In the fourth year of the Tianfeng era (AD 17), in May, Wang Mang said: "Tang Lin, the Dean of the Academy of Mentors and Friends, and Ji Qun, a former Advisor from Langya, are both individuals who are filial to their parents, loving to their siblings, loyal, forgiving, respectful to their superiors, and caring toward their subordinates. They are well-learned, knowledgeable in ancient texts, virtuous, and upright, and they have lived their entire lives without committing any mistakes." As a result, Wang Mang conferred the title of Marquis of Jiande (Established Virtue) upon Tang Lin and Marquis of Fengde (Bestowed Virtue) upon Ji Qun. Both were also granted the high rank of "Specially Advanced," enjoying the same courtesies as the Three Excellencies (the highest-ranking officials). Additionally, they were rewarded with a residence, three million coins, and ceremonial staffs symbolizing their prestigious status.
In June, Wang Mang held a ceremony at the Mingtang (Bright Hall) to redistribute the fiefs of the nobles. He declared: "Based on geographical considerations, I have redefined the system of five ranks of nobility. After consulting classical texts and historical records and after nine years of deliberation, I have finally completed this system. Today, I personally set up a platform made of polished stones, arranged bundles of green rushes and soil of four different colors, and respectfully reported to the gods of Mount Tai, the Earth God, the spirits of the land, and my ancestors. I now formally bestow the fiefs upon the various nobles and hope that they will each return to their respective territories, treat the people kindly, and develop their lands." Wang Mang also decreed that nobles from remote regions, such as those in Jiangnan, would not need to travel to the capital unless summoned by imperial decree. At the same time, he set the annual stipends for the nobility: dukes received 800,000 coins, marquises and earls 400,000, and viscounts and barons 200,000. However, in reality, many of these fiefs and stipends were never realized. Wang Mang, fond of empty rhetoric and imitating ancient systems, granted numerous titles but was inherently stingy. Using the excuse that the geographical arrangements were incomplete, he only symbolically bestowed bundles of rushes and soil to appease the recipients.
That year, Wang Mang reintroduced the "Six Controls" (a set of strict economic regulations) to tightly manage commerce and natural resources such as mountains and marshlands. Each regulation came with detailed provisions and prohibitions, with the harshest punishments being the death penalty. Consequently, the number of officials and commoners punished under these laws increased significantly. Additionally, he imposed a tax of 3,600 coins per slave or servant on all households from the upper nobility down to commoners, further exacerbating the suffering of the people. As a result, banditry began to spread across the country. The Minister of Communications, Feng Chang, opposed the "Six Controls" policy and criticized it, but Wang Mang became furious and dismissed him. Wang Mang then established the position of "Inspectors of Law and Order" to oversee the enforcement of the Six Controls. He appointed capable officials, such as Hou Ba, to manage the six divisions of guards and patrols, similar to the role of the Inspectors (Cishi) during the Han Dynasty. He also assigned one of the officials from the Three Excellencies' staff to assist in overseeing each province.
In the Linhuai region, individuals such as Guatian Yi became bandits, using Kuaiji's Changzhou as their stronghold. Meanwhile, a woman from Langya named Lü Mu also rose in rebellion. Lü Mu's son had previously served as a minor county official but was wrongfully executed by the county magistrate. In response, Lü Mu sold her family’s property, used the money from selling wine to purchase weapons, and secretly recruited impoverished young men. After gathering more than a hundred followers, she attacked Haixu County, killed the magistrate, and held a ceremony at her son's grave to honor him. She then led her forces along the coastal regions, growing her army to over ten thousand people. Wang Mang sent emissaries to pardon the bandits, but when the emissaries returned, they reported: "Although the bandits temporarily disbanded, they quickly regrouped. When asked why, they all said it was because the laws are overly complex and harsh, leaving the people unable to move freely. Despite their hard work, they cannot earn enough to pay taxes. Even staying at home, they are implicated by neighbors for minting coins or hiding copper, while unscrupulous officials exploit them. With no way out, they are forced to become bandits." Wang Mang, angered by this report, dismissed the emissary. On the other hand, those who flattered Wang Mang by claiming that "the people are arrogant and deceitful and deserve punishment" or that "this is merely a temporary situation that will soon stabilize" were rewarded and promoted.
In August of that year, Wang Mang personally went to the southern suburbs of the capital to oversee the casting of an object called the "Wei Dou" (Powerful Dipper). The Wei Dou was made from five types of copper and shaped like the Big Dipper constellation, measuring two feet five inches in length. Wang Mang hoped it would suppress the power of enemy armies. Once completed, he ordered the Director of Fate to carry it on his back while Wang Mang walked in front of him. When entering the palace, it was placed by the side of his carriage. On the day the Wei Dou was cast, the weather was extremely cold, and many officials and horses froze to death.
In the fifth year (AD 18), on the first day of the first month, a fire broke out at the South Gate of the Northern Army barracks. Wang Mang appointed the Grand Marshal, Sima Fei Xing, as Governor of Jingzhou and summoned him to discuss his plans for governance. Fei Xing replied: "The people of Jingzhou and Yangzhou mostly rely on the mountains, forests, and lakes for fishing and gathering to make a living. In recent years, the state’s implementation of the Six Controls policy has taxed these resources, depriving the people of their livelihoods. Combined with consecutive years of drought, the people are cold and starving, forcing many to turn to banditry. After I take office, I plan to explain the policies to the bandits, persuade them to return to their homes and take up farming, lend them oxen and seeds, and reduce their taxes. This might stabilize the situation." Wang Mang, enraged by this proposal, immediately dismissed Fei Xing from his position.
