Wang Mang, also known as Ju Jun, was the nephew of Empress Xiaoyuan. Empress Yuan's father and brothers were all enfeoffed as marquises during the Yuan and Cheng eras, holding positions in the government. The family produced nine marquises and five government officials, as recorded in the "Biography of Empress Yuan." Only Wang Mang's father, Man, died early and was not enfeoffed. Wang Mang's brothers were all generals and marquises, living the high life while Wang Mang remained poor and led a frugal and humble life. He studied diligently under the guidance of Chen Shen from Pei County, always polite and humble. He honored his mother, widowed sister-in-law, and raised his orphaned nephew with great care. He was a natural diplomat and respectful in his dealings with elders. During the reign of Emperor Yangshuo, the father of the era's Grand General Feng fell ill, and Wang Mang cared for him, personally tasting medicine and completely neglecting his own hygiene for months. Before Feng's death, he entrusted Wang Mang to the Empress Dowager and the Emperor, appointing him as a Yellow Gate Attendant, and later as a Colonel of Cavalry. Wang Mang's uncle, the Marquis of Chengdu, and other prominent figures recommended him for enfeoffment, and with the support of notable individuals like Dai Chong, Jin She, Ji Hong, Yang Bing, and Chen Tang, everyone saw how great he was. In the first year of the Yongshi era, Wang Mang was enfeoffed as the Marquis of Xindu, ruling over a population of 1,500 households in Xinye, Nanyang. He was promoted to Colonel of Cavalry, Grand Master of Splendid Happiness, and Palace Attendant, always going above and beyond in his duties. He quickly outshone his uncles, earning respect and praise without a hint of arrogance.
Mang was always among the best. He died early, leaving behind a son named Guang, whom Mang sent to study under a Doctor of the Imperial Academy. When Mang took a break and went out, he would ride in a carriage, bringing a gift of sheep and wine to his old teacher. He also took great care of his classmates. His fellow students looked up to him, while the older scholars were impressed. Guang was younger than Mang's son Yu, whom Mang married off to a lady on the same day, with guests filling the hall. Suddenly, someone mentioned that his grandmother was suffering from a certain ailment and needed to take a specific medicine, causing the guests to excuse themselves multiple times. Mang had secretly bought a servant girl, and when his brothers heard about it, he explained, "General Hou Zhu Zi Yuan has no son, so I heard that this child is suitable to be his son, and thus I bought her." He immediately sent the maid to Zi Yuan. This act of concealing his true intentions for the sake of reputation was typical of him.
At that time, the Empress Dowager's nephew Chun Yu Chang was appointed as one of the Nine Ministers for his talent and ability, ranking higher than Mang. Mang sought out his faults and reported them to the Grand Marshal Qu Yang Hou Gen, which led to Chang's execution. Mang was praised for his loyalty and honesty, as recorded in the "Biography of Chang." Gen then requested to retire due to old age and ill health, recommending Mang as his replacement, and was subsequently appointed as the Grand Marshal. This was the first year of Suihe, and Mang was 38 years old. Having risen above his peers and succeeded his four fathers in assisting in governance, Mang aimed to surpass his predecessors in reputation. He continued to work tirelessly, appointing virtuous and talented individuals as officials, rewarding them with money and land while maintaining his own frugality. When his mother fell ill, officials and marquis sent their wives to inquire about her health. Mang's wife welcomed them, dressed in a plain cloth skirt that covered her knees and did not drag on the floor. Everyone mistook her for a servant until they learned she was Lady Wang, at which point they were utterly astonished.
After more than a year serving as regent, Emperor Cheng passed away, and Emperor Ai ascended to the throne, elevating the Empress Dowager to Grand Empress Dowager. The Empress Dowager ordered Wang Mang to return home to create distance from the Emperor's relatives. Wang Mang submitted a memorial requesting to retire, and Emperor Ai sent the Minister of State to inform Wang Mang: "The late Emperor put you in charge of political power but abandoned his ministers. I am grateful for your cooperation in honoring our ancestors. Now that you are retiring due to illness, it seems I can't continue the late Emperor's aspirations, which really bothers me. I've told my ministers to expect your petition." He also sent Prime Minister Kong Guang, Grand Minister He Wu, General Shi Dan, and Captain of the Guard Fu Xi to tell the Empress Dowager: "The Emperor's heartbroken by your decree. If Wang Mang doesn't come out, the Emperor feels he can't govern." The Empress Dowager allowed Wang Mang to continue handling state affairs.
