarded with the title of Grand General and granted the noble title "Son of Mighty Virtue."
In the winter, thunder and lightning struck, and the parasol trees bloomed out of season. Wang Mang established the positions of "Five Commanders of Destiny" and "Generals of the Four Gates of the Central City." The Five Commanders of Destiny were tasked with overseeing officials ranked below High Duke, while the Central City Generals were responsible for guarding the twelve city gates. In his decree to Chen Chong, the Marquis of Unified Harmony, Wang Mang stated, "Chen Chong, those who disobey orders are the roots of unrest; deceitful and cunning individuals are the scourge of the state; counterfeiters of coins disrupt the economy; excessive arrogance and extravagance are the seeds of disaster; leaking palace secrets leads to calamity; and those who receive titles in the royal court but express gratitude in private homes are the foundation of rebellion. These six issues are the pillars of state governance. Therefore, I appoint you as the Commander of Destiny, and I hope you will balance firmness with gentleness, avoid oppressing the weak, and stand unafraid of the strong, thereby maintaining control over the court."
Wang Mang also appointed other generals: Cui Fa, the Marquis of Prophetic Decree, as the "General of the Central Gate of the Five Commanders" to oversee the central defenses; Wang Ji, the Marquis of Bright Might, as the "General of the Forward Gate of the Five Commanders" to guard the southern Jing and Chu regions; Wang Jia, the Marquis of Loyal Harmony, as the "General of the Rear Gate of the Five Commanders" to defend the northern Zhao and Yan regions; Wang Qi, the Marquis of Hall Might, as the "General of the Left Gate of the Five Commanders" to protect the eastern Zheng and Wei regions; and Wang Fu, the Viscount of Huaiqiang, as the "General of the Right Gate of the Five Commanders" to station in the western Qian and Long regions, guarding against the Rong and Di tribes.
Additionally, Wang Mang dispatched fifty court advisors to various commanderies and states to mint new coins.
That year, a madwoman named Bihu in Chang'an shouted in the streets, "The Grand Emperor (Liu Bang, the founder of the Han dynasty) is furious! Return my country immediately! Otherwise, in September, you will all be killed!" Wang Mang had her arrested and executed. The official in charge of her case, Chen Cheng, resigned in protest.
In Zhending, Liu Du and others conspired to rebel, but their plot was uncovered, and they were all executed. Heavy rain mixed with hail fell in the regions of Zhending and Changshan.
In the second month of the following year, Wang Mang once again declared a general amnesty across the empire.
The Five Commanders of Might and the seventy-two deputies returned to Chang'an to report their mission's completion. All the Han dynasty's princes who had been demoted to dukes surrendered their seals and were reduced to commoners, with no one daring to resist the orders. Wang Mang rewarded the Five Commanders of Might with the title of viscount and the deputies with the title of baron.
Wang Mang began implementing the "Six Controls" policy, which placed the government in charge of monopolizing the trade of wine, salt, and iron, as well as the minting of new coins. Taxes were imposed on those who exploited resources from famous mountains and great lakes. Market officials were established to regulate prices, buying goods at low prices and selling them at high prices. Loans were also offered to the people, with interest set at three percent for a term of one hundred months. Furthermore, "wine inspectors" were appointed to oversee the wine trade, with one inspector per commandery, traveling by courier to ensure profits from the wine industry.
The private possession of crossbows and armor was prohibited, and violators were exiled to the Western Sea region.
The Xiongnu Chanyu once again requested the return of the old seal, but Wang Mang refused. Enraged, the Chanyu invaded the border regions, killing officials and civilians and looting property.
In November, the General of National Establishment, Jian, submitted a report: "The Western Region envoy Qin reported that on the *xin-si* day of September, the subordinate officer Chen Liang of the Wujiao Commandery conspired with Zhong Dai to rebel. They killed the Commandant Diao Hu, looted officials and soldiers, declared themselves 'Great General of the Abolished Han,' and fled to the Xiongnu. Additionally, on the *gui-you* day of this month, a man stopped my carriage and claimed, 'I am Liu Ziyu of the Han dynasty, the posthumous son of Emperor Cheng. The Liu clan will rise again, so vacate the imperial palace immediately!' I apprehended this man and found that he was actually a commoner from Chang'an, surnamed Wu and styled Zhong. All these people are defying Heaven's mandate and committing treason. I request that Wu Zhong, along with the relatives of Chen Liang and others, be punished." The request was approved.