Throughout the country, officials, unable to receive their salaries, resorted to illegal means to enrich themselves. It was not uncommon for governors and county magistrates to amass personal fortunes worth thousands of gold coins. Wang Mang issued an edict stating: "Since the second year of the Shijian State era, when the barbarians began to invade the Central Plains, all military and border officials who have enriched themselves through exploitation will have four-fifths of their wealth confiscated to fund urgent border expenses." However, despite the central government dispatching officials to investigate corruption nationwide and even allowing slaves to report their masters, corruption only worsened.
The imperial grandson, Gong Chonggong Zong, was accused of privately commissioning his own portrait, wearing imperial robes and insignias, and engraving three seals, one of which bore the inscription: "Wei Zhi Guan Cun Ji Xia Chu Nan Shan Zang Bo Bing." This, along with his uncle Lü Kuan's secret interactions with him after moving to Hepu, led to an investigation. Zong committed suicide during the inquiry. Wang Mang declared: "Zong, as the imperial grandson and a duke, colluded with the rebel Lü Kuan and others, engraved copper seals, and plotted treason. He brought disaster upon himself—how pitiful!" Wang Mang stripped him of his title, renamed him "Hui Zong," and posthumously titled him "Duke of False Merit," burying him in his hometown with the rites of a marquis.
Zong’s sister, Fang, the wife of General of Guards Wang Xing, was accused of cursing her mother-in-law and killing a maidservant to silence her. When this was reported, Wang Mang sent the palace attendant Que Yun to investigate and interrogate Fang, while also questioning Wang Xing. Both of them committed suicide. The case implicated the wife of the Director of Fate, Kong Ren, who also took her own life. Kong Ren apologized to Wang Mang, but Wang Mang ordered the Secretariat to impeach him for disrespecting the mandate of heaven. Ultimately, Wang Mang pardoned him but required him to change his official hat, reflecting Wang Mang’s eccentric personality.
Wang Mang appointed Wang She, Marquis of Zhidao, as General of Guards. Wang She was the son of Wang Gen, Marquis of Quyang. During Emperor Cheng’s reign, Wang Gen, then Grand Marshal, had recommended Wang Mang to succeed him. Out of gratitude, Wang Mang posthumously honored Wang Gen with the title "Marquis of Straightforward Virtue," and Wang She inherited his title.
That same year, the Chimei (Red Eyebrow) rebels, led by Li Zidu and Fan Chong, rose in rebellion due to famine. Starting in Langya, they moved across various regions, looting and amassing a force of over ten thousand. Wang Mang sent emissaries to mobilize provincial armies to suppress them, but the rebellion could not be quelled.
In the spring of the sixth year of the Tianfeng era (AD 19), Wang Mang observed the widespread uprisings and banditry across the country. He ordered the Grand Astrologer to calculate a "36,000-year" cyclical calendar system and decreed that the era name should change every six years, implementing this nationwide. He issued an edict stating: "The *Purple Pavilion Diagram* records: 'The Supreme Unity (Taiyi) and the Yellow Emperor ascended to immortality and played music atop Mount Qian of Kunlun. If a sage ruler appears in later generations, music should be played on Mount Zhongnan in the Qinling Mountains.' I, in my ignorance, did not understand this before, but now I finally comprehend it." He then changed the title of "Ningshi General" to "Gengshi General" to signify compliance with heavenly mandate. He also quoted the *Book of Changes*: "Renewal is called great virtue; continuous creation is called change," and declared, "Let us celebrate this with the entire realm!" Wang Mang intended to use these words to deceive the people and quell the bandit uprisings, but instead, the people mocked him.
That same year, Wang Mang introduced newly composed music during ceremonies at the Mingtang (Bright Hall) and the ancestral temple. Officials began wearing ceremonial hats made of unicorn leather and tanned hide. However, after hearing the music, some remarked: "This music is cold, sharp, and filled with sorrow—it is certainly not the sound of a thriving nation."
At the time, the eastern regions of the empire had suffered consecutive years of famine, and the bandit forces led by Li Zidu and others continued to grow in size. The Gengshi General, Lian Dan, was sent to Yizhou to suppress the unrest but failed and was subsequently recalled. Wang Mang then dispatched former Grand Marshal Guo Xing and Yongbu Governor Li Zhu to attack the barbarian tribes of Ruodou and others. At the same time, Grand Tutor Xi Shu and Shisun Xi were ordered to eliminate bandits operating around the rivers and lakes. Meanwhile, the Xiongnu were launching severe incursions along the borders. In response, Wang Mang undertook a massive conscription effort, recruiting able-bodied men, death row prisoners, as well as slaves belonging to officials and commoners. He formed an elite force called the "Zhu Tu Xi Yong" (Ferocious Boar Warriors). Additionally, Wang Mang imposed taxes nationwide, requiring one household out of every thirty to provide goods and resources. Even the silk and cloth of the common people were requisitioned and transported to Chang'an. He also decreed that officials, from the highest-ranking ministers to local county administrators, were to maintain military horses according to their rank.