During the reign of Emperor Ai, the Grand Empress Dowager Fu of Dingtao and Empress Dowager Ding Ji were present. Duke of Gaochang Dong Hong submitted a memorial saying, "According to Confucian principles, a mother should be honored by her son; Ding Ji should be given an honorable title." Shi Dan and Wang Mang jointly accused Hong of misleading the court, as recorded in the "Biography of Dan." One day, a banquet was held in Weiyang Palace, and the internal official ordered the Grand Empress Dowager Fu to sit next to the Empress Dowager. Mang rebuked the internal official, saying, "How can the Grand Empress Dowager of Dingtao sit beside the Empress?" He removed her and arranged for another seat. When the Grand Empress Dowager Fu heard about this, she was furious and refused to attend, holding a grudge against Mang. Mang begged for permission to retire, and Emperor Ai granted him five hundred pounds of gold, a comfortable carriage and escort, and retirement. Many officials praised him, and the Emperor showed favor by sending meals to his house every ten days. A decree was issued stating, "The Marquis of Xindu, Mang, has labored for the country; he is upright and honest. The Empress Dowager sent Mang into retirement, which greatly worries me. Add 350 households to his fiefdom, promote him to a special rank, appoint him as an official, and grant him the same privileges as the Three Excellencies on the first and fifteenth of each month, with a green carriage." Two years later, the Grand Empress Dowager Fu and Empress Dowager Ding were both given honorable titles. Prime Minister Zhu Bo submitted a memorial saying, "Mang did not uphold the honor and respect due to the Empresses, belittling their titles, which damages filial piety. He deserves punishment but was pardoned. He should not be given a noble title and should be reduced to commoner status." The Emperor replied, "Since Mang is related to the Empress Dowagers, do not reduce his status; send him back to his fiefdom." Wang Mang remained in seclusion, and when his son was found to have killed a slave, Mang blamed him severely and ordered him to commit suicide. After his retirement, hundreds of officials petitioned on Wang Mang's behalf.
In the first year of Yuanshou, there was a solar eclipse. Scholars like Zhou Hu and Song Chong lauded Wang Mang's accomplishments, prompting his summons. When Wang Mang first took up his position, a low-ranking official named Wan Kong Xiu served as the magistrate of Xindu under the Southern Yang Prefecture. Kong Xiu paid his respects to Wang Mang, who received him with great respect. After Wang Mang fell ill, Kong Xiu waited on him. Feeling obliged, Wang Mang gifted Kong Xiu a jade ornament and precious sword, which Kong Xiu politely declined. Noticing a scar on Kong Xiu's face, Wang Mang insisted the jade would conceal it. Kong Xiu still declined, so Wang Mang smashed the ornament and wrapped it up to give to Kong Xiu, who then accepted it. Upon Wang Mang's departure, he wanted to see Kong Xiu, but Kong Xiu pretended to be ill and refused to meet him.
Wang Mang remained in the capital for a year, observing a period of mourning for the childless Emperor Ai. Both Empress Fu and Empress Ding had passed away, and the Empress Dowager proceeded to the Weiyang Palace to claim the imperial seal and ribbon. She sent messengers to summon Wang Mang. The Secretariat was ordered to mobilize troops, and all officials reported to Wang Mang. The Yellow and Qi Gate troops fell under Wang Mang's command. Wang Mang said, "Grand Marshal Dong Xian, Marquis of Gao'an, is too young and lacks popular support. Take back the seal and ribbon." Dong Xian committed suicide immediately. The Empress Dowager called upon the court to nominate a suitable Grand Marshal. The Grand Minister of Works, Kong Guang, and the Grand Minister of Ceremonies, Peng Xuan, recommended Wang Mang. The former General He Wu and the latter General Gongsun Lu also recommended each other. The Empress Dowager appointed Wang Mang as the Grand Marshal and discussed the issue of succession. Wang Shun, the Marquis of Anyang and Wang Mang's cousin, was upright and trusted by the Empress Dowager. Wang Mang recommended him as the General of Chariots and Cavalry to welcome the King of Zhongshan to become Emperor Feng. The nine-year-old Emperor left governance entirely in Wang Mang's hands. Wang Mang accused the Zhao and Fu clans of harming previous emperors and behaving arrogantly. He then deposed Empress Zhao and Empress Fu, forcing them to commit suicide (as detailed in the *Biographies of the Imperial Relatives*).