Emperor Gaozu of Han left behind a directive, instructing that the Liu clan should no longer be persecuted but treated as honored guests. This was intended to preserve the Mandate of Heaven and safeguard the descendants of the Liu family. However, the ancestral temples of the Han dynasty should no longer remain in the city of Chang'an, and the titles of the Liu clan's marquises should be abolished along with the Han dynasty. Out of benevolence, Your Majesty has delayed making a decision. Previously, Liu Chong, Marquis of Anzhong, Liu Kuai, Marquis of Xuxiang, Liu Zeng, Marquis of Lingxiang, and Liu Gui, Marquis of Fuen, repeatedly gathered people to rebel. Now, there are even more audacious individuals, some claiming to be the "General of the Fallen Han," while others falsely declare themselves to be "Ziyu, the son of Emperor Cheng." These continuous rebellions stem from the root cause that Your Majesty has not eradicated these threats early on. I believe that Emperor Gaozu of Han should be treated as an honored guest of the Xin dynasty and receive sacrifices in the Mingtang (Hall of Light), but figures such as Emperor Cheng and Emperor Ping should no longer be enshrined in the ancestral temples. Emperor Yuan, due to his close relationship with the Empress Dowager and the deep favor he received, may retain sacrifices. I request that all Han dynasty ancestral temples within the capital be abolished, and that the Liu clan marquises be reclassified into five ranks based on the size of their registered households, stripped of their titles, and returned to the status of commoners. Those members of the Liu clan holding official positions should all be dismissed and sent home to await further instructions. This will align with the will of Heaven and eliminate the seeds of rebellion."
Wang Mang agreed and said, "Liu Gong, the Duke of Jiaxin, Liu Jia, the Marquis of Ceremonial Propriety, and thirty-two others deeply understand the Mandate of Heaven. Some have offered heavenly talismans, some have provided loyal advice, and some have reported rebels, achieving significant merit. For these members of the Liu clan who share the same lineage as these thirty-two individuals, their status need not be abolished, but they shall be granted the surname 'Wang' instead." However, the Duke of Jiaxin was exempt from this surname change because his daughter was married to Wang Mang's son. Additionally, the title of Empress Dowager Ding'an was changed to "Sovereign of the Yellow Imperial Household," severing her ties to the Han dynasty completely.
In the twelfth month of winter, thunder roared.
Wang Mang changed the title of the Xiongnu Chanyu to "Xiangnu Fuyu" ("Submissive Slave in Servitude"). He declared, "Xiangnu Fuyu disrespects the Mandate of Heaven, defies the Five Elements, betrays the four righteous principles, invades the Western Regions, and harms the borderlands and their people. His crimes warrant the extermination of his entire clan. However, considering that his ancestor, Huhanye Chanyu, was loyal and filial through generations and safeguarded the frontier, I cannot bear to destroy the entire family because of one individual's crimes. Therefore, I have decided to divide the Xiongnu's land and population into fifteen parts and appoint fifteen descendants of Huhanye Chanyu as new Chanyus." He dispatched Zhonglang Generals Lin Bao and Dai Ji to the frontier to summon the successors of these new Chanyus. At the same time, all Xiongnu people implicated by the Chanyu's crimes were granted amnesty.
Wang Mang sent the following generals on military campaigns: General of Five Commanders Miao Xin and Tiger Guard General Wang Kuang departed from Wuyuan; General of Suppressing Difficulties Chen Qin and General of Conquering the Di Wang Xun departed from Yunzhong; General of Raising Might Wang Jia and General of Pacifying the Di Wang Meng departed from Dai Commandery; General of Supporting Might Li Zhen and General of Securing the Frontier Li Weng departed from Xihe; General of Punishing the Mo Yang Jun and General of Eradicating the Hui Yan You departed from Yuyang; and General of Advancing Might Wang Jun and General of Stabilizing the Hu Wang Yan departed from Zhangye. In total, 180 officers, including subordinate commanders, were involved. He also conscripted 300,000 prisoners, able-bodied men, and soldiers from across the empire. Grain, weapons, and clothing were requisitioned from various commanderies, and local officials were ordered to transport these supplies to the northern frontier, with couriers dispatched to oversee the delivery. The military mobilization caused widespread unrest across the empire. The first troops to arrive were stationed at the borderlands, awaiting adequate supplies before launching their campaigns simultaneously.