Wang Mang also actively recruited individuals claiming to possess extraordinary skills or talents, hoping they could devise ingenious strategies to defeat the Xiongnu. Thousands of people came forward offering ideas. Some claimed they could cross great rivers without boats by linking horses together to form a bridge, allowing an army of a million to cross. Others proposed creating a pill that, once consumed, would eliminate the need for food, ensuring the army would not go hungry. Some even claimed they could fly thousands of miles in a single day and directly strike the Xiongnu's heartlands. Wang Mang, delighted by these proposals, immediately ordered experiments to be conducted. For instance, one person constructed a flying device using large bird wings and tied feathers to his head and body with ropes. He attempted to fly but fell after only a few hundred steps. Although Wang Mang realized the impracticality of these methods, he still granted these individuals titles such as "Military Strategists" and rewarded them with carriages and horses, instructing them to await their deployment.
Earlier, the Xiongnu Right Bone-Du Marquis Xubu Dang, whose wife was a daughter of Wang Zhaojun, had pledged allegiance to the Han court. Wang Mang sent Wang Xie's nephew, the Marquis of Heqin, to lure Xubu Dang to the border and then coerced him into coming to Chang'an, where he was forcibly granted the title of "Xubu Shanyu Marquis of Later Peace." Initially, Wang Mang intended to use Xubu Dang's defection to control the Xiongnu. However, Grand Marshal Yan You opposed this plan, arguing: "Xubu Dang is stationed in the Xiongnu's right division. He has not invaded the borders and often reports the Xiongnu's movements to the central court. He is a significant asset for border defense. If we bring him to Chang'an, he will be nothing more than an ordinary barbarian. It would be far better to let him remain in the Xiongnu and serve his purpose." Nevertheless, Wang Mang ignored this advice. After Xubu Dang was brought to Chang'an, Wang Mang planned to send Yan You and Lian Dan to lead an expedition against the Xiongnu. He granted them the surname "Zheng" and titled them the "Two Zheng Generals," with plans to kill the Xiongnu Chanyu and install Xubu Dang as the new Chanyu. However, before the campaign began, Yan You repeatedly submitted memorials opposing the attack on the Xiongnu, suggesting that the bandit uprisings in Shandong should be addressed first. He even wrote three essays referencing the deeds of ancient generals Yue Yi and Bai Qi to subtly advise Wang Mang. Enraged by this, Wang Mang dismissed Yan You from his position as Grand Marshal, stripped him of his seals, and sent him back to his hometown.
Wang Mang then appointed Fu Bo Dong Zhong as Grand Marshal. Around the same time, Wing-Ping Commander Tian Kuang submitted a report stating that the assessment of property in various counties was inaccurate. Wang Mang issued another decree to collect taxes based on the "one household out of thirty" policy. For his "loyal and patriotic advice," Wang Mang rewarded Tian Kuang with two million coins and promoted him to the rank of marquis. However, this policy sparked widespread resentment among the people. Large numbers of residents in Qingzhou and Xuzhou fled their homes, with the elderly and weak perishing along the way, while the young and strong joined the ranks of bandits.
One day, Commander Han Bo submitted a memorial stating: "There is a remarkable man who claims to be Juwuba. He is ten feet tall, with a waist circumference of ten spans. He came to my office, declaring his willingness to fight the Xiongnu with great courage. He claims to come from the coastal region southeast of Penglai and northwest of Wucheng. Ordinary carriages and horses cannot carry him, and even three horses cannot pull him. He requests a large carriage and four horses adorned with tiger banners to bring him to the capital. He sleeps using war drums as pillows and eats with iron chopsticks. This is clearly a sign that heaven is aiding the Xin dynasty. I request that Your Majesty forge enormous armor and a tall chariot for him, and dispatch a general and a hundred elite guards to escort him to the capital. If the city gates are too small, they should be widened so that the entire world can witness him and be subdued." Han Bo's true intention was to mock Wang Mang. Wang Mang, though deeply annoyed, kept Juwuba in Xinfeng and changed his surname to "Jumu" (symbolizing the empress dowager's heavenly mandate). He claimed this was a sign of the Xin dynasty's legitimacy. Wang Mang then imprisoned Han Bo, accusing him of "improper speech," and eventually executed him.
The following year, Wang Mang changed the era name to "Di Huang" (Earth Emperor) to align with his "36,000-year calendar" concept.
In the first month of the first year of the Di Huang era (AD 20), on the day Yimao, Wang Mang issued a general amnesty across the realm. However, he simultaneously decreed: "During military campaigns, anyone who causes disturbances or violates laws shall be executed without trial." As a result, during the spring and summer of that year, a large number of civilians in and around the capital were executed, creating an atmosphere of fear. People on the streets dared not speak and communicated only through glances.
On the day Ren Shen in the second month, at noon, the sun suddenly turned black. Wang Mang, feeling uneasy, issued an edict stating: "This phenomenon of the sun darkening at its zenith is caused by yin energy overwhelming yang energy, and black energy creating this anomaly. The people are all terrified and confused. General of the Realm Wang Kuang sent his subordinates to investigate the cause of this celestial event, attempting to obscure the manifestation of heaven's will. Thus, this phenomenon occurred to correct his actions and reveal the principles of heaven, thereby calming this great disturbance."
Wang Mang, seeing the increasing number of bandits throughout the empire, once again attempted to use superstitious means to suppress them. He issued an edict stating:
“When our imperial ancestor, the Yellow Emperor, pacified the world, he led his army as the Supreme General, constructed the Huagai Pavilion, and established the Douxian (Sacrificial Ceremony). At the same time, he appointed a multi-tiered military hierarchy: internally, there were Grand Generals; externally, there were five Grand Marshals, 25 Supreme Generals, 125 Deputy Generals, 1,250 Assistant Generals, 12,500 Colonels, 37,500 Commanders, and 112,500 Captains, totaling 1,225,000 people. Additionally, there were 450,000 officers and 13,500,000 soldiers. These arrangements align with the principle in the *Book of Changes*: ‘The power of the bow and arrow brings awe to the world.’ I have received the text of the divine mandate and studied the practices of my predecessors. Now, I will implement these arrangements step by step.”