Wang Mang, who used Grand Tutor Kong Guang's reputation as a highly respected Confucian scholar, whose influence was widespread, was trusted by the Empress Dowager and respected throughout the country. Therefore, he highly regarded Guang, appointing his son-in-law Zhen Han to a position as attendant and commander of the imperial chariots. Mang accused and punished all relatives of the late Emperor Ai and prominent ministers whose appointments he disapproved of. He had Han to deliver the accusations to Guang. Being cautious, Guang had no choice but to comply. Mang reported to the Empress Dowager, who immediately approved the accusations. As a result, Former General He Wu and Rear General Gongsun Lu were dismissed after accusing each other. Ding, Fu, and Dong Xian's relatives were all stripped of their titles and exiled. The Empress Dowager's brother, the Marquis of Hongyang, though holding no official position, commanded respect; Mang, wary of his influence over the Empress Dowager, then prompted Guang to present accusations against those who had committed past offenses. The Empress Dowager initially refused. Mang countered, "The Han Dynasty is weak, and there are no heirs. The Empress Dowager alone governs the young emperor—a precarious situation. Even if you act justly, it will be difficult to gain the people's trust. To act against the wishes of the court based on personal favoritism will incite dissent and chaos. It's best to send him to his fiefdom for now, and reconsider later." The Empress Dowager, having no choice, agreed to send him to his fiefdom. Those who supported him rose in power, while those who opposed him were purged. Wang Shun and Wang Yi were his closest advisors; Zhen Feng and Zhen Han directed policy; Ping Yan managed affairs of state; Liu Xin controlled the imperial archives; and Sun Jian served as his enforcer. Despite his outward strength and upright demeanor, Mang occasionally displayed talent, allowing his followers to exploit this to win favor with the Empress Dowager.
In the first month of the first year of Yuanshi, Empress Dowager Wang Mang issued an edict to use the white pheasant for ancestral temple sacrifices. The court officials then suggested to the Empress Dowager that "the Empress Dowager has entrusted Grand Marshal Wang Mang to secure the ancestral temple. Therefore, Grand Marshal Huo Guang's contributions to ensuring the stability of the ancestral temple should be recognized by granting him an additional 30,000 households and increasing his title and land holdings, equal to Marquis Xiao. Mang should follow Guang's example." The Empress Dowager asked the public officials, "Is this because of his great achievements, or because he's my relative and deserves special treatment?" The officials then explained, "Mang's achievements have brought about the auspicious omen of the white pheasant, mirroring the precedents set by the Zhou dynasty. Following the precedent set by wise kings, when a minister has great achievements, he is granted a noble title. Given Mang's success in stabilizing the country and the Han dynasty, he should be granted the title of Duke Anhan, with an increase in households, title, and land, in accordance with ancient precedent and the Mandate of Heaven." The Empress Dowager instructed the Shangshu to attend to the matter.