Due to the poor circulation of the new currency, Wang Mang issued another edict stating, "The people rely on grain for survival and currency for trade. Among the Eight Policies, grain is the foremost. If currency is too heavy, it is inconvenient to use; if too light, it is troublesome to transport. Currency must have appropriate weights and denominations to facilitate circulation and satisfy the people." Thus, he minted five new types of currency, as detailed in the *Treatise on Food and Money*. However, the people only accepted two types: small coins and large coins, while the other three types were ignored. The private minting of counterfeit coins persisted despite repeated bans. Wang Mang imposed harsher punishments: if one household was caught minting counterfeit coins, five neighboring households would be implicated, and all individuals involved would be confiscated as slaves. Officials and commoners were required to carry cloth coins as identification when traveling; without them, they would be denied lodging at postal stations and subjected to strict inspections at checkpoints. Even high-ranking officials entering the palace had to present cloth coins, as Wang Mang sought to enforce the use of the new currency through such measures.
At the time, many people forged prophetic decrees in hopes of receiving noble titles. Those who did not participate mocked each other, saying, "Don't you have a decree from the Heavenly Emperor?" Commander Chen Chong reported to Wang Mang, "This will allow treacherous individuals to exploit the situation for personal gain, disrupting the Mandate of Heaven. It must be strictly prohibited." Wang Mang, growing increasingly annoyed by the situation, ordered Imperial Secretary Zhao Bing to investigate thoroughly. Any prophetic decrees not issued by the Five Commanders were deemed fraudulent, and those involved were imprisoned.
Initially, Zhen Feng, Liu Xin, and Wang Shun were close confidants of Wang Mang. They advocated for Wang Mang's virtues in court, proposed titles such as "Protector of Han" and "Supreme Chancellor," and suggested granting noble titles to Wang Mang's mother, two sons, and nephew. As a result, they received substantial rewards and enjoyed immense wealth and power. However, they did not genuinely wish for Wang Mang to ascend the throne. In fact, the idea of Wang Mang becoming emperor was first proposed by Liu Qing, Marquis of Quanling; Xie Xiao, former Marquis of Huiguang; and Tian Zhongshu, Magistrate of Chang'an. Once Wang Mang's power was firmly established, Zhen Feng and others complied with his ambitions, and Wang Mang further rewarded their descendants. However, Zhen Feng and his associates were secretly fearful, especially of opposition from the Han royal family and the powerful elites across the empire.
Zhen Feng, being strong-willed, aroused Wang Mang's suspicion. Wang Mang reassigned him as General of Restoration, placing him on the same level as a pancake vendor named Wang Sheng, intending to humiliate him. Zhen Feng and his son dared not voice their anger. At the time, Zhen Feng's son, Zhen Xun, held multiple positions, including Palace Attendant, Governor of Jingzhao, and Marquis of Maode. He forged a prophetic decree claiming that the Xin dynasty should divide its territory into two regions, similar to the Zhou dynasty's dual leadership of Duke Zhou and Duke Shao, and suggested appointing Zhen Feng as the "Right Duke" and Grand Tutor Ping Yan as the "Left Duke." Wang Mang accepted the suggestion and appointed Zhen Feng as the Right Duke. However, Zhen Xun later forged another decree, claiming that the Han Emperor Ping's empress, the "Sovereign of the Yellow Imperial Household," should marry him.
Wang Mang was furious, declaring, "The Sovereign of the Yellow Imperial Household is the mother of the realm. What nonsense is this?" He ordered Zhen Xun's arrest. Zhen Xun fled, and Zhen Feng committed suicide. Zhen Xun later hid with a mystic on Mount Hua but was captured a year later. He implicated Liu Xin's son Liu Gen and hundreds of other ministers and marquises, all of whom were executed. Zhen Xun had the characters "Son of Heaven" tattooed on his arm. Upon seeing this, Wang Mang remarked, "This could mean 'One Great Son' or 'One Six Son.' Six means 'execution,' so it foretells the execution of Zhen Xun and his father." Liu Gen was exiled to Youzhou, Zhen Xun to Sanwei, and Liu Gen's corpse was displayed at Mount Yu.
Wang Mang was an arrogant and overbearing person with peculiar features: a large mouth, a high nose, protruding and reddish eyes, and a hoarse voice. He was seven feet and five inches tall, liked to wear thick-soled shoes and tall hats, and adorned his clothing with fur. His demeanor was haughty, and he always looked down on those around him. At the time, there was an attendant in the palace skilled in divination. When someone asked him about Wang Mang's appearance, the attendant replied, "Wang Mang looks like a creature with 'owl eyes, a tiger's mouth, and the voice of a wolf.' He can devour others, but in the end, he will also be devoured by others."
This remark reached Wang Mang's ears, and he had the attendant executed, rewarding the person who reported it. From then on, Wang Mang often used mica screens to cover his face, allowing only those close to him to see him.
That year, Wang Mang appointed Yao Xun, the Marquis of Chumu, as the General of Ning Shi.