Thus, Wang Mang established the positions of the Five Grand Marshals (Front, Rear, Left, Right, and Center), conferred the title of “Supreme General” upon the governors of each province, and promoted county military officers, company commanders, and senior officials to the rank of Deputy General. Subordinate officials were made Assistant Generals, while county magistrates were given the title of Colonel. Wang Mang also dispatched envoys in relay carriages to inspect the prefectures and kingdoms. Each day, more than ten groups of envoys departed, resulting in depleted granaries and a severe shortage of horses and carriages at the postal stations. In some cases, civilian horses and carriages were forcibly requisitioned to meet the demand.
In July, a violent windstorm destroyed the Wanglu Hall. Wang Mang issued another edict, stating:
“On the day Renwu, during the noon hour, a fierce windstorm accompanied by thunder and rain tore off roofs and snapped trees, a shocking and unsettling anomaly. I reflected on this for ten days before finally understanding its meaning. This reminds me of the divine mandate text mentioning the ‘New Relocated King.’ The mandate stated that the New Relocated King should reside in Luoyang and be established as the King of Unified Yiyang. At the time, I humbly declined this title and instead appointed someone else to the position. Later, when the *Jinkui* (Golden Coffer) documents arrived, the advisors all said: ‘Luoyang, as the center of the Xin Dynasty, should serve as the unifying leader of the new regime and establish the Crown Prince.’ Since then, Lin (referring to Wang Mang’s son, Anhan Gong Wang Lin) has been chronically ill. Although his condition has improved somewhat, he has never fully recovered. When he appears at court, he must move about in a cushioned carriage. Wanglu Hall, where he often resides, is located between the west wing and the rear dressing room. Recently, due to the Empress’s illness, Lin left this hall and moved elsewhere, while his consorts resided in Dongyong Lane. Then, on the day Renwu, the violent wind destroyed the west wing and rear dressing room of Wanglu Hall. A large elm tree southeast of the Zhaoning Hall pond, with a trunk ten spans thick, was uprooted by the wind and fell onto the eastern pavilion, which was part of the west wall of Dongyong Lane. Roof tiles were overturned, buildings were destroyed, and trees were uprooted. I am deeply alarmed.
At the same time, a report from the Observatory stated that the moon had entered the star constellation Xin (Heart), which is also an ominous sign. I am filled with anxiety. Reflecting on the *Purple Pavilion Diagram*, it mentions that the Supreme Unity (Taiyi) and the Yellow Emperor ascended to immortality due to auspicious omens, and future sage rulers should ascend Mount Zhongnan. The so-called ‘New Relocated King’ symbolizes the new relocation of Taiyi, while the King of Unified Yiyang symbolizes the unification of the five virtues under the sun. However, Lin’s elder brother was designated as Crown Prince, which is an improper title. Confucius once said: ‘If names are not correct, speech will not be in accord, punishments will be improperly applied, and the people will have no place to turn.’ Upon deep reflection, I believe that since my accession, yin and yang have been out of balance, rains and winds have been untimely, and we have suffered successive droughts, locust plagues, famines, barbarian invasions, rampant banditry, and the people’s hardship. The root cause of all this lies in the improper naming. Therefore, I have decided to confer the title of New Relocated King upon An and the title of King of Unified Yiyang upon Lin. I hope this will preserve the lives of my two sons, ensure the prosperity of my descendants for generations to come, pacify the barbarians externally, and stabilize China internally.”
In the same month, a tiger-patterned robe that had been abandoned in a storage chest in the Du Mausoleum side hall mysteriously floated out of the chest and stood upright in the outer hall before collapsing after a long time. The guards who witnessed this reported it to Wang Mang. Displeased, Wang Mang issued an edict stating: “The yellow and red colors of the treasure conflict. From now on, court attendants and accompanying officials must wear crimson robes.”
At the time, many diviners claimed that celestial signs indicated the need for “earthworks.” Observing the rampant banditry across the realm, Wang Mang sought to comfort himself through construction projects and establish a foundation for the Xin Dynasty’s everlasting rule. He issued an edict stating:
“When I accepted the mandate, it was during the calamity of the ‘Yang Nine’ and the convergence of the ‘Hundred Six,’ both inauspicious omens. The treasuries were empty, the people were destitute, and the ancestral temples had not yet been built. I have been pondering day and night without rest. I now understand that this year is the most auspicious time to act. Therefore, I have decided to construct a palace north of the Boshi River and south of the Langchi Pond. I also divined the area south of Jinshui and west of the Mingtang, and the results showed auspicious signs. Thus, I have decided to begin construction there.”
He planned a site covering 100 qing (approximately 6,667 hectares) south of Chang’an. On the day Jiashen in September, Wang Mang personally visited the site and symbolically lifted a hoe to dig three times. Minister of Works Wang Xun and Grand Minister Wang Yi, holding imperial tokens, participated alongside dozens of officials, including palace attendants, chamberlains, and judicial officers such as Du Lin. Cui Fa and Zhang Han advised Wang Mang: “A ruler with great virtue should have grand institutions. You should expand the scale of the project so that the entire nation can witness it, ensuring that future generations cannot surpass it.”