Mang wrote, saying: "I, along with Kong Guang, Wang Shun, Zhen Feng, and Zhen Han, were part of the team that developed the plan. Now I request that the rewards for Guang and others be put on hold, and I, Mang, not be listed with them." Zhen Han reported to the Empress Dowager: "We need to be fair and impartial—that's the right way. Even though there are family relationships, we cannot be partial. Your achievements in protecting the imperial line cannot be concealed due to personal reasons. Don't refuse." Mang submitted another memorial to decline. The Empress Dowager had Mang summoned to the east wing, but Mang claimed he was sick and refused to enter. The head minister conveyed: "You said you were sick, but your responsibilities are great and cannot be neglected. Please come as soon as possible." Mang continued to decline. The Empress Dowager then sent the Emperor's chief secretary to summon Mang, but Mang still claimed illness. The Empress Dowager's staff advised her not to force Mang, but to only reward Kong Guang and others, then Mang would agree. The Empress Dowager issued an edict: "Grand Tutor Guang of Boshan Marquis has served as the Imperial Guard for four generations, loyal and filial, with outstanding righteousness. He has proposed strategies and will be granted additional land, appointed as Grand Tutor, and participate in the government with the Four Assistants. General of Chariots and Cavalry, Marquis of Anyang Shun, has accumulated merit and virtue, welcomed the King of Zhongshan, traveled thousands of miles, and will be granted additional land, appointed as Grand Guardian. Left General, Luxuriant Favor and Merit Feng, has served as Imperial Guard for three generations, loyal and trustworthy, welcomed the King of Zhongshan, assisted in nurturing, securing the ancestral temple, appointed as Marquis of Guangyang, with a fief of 5,000 households, and appointed as Junior Tutor. All have been appointed to the positions of the Four Assistants, with their titles and land granted posthumously, each receiving the highest honors. Palace Attendant and Charioteer Han, diligent in his duties as Imperial Guard, proposed strategies, and will be appointed as Marquis of Chengyang, with a fief of 2,400 households." The four individuals received their rewards, but Mang had not yet risen. The court officials again submitted a memorial stating: "Although Mang has declined, it is appropriate for the court to make a decree, show how important their work was, so as not to disappoint the officials." The Empress Dowager then issued an edict: "Grand Marshal, Marquis of Xindu, Mang, has served as the Three Excellencies for three generations, carried the weight of the dynasty, like Duke Zhou did, whose strategies would benefit generations to come, worthy of being a loyal minister and role model. His influence spread throughout the land, even reaching distant peoples; his achievements surpassed even those of the Yue Shi. He shall be granted an additional 28,000 households in the counties of Shaoling and Xinxin, his family line will be continued, his titles and land granted posthumously, and his title will be the same as the Marquis of Xiao. Mang shall be appointed as Grand Tutor, participate in the government with the Four Assistants, and be known as Duke Anhan. The residence of the former Marquis of Xiao shall be designated as the residence of Duke Anhan, and this decree will be recorded for all time. This decree will be followed for generations to come, and his achievements will live on."
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Mang was terrified and had no choice but to accept the appointment. The imperial decree stated, "The Han Dynasty is in danger without an heir, and you have stabilized it; you have taken on the roles of the Four Assisting Officials and the responsibilities of the Three Excellencies, and you have managed them; you have taken charge of the officials and the people, and you have governed them: your achievements are outstanding, the ancestral temple is secure, mirroring the auspicious omen of the white pheasant and the achievements of the Zhou dynasty. Therefore, you are granted the honorable title of Duke Anhan, Grand Tutor, assisting the emperor, aiming for peace, and following our intentions." Mang accepted the title of Duke Anhan, Grand Tutor, declined additional rewards, and said he would accept them once the people's lives were stable. The other officials protested this humility, but the Empress Dowager decreed, "Since you have promised the people a peaceful life, we will allow it. You shall double the rewards for the Grand Tutor, attendants, and gifts. When the people are living in tranquility, inform the Grand Minister and the Grand Commandant." Mang declined again, suggesting that the descendants of princes and ministers from the time of Emperor Gaozu should be ennobled, with the most deserving becoming marquises or receiving the title of Inner Pass Marquis. Only then should the current officials be rewarded in order of seniority. Honors should be given to the ancestral temple. Ceremonies and music should be increased. Kindness should be shown to scholars, the widowed, and the orphaned, and policies of benevolence should be implemented in all aspects. This is recorded in the "Ping Ji."