Wang Mang then mobilized craftsmen and artists from across the country and requisitioned money, grain, and materials from the people to fund the construction.
To gather materials for these projects, Wang Mang dismantled several structures in the western gardens of Chang’an, including Jianzhang Palace, Chengguang Palace, Baoyang Palace, Datai Pavilion, Chuyuan Palace, as well as the Pingle Pavilion, Danglu Pavilion, Yanglu Pavilion, and more than ten other buildings. Their materials were repurposed to build nine ancestral temples.
That same month, heavy rains fell for over sixty days. Wang Mang also ordered every citizen to provide 600 hu of grain as salaries for court officials. He promoted these officials, bestowed them titles, and granted them the rank of Marquis of Attached Cities.
The nine ancestral temples included:
1. The Grand Ancestor Temple of the Yellow Emperor,
2. The Illustrious Ancestor Temple of Emperor Yu,
3. The Revered Ancestor Temple of King Hu of Chen,
4. The Illustrious Ancestor Temple of King Jing of Qi,
5. The Revered Ancestor Temple of King Min of Jibei (these five were perpetual temples),
6. The Revered Parent Temple of the Earl of Jinan,
7. The Revered Parent Temple of the Marquis of Yuancheng,
8. The Revered Parent Temple of the Marquis of Yangping,
9. The Revered Parent Temple of the Marquis of Xindu.
The temple halls featured double-eaved roofs, with the Grand Ancestor Temple measuring 40 zhang (approximately 93 meters) in each direction and 17 zhang (approximately 40 meters) in height. The other temples were half this size. All roofs were covered with copper tiles and adorned with gold and silver engravings, showcasing extraordinary craftsmanship. The entire project cost hundreds of billions of coins and conscripted countless laborers, resulting in tens of thousands of workers dying from exhaustion.
In the same year, Ma Shiqiu, a man from Julu, conspired with others to mobilize the troops of the Yan and Zhao regions to launch an uprising aimed at assassinating Wang Mang. However, the plot was discovered by the Grand Minister of Works, Shi Wang Dan, who reported it to Wang Mang. Wang Mang dispatched the Three Dukes' officials to arrest and interrogate Ma Shiqiu's accomplices, implicating thousands of prominent figures from various counties and regions. All of these individuals were executed. For his role in exposing the conspiracy, Wang Mang rewarded Wang Dan by granting him the title of Marquis of Supporting the State.
Due to Wang Mang's disregard for the will of heaven and the people's sentiments, widespread resentment grew among the populace. However, Wang Mang remained indifferent and even issued an edict saying:
“Since I implemented these laws, the villages around Chang’an have become stable, the sound of war drums has diminished, banditry has decreased, and the people are living peaceful lives with abundant harvests year after year. These are the results of effective governance. However, the Xiongnu have not yet been completely eradicated, the barbarian tribes continue to cause trouble, bandits still roam the rivers, lakes, and seas, and the nation is engaged in large-scale construction of ancestral temples and altars. These factors have unsettled the people. Therefore, I have decided to suspend these policies for two years to pacify the people and provide relief to the ignorant masses.”
That year, Wang Mang abolished the use of large and small coins and reintroduced a new currency called *Huo Bu* (“Currency Cloth”). The *Huo Bu* was 2.5 inches long, 1 inch wide, and valued at the equivalent of 25 *Huo Qian* (“Currency Coins”). The *Huo Qian* had a diameter of 1 inch, weighed 5 zhu, and each was worth 1 qian. Both types of currency were circulated simultaneously. Wang Mang decreed that anyone who privately minted coins or exclusively used the *Huo Bu* would be punished. If five or more people were aware of such acts and failed to report them, they would all be confiscated as government slaves.
The Grand Tutor Ping Yan passed away, and Wang Mang appointed Yu Tangzun as the new Grand Tutor. Yu Tangzun remarked, “The nation is impoverished, and the people are destitute. The root cause lies in extravagance and waste.” He personally wore short-sleeved garments, rode in a firewood cart pulled by a mare, sat on straw mats, and used clay utensils. He even sent these simple items as gifts to high-ranking officials. When he went out and saw men and women walking together, he would personally get out of his cart and use a red flag to stain their clothes as a warning. Wang Mang, upon hearing this, was greatly pleased and issued an edict requiring all high-ranking officials to emulate Yu Tangzun’s behavior. Wang Mang also granted him the title of Marquis of Harmonious Reform.
At this time, Zhang Ba of Nanjun, Yang Mu of Jiangxia, and Wang Kuang led uprisings in Yundu and Lulin, calling themselves the “Lower Yang Troops.” Their forces each numbered over 10,000. Meanwhile, the people of Shuixiang in Wugong County, suffering from disasters, were forced to abandon their homes and endured great hardship.
In the second year of the Di Huang era (20 AD), during the first month, Wang Mang elevated the status of provincial governors to the rank of the Three Excellencies, assigning them the responsibility of investigating and reporting negligent officials. He also reinstated the position of *Mu Jian* (Assistant Overseer), with the rank of *Yuan Shi*. These officials wore ceremonial hats and performed duties similar to those of the Han Dynasty’s regional inspectors.
In the same month, Wang Mang’s wife passed away. She was posthumously titled “Filial and Harmonious Empress” and was buried west of the Changshou Garden in Weiling, alongside the Empress Dowager Wenmu. Her tomb was named “Eternal Years.” Previously, Wang Mang’s wife had been deeply grieved by his repeated killings of their sons, to the point of going blind. Wang Mang arranged for Crown Prince Wang Lin to reside in the palace to care for her.
Wang Mang’s favored concubine, Yuan Bi, later became involved in an affair with Wang Lin. Fearing exposure, the two conspired to assassinate Wang Mang. Wang Lin’s wife, Yin, the daughter of the National Preceptor, was skilled in astrology. She warned Wang Lin that white-clothed figures gathering in the palace signified an auspicious omen, leading Wang Lin to believe his plan was about to succeed. However, Wang Lin was later demoted to the title of King of Unified Yiyang and moved out of the palace. His anxiety and fear grew.
When Wang Mang’s wife fell seriously ill, Wang Lin wrote her a letter, saying: “Father is extremely harsh toward his descendants. My elder and younger brothers both died at the age of thirty. Now that I have also reached thirty, I fear I will not survive and do not know where I might die!” Upon reading the letter, Wang Mang’s wife became furious, suspecting Wang Lin of harboring treasonous intentions. She forbade him from attending her funeral.
After the funeral, Wang Mang arrested Yuan Bi and others for interrogation. They confessed to adultery and plotting to kill Wang Mang. To cover up the scandal, Wang Mang ordered the execution of the investigating officer, whose body was secretly buried in the prison, leaving even his family unaware of his fate. Wang Mang then sent poison to Wang Lin, but Wang Lin refused to drink it and instead committed suicide by stabbing himself. Wang Mang dispatched the Palace Attendant and General of the Piao Cavalry, Tongshuo Marquis Lin, to oversee Wang Lin’s funeral. He provided burial garments and a seal and issued an edict stating:
“The divine mandate foretold that Wang Lin, as King of Unified Yiyang, would ensure that the descendants of the Xin Dynasty would rise to power 36,000 years later. However, due to misguided advice, Wang Lin was previously made Crown Prince, leading to violent winds and other anomalies. Now, following the divine mandate, he was established as King of Unified Yiyang. Yet his actions failed to align with heaven’s will, and he was not blessed with divine protection, resulting in his untimely death. This is truly sorrowful! He is posthumously titled ‘King Miu’ (Erroneous King).” Wang Mang also issued an edict to the National Preceptor, stating: “Wang Lin had no knowledge of astrology; the entire matter was caused by Yin.” Yin subsequently committed suicide.
In the same month, Wang An, the New Relocated King, also passed away. Initially, when Wang Mang was still a marquis, he favored the maidservants Zeng Zhi, Huai Neng, and Kai Ming. Huai Neng gave birth to a son, Wang Xing; Zeng Zhi gave birth to a son, Wang Kuang, and a daughter, Wang Zhu; and Kai Ming gave birth to a daughter, Wang Jie. These children were left in the State of Xindu because their mothers were of low status and not highly regarded. When Wang An fell seriously ill, Wang Mang, having no other sons, drafted a memorial on Wang An’s behalf, requesting that these children be recognized as imperial sons. After submitting the memorial, the ministers agreed, saying: “Wang An has shown great affection for his brothers. During the spring and summer, these children should be granted titles.” Wang Mang then sent envoys in royal carriages to bring Wang Xing and the others to the capital. Wang Xing was titled Duke of Gongxiu, Wang Kuang as Duke of Gongjian, Wang Zhu as Lady of Muxiu, and Wang Jie as Lady of Mudai.
Soon after, Sun Gongming Gong Wang Shou also passed away. Within a single month, Wang Mang lost four close family members. He then ordered the demolition of the ancestral temples of Han Emperor Wu and Emperor Zhao and had his own descendants buried in their place.
Li Yan, the Grand Magistrate of Weicheng, secretly conspired with the diviner Wang Kuang. Wang Kuang told Li Yan, “Since the establishment of the Xin Dynasty, the people have been forbidden to buy and sell land and slaves, the currency system has been frequently changed, corvée labor has been imposed repeatedly, border wars have continued, foreign tribes have invaded from all sides, and the people are full of resentment, leading to widespread banditry. The Han Dynasty is destined to be restored. Your surname, Li, sounds like ‘Zheng’ (征), which belongs to the fire element, meaning you are destined to assist the Han Dynasty.” Wang Kuang then forged a prophecy for Li Yan, which read:
“The Emperor Wen is enraged and gathers troops underground, declaring war against the Xiongnu in the north and the Yue people in the south. A righteous army bearing the surname Liu will rise in the rivers, capture enemies, avenge the past, and restore the ancient orthodoxy. Four years later, an army will rise in the rivers and lakes, led by a Liu claiming the title of Fan King, commanding tens of thousands of troops. He will reject amnesty orders, planning to attack Qin and Luoyang. Eleven years later, when a great war occurs, Venus will shine brightly, and Jupiter will enter the Eastern Well constellation—this prophecy will come true.”
The prophecy also predicted the fates of Wang Mang’s ministers and included over 100,000 characters. Li Yan ordered his subordinates to transcribe the text, but one of them fled and reported him. Wang Mang sent emissaries to arrest Li Yan, and he and his co-conspirators were eventually executed.
In the Three Adjunct regions, banditry was rampant. Wang Mang established the position of Capturing Bandits Commandant, ordering law enforcement officials to pursue bandits within Chang’an. Drums were set up to signal attacks on bandits, with emissaries following closely behind. Wang Mang sent Grand Preceptor Xi Zhong, Jing Shang, and General of the Gengshi Army, Wang Dang, to lead troops against Qingzhou and Xuzhou. He also ordered the National Preceptor He Zhong and Cao Fang to assist Guo Xing in attacking Jiuzhen. Meanwhile, grain and money were requisitioned nationwide and transported to Xihe, Wuyuan, Shuofang, and Yuyang, with each commandery contributing millions to prepare for a campaign against the Xiongnu.