Mang wanted to make decisions on his own, knowing that the Empress Dowager was meddling in government affairs, so he had officials report that many officials promoted to the rank of 2000 shi, including those recommended by the provinces and prefectures, proved incompetent, and they should all be seen by Duke Anhan. The Empress Dowager issued a decree, saying, "When the emperor was young, I managed the affairs, even after he reached adulthood. Now there are too many complicated matters; my years and declining vigor prevent me from taking care of the emperor properly. Therefore, select loyal and capable officials, establish the Four Assisting Officials, encourage the subordinates to perform their duties, and ensure peace and prosperity forever. Just as Confucius said, Shun and Yu governed with such effortless grace that the empire flourished. From now on, rewards will be granted only after approval. Other matters will be decided by Duke Anhan and the Four Assisting Officials. Provincial governors, officials of the rank of 2000 shi, and those recommended by the provinces and prefectures will be brought directly to Duke Anhan for examination of their previous positions and inquiry about their new positions to determine their suitability." So Mang listened to everyone, showed them great favor, gave them generous gifts, and those who were not suitable were dismissed, his power rivaled that of the emperor. He wielded near-imperial authority.
Mang wanted to use his reputation to speak to the Empress Dowager, saying, "After inheriting the reign of the late Emperor, many people are suffering from hardship. The Empress Dowager should lead by example, wearing simpler clothes and reducing her own food consumption, to show the people that we are all in this together." Mang then submitted a memorial, offering one million coins, donating thirty acres of land, and instructing the Minister of Agriculture to assist the poor. Other high-ranking officials emulated his example. Mang led the officials to report, "Your Majesty, you are of venerable age, wearing coarse clothes for a long time and reducing the royal food. This is not conducive to Your Majesty's health and the well-being of the empire. I, Mang, have repeatedly petitioned the Ministry of Revenue, but to no avail. Fortunately, thanks to Your Majesty's grace, recently auspicious omens have appeared, including sweet dew, divine herbs, and bountiful harvests, all signs of Heaven's favor. We earnestly hope that Your Majesty will cherish your health and relax your thoughts, follow the usual clothing of emperors, restore the imperial food system, so that ministers and children can be happy and well-fed together. We implore Your Majesty to consider this matter!" Mang also ordered the Empress Dowager to issue a decree, saying, "It is said that a mother should not interfere in matters of state. Our nation is young and vulnerable, our Emperor still a child, and I fear for the stability of our dynasty. Who else but I can shoulder the responsibility of governing our nation? I have labored tirelessly, day and night, for the good of our people. Therefore, let us avoid extravagance and work together for the prosperity of our nation!" During times of drought or flood, Mang would observe a vegetarian diet, and his attendants would inform the Empress Dowager. The Empress Dowager sent a messenger to decree to Mang, saying, "I hear you've been eating a vegetarian diet, a testament to your concern for our people! You've worked tirelessly this autumn. It's important you nourish yourself so you can continue to serve our nation."
Mang believed China was pacified; only the outer barbarians remained unconquered. Therefore, he sent envoys to bribe the Xiongnu Chanyu with gold, silk, and other valuables, and wrote a letter saying: "I have heard that the Chinese court disapproves of my having two names, so I changed my name from Nangzhiya to Zhizhi, in deference to your imperial decrees." He further sent Wang Zhaojun into his service. He went to extraordinary lengths to please the Empress Dowager, even showering attention on her maids and eunuchs.