In the autumn, frost destroyed bean crops, causing severe famine in the Guandong region, which was further exacerbated by a locust plague.
Some people privately minted coins, and under the collective punishment system, groups of five were convicted together, with all being confiscated as government slaves. Men were shackled in prisoner carts, while women and children were made to walk, their necks bound with iron chains, and were escorted to Zhongguan. Their numbers reached 100,000. Upon arrival, the government arbitrarily separated husbands and wives. Many, overwhelmed by despair and suffering, died, with mortality rates reaching 60-70%.
Sun Xi, Jing Shang, and Cao Fang led expeditions to suppress bandits but failed to achieve victory. The military’s discipline deteriorated, and the people suffered even more.
Wang Mang, believing in Wang Kuang’s prophecy that the Jing-Chu region would rise and the Li clan would assist, attempted to counteract this prediction by appointing Li Zhen, a Palace Attendant and Chief Shepherd Minister, as General-in-Chief and Governor of Yangzhou. He renamed him “Sheng” (Holy) and ordered him to lead troops in an all-out campaign.
Chu Xia, a man from Shanggu, volunteered to persuade Gua Tianyi to surrender. Wang Mang appointed him as a Middle Gentleman and sent him to negotiate. However, before Gua Tianyi could depart with his letter of surrender, he passed away. Wang Mang arranged for his burial, constructed a grave and shrine for him, and posthumously titled him “Gua Ning Shang Nan” (The Fallen Man of Peace from Gua), hoping to inspire others to surrender. However, no one responded.
On the day Bingchen of the intercalary month, Wang Mang issued a general amnesty, pardoning all criminals across the empire, including those previously convicted of wearing private attire.
Langyang Chengxiu presented a symbolic prophecy, which mentioned the need to establish a “Mother of the People” and referenced the Yellow Emperor summoning 120 women to achieve immortality. Wang Mang then dispatched 45 Palace Gentlemen and Attendants across the empire to search for virtuous women from local communities and register their names.
Wang Mang dreamed that the five bronze statues in the Chang Le Palace stood upright, causing him great unease. Remembering that the statues bore inscriptions reading “The Emperor Unites the World,” he ordered craftsmen to erase the text. Believing that the spirit of Emperor Gao of Han was haunting his temple, Wang Mang sent Tiger Guard warriors to the Gao Temple to draw their swords and strike in all directions, smash doors and windows with axes, and whip the walls with peach wood rods and red whips. He stationed the Light Chariot Colonel in the temple and ordered the Central Army to garrison the northern ramparts, even occupying Emperor Gao’s sleeping quarters.
Someone claimed that the Yellow Emperor had built a canopy to ascend to immortality. Wang Mang then constructed a nine-tiered canopy, eight zhang and one chi (approximately 19 meters) tall, decorated with gold and feathers, mounted it on a four-wheeled carriage with a concealed mechanism, and had it pulled by six horses. Three hundred strongmen dressed in yellow robes and hats accompanied the carriage, with some beating drums and others shouting “Ascending to Immortality!” Wang Mang placed the canopy at the front during his outings. Privately, officials mocked it, saying, “It looks more like a beast’s cart than an immortal’s vehicle.”
That year, Qin Feng of Nanjun gathered nearly 10,000 followers. In Pingyuan, a woman named Chi Zhaoping, skilled in interpreting classics and playing a game called “Eight Throws,” amassed several thousand followers in the Yellow River’s blocked areas. Wang Mang convened his ministers to discuss strategies for capturing these bandits. They all said, “These people are nothing but walking corpses, their lives like water dripping from a leaking pot, destined to run out soon.” Wang Mang then summoned Left General Gongsun Lu to participate in the discussion.
Gongsun Lu said, “The Grand Historian Zong Xuan, who is responsible for managing astronomy and the calendar, has misinterpreted ominous signs as auspicious ones, disrupting celestial observations and misleading the court. The Grand Tutor, Marquis of Harmonious Reform, feigns virtue to gain fame, akin to a thief claiming another’s child as his own. The National Preceptor, Marquis of Trustworthy Guidance, has distorted the Five Classics, undermining scholarly traditions and confusing students. Zhang Han, the Enlightened Scholar, and Sun Yang, the Marquis of Geography, have promoted the well-field system, causing people to abandon their lands. Xi He and Lu Kuang implemented the ‘Six Controls’ policy, which has crippled commerce and industry. Cui Fa, the Marquis of Prophecies, flatters and panders, seeking only to please without allowing the truth from below to reach above. These individuals should be executed to pacify the empire!”
He continued, “The Xiongnu should not be attacked; instead, we should seek peace through marriage alliances. I fear the Xin Dynasty’s troubles do not lie with the Xiongnu but within our own borders.”
Wang Mang, enraged, ordered the Tiger Guards to remove Gongsun Lu. However, he adopted some of his suggestions, demoting Lu Kuang to the rank of Sergeant in Wuyuan due to widespread resentment among the people toward the “Six Controls” policy. Although the policy was not solely Lu Kuang’s creation, Wang Mang dismissed him to quell public dissatisfaction.
Initially, the common people in various regions, driven by hunger and cold, rose up as bandits. Gradually, they gathered into larger groups, but in their hearts, they still longed for the day they could return to their hometowns once they had a good harvest. Although these bandits sometimes numbered in the tens of thousands, their leaders only dared to call themselves titles like "Great Man," "Attendant," "Elder," or "Libationer." They never dared to attack cities and towns, instead focusing on looting food before quickly retreating. Local officials and prefectural governors often died in the chaos, but the bandits typically did not intend to kill them.
However, Wang Mang never understood the true reasons behind these uprisings. That year, when Grand Marshal Shi Anzhang was inspecting Yuzhou, he was captured by bandits. Surprisingly, the bandits sent him back to the county office unharmed. After his return, Shi Anzhang submitted a detailed report explaining the situation. Wang Mang, upon hearing this, became furious, accusing him of deceiving the court and ordering his imprisonment.
Wang Mang also issued an edict reprimanding the Seven Dukes (high-ranking court officials), stating:
“The duty of officials is to govern the people, promote benevolence, and nurture the populace—this is the way of virtuous governance. Suppressing violence, punishing evil, and capturing or killing bandits is the principle of righteousness. But this is not what is happening now. Bandits are causing chaos, yet they are not being captured in time. Instead, they have grown into organized factions, even daring to intercept officials traveling by imperial courier. Shi Anzhang escaped but absurdly claimed, ‘I questioned the bandits about their rebellion, and they said it was due to poverty. Later, they escorted me to safety.’ Such talk is rampant among the ignorant masses today. Some say that poverty and hunger drive people to commit crimes, with the larger ones forming bandit groups and the smaller ones stealing or tunneling into houses. These are merely two types of crimes. But now, we see thousands or even tens of thousands of people forming factions and plotting rebellion—this is heinous treachery! How can it be simply attributed to hunger and cold?
The Seven Dukes must strictly order all ministers, prefects, and officials to properly care for the people and swiftly capture and kill the bandits. Any official who fails to unite in their efforts or who dares to claim that banditry arises from hunger and cold must be immediately arrested and punished!”
As a result, officials became even more fearful. They no longer dared to report the true causes of the banditry or take initiative in deploying troops to suppress the rebels. Consequently, the bandits became even more rampant.
Only Tian Kuang, a courageous commander of the Yi Ping garrison, took bold action. He mobilized over 40,000 civilians aged 18 and above, armed them, and swore an oath engraved on stone. Upon hearing this, the bandit leader Chi Mi dared not enter Tian Kuang’s jurisdiction. Tian Kuang voluntarily submitted a memorial admitting his actions. Wang Mang rebuked him, saying:
“You mobilized troops without authorization or an imperial token, which is a grave crime of manipulating military power. However, since you claim that you can eradicate the bandits, I will temporarily overlook this offense.”
Later, Tian Kuang requested permission to lead troops beyond his jurisdiction to suppress the bandits. Wherever he went, the bandits scattered. Wang Mang then issued an imperial edict appointing Tian Kuang as acting governor of Qingzhou and Xuzhou.
Tian Kuang submitted a memorial stating:
“When the banditry first began, the causes were minor, and ordinary local officials and militia leaders should have been able to handle it. However, the problem lies in the negligence of county and prefectural officials. Counties deceive the prefectures, and prefectures deceive the court, reporting only one-tenth of the truth while exaggerating or fabricating the rest. The court, being inattentive and failing to supervise, allowed the bandits to spread across prefectures and form large groups. Only then did it send generals and issue repeated orders, with layers of supervision and pressure. Prefectures and counties, overwhelmed by the demands, were busy hosting envoys, preparing feasts, and gathering supplies, exhausting their resources and leaving them unable to deal with the bandits effectively.
Meanwhile, the generals did not personally lead their troops, and when they fought, they were defeated by the bandits. This demoralized officials and soldiers, further worsening the plight of the people. Previously, thanks to the imperial amnesty, many bandits were willing to disband. However, some were instead attacked and forced to flee into the mountains and valleys, where they communicated with each other. This caused those who had surrendered to fear that the court would betray and annihilate them, leading to even greater panic among the bandits.
Adding to this, frequent famines have caused a rapid increase in bandit numbers. In just ten days, their numbers grew by over 100,000. This is the reason for the surge in banditry.
Currently, east of Luoyang, the price of rice has reached 2,000 coins per *dan*. I have seen the imperial edict mentioning the dispatch of the Grand Preceptor and the General of Gengshi. These two are high-ranking officials of the court, and their large entourages will deplete resources along the way. If their forces are small, they will not be able to intimidate distant regions.
Now, we should quickly select officials below the rank of governor and prefect, clearly define rewards and punishments, and pacify the displaced people. For small states without city walls, relocate the elderly and weak to larger cities, stockpile grain, and concentrate forces to defend the cities. When bandits attack, they will fail to breach the cities, and with no grain to loot along the way, they will be unable to gather strength. In this way, we can successfully persuade them to surrender or defeat them in battle.
Currently, the frequent dispatch of generals and envoys has left the people of the prefectures and counties in misery, suffering even more than under the bandits. All these envoys should be recalled, allowing the prefectures and counties to recover. Please entrust me with full authority over the bandit affairs in Qingzhou and Xuzhou—I will surely bring peace to these regions.”
Wang Mang, wary of Tian Kuang, secretly arranged for his replacement and sent an envoy with an imperial edict to relieve him of his command. When the envoy arrived, he ordered Tian Kuang to hand over his military authority. Tian Kuang returned to the Western Capital with the envoy and was appointed as a Master Commandant.
After Tian Kuang left his post, the bandit situation in Qi rapidly deteriorated, plunging the region into chaos.