Mang, to show his respect, wanted to make a woman the Empress to secure his power, and reported: "Three years into his reign, the Changqiu Palace remains unbuilt, and the imperial harem is incomplete. The kingdom faces hardship, stemming from a lack of heirs and improper consort selection. I propose we consult the Five Classics to establish a proper selection ceremony, clarifying the significance of the twelve women, and ensuring a robust line of succession. We should widely select from among the descendants of the two kings, the Duke of Zhou and Confucius, and the daughters of Chang'an's marquises." The matter was reported to the officials, and many of the Wang family's daughters were among those selected. Fearing competition for his daughter, Mang immediately reported: "My own merits are insufficient, and my daughter lacks the necessary qualities, so it is not appropriate to select her along with other women." The Empress Dowager, believing his sincerity, issued a decree: "The daughters of the Wang family are my relatives; they should not be selected." Over a thousand petitions poured in daily from commoners, scholars, and officials. Court officials and grandees thronged the court or prostrated themselves at the palace gates, all saying: "Your Majesty's decree and virtuous reign are as towering as Mount Tai, and the Anhan Duke's achievements are equally renowned. Now that the Empress is to be selected, why abandon the Duke's daughter? Where will the people's loyalty lie?" Mang dispatched his chief secretary and others to quell the petitions, but they only increased. The Empress Dowager had no choice but to allow the court officials to select Mang's daughter. Mang then said: "We should broaden the selection." The court officials argued: "Selecting other women would only complicate the succession." Mang said: "I wish to see the women." The Empress Dowager sent the Xiaofu of Changle, the Zongzheng, and the Minister of Personnel to select and see the women, and then reported: "The Duke's daughter is well-educated and possesses a refined grace; she is perfectly suited for the imperial rites and sacrifices." A decree was issued to the Grand Tutor and the Grand Minister of Works to report to the ancestral temple, and after casting lots and divination, all said: "The omens foretold a virtuous and noble king; the hexagram indicated parental harmony – an auspicious sign, a portent of good fortune." The Marquis of Xing, Tong, submitted: "In the Spring and Autumn period, when the emperor married a princess of Ji, her father was ennobled. The Anhan Duke's case doesn't follow this precedent." The matter was reported to the officials, who all said: "Ancient tradition dictated that the emperor ennoble the empress's father with lands spanning a hundred li, a gesture of respect without subservience, honoring the ancestral temple – the ultimate expression of filial piety. Lord Tong's request aligns with ancient rites. We should grant Mang an additional 25,600 hectares in Xinye, bringing his total holdings to one hundred li." Mang declined, saying: "My children are unworthy of such an honor. I defer to public opinion and accept the land grant. After careful consideration, if my children live up to the expectations of their position, my lands will suffice for tribute, rendering further grants unnecessary. I respectfully return the excess land." The Empress Dowager agreed. Protocol dictated a dowry of 20,000 jin of gold and 20 million coins. Mang humbly accepted 40 million coins, distributing 33 million among his eleven concubines. The courtiers said again: "The Empress's dowry is comparable to previous ones." A decree was issued to increase it by another 23 million, making it a total of 30 million. Mang then distributed the remaining 10 million among impoverished families across nine clans.
Chen Chongshi was the Grand Minister of Works and was on good terms with Zhang Chang and Sun Dong. Dong was a scholar of wide learning and submitted a memorial to Chong praising Wang Mang's accomplishments. Chong presented it, saying:
"I've noticed that Duke Anhan has been diligent since the beginning, enduring a time of extravagant excess, receiving the favor of both palaces, benefiting from his father's prestige, being rich and powerful, and not hesitating to spend. Yet, he is humble, kind, and observant of ritual propriety, remarkably distinguished himself. He lived simply, wearing plain clothes, eating simple food, and riding a humble carriage. His household was known for his filial piety and brotherly affection. He valued tranquility and lived a virtuous life, being kind to his subordinates, faithful to his teachers and friends. This perfectly describes him.
When he became an attendant, the Marquis of Dingling, Chunyu Zhang, committed a treasonous act, and Duke Anhan did not dare to act privately; he urged his punishment. Duke Zhou punished Guan Cai, and Viscount Ji poisoned Shu Ya; he exemplifies this.
Therefore, Emperor Xiaocheng appointed him as the Grand Marshal and entrusted him with the governance of the country. When Emperor Xiaoa came to power, the Marquis of Gaochang, Dong Hongxi, pursued personal gain and sowed discord. Duke Anhan exposed his actions and restored order. He advised that the Empress Dowager of Dingtao should not sit in the imperial carriage to uphold the dignity of the state. As the Book of Songs says, 'neither yielding nor aggressive, neither deceiving widows and orphans, nor fearing the powerful and influential.' This reflects his character.
He deeply adhered to modesty and humility, being sincere and readily relinquishing his position. The Empress Dowager of Dingtao wanted to usurp the throne, deterred by Duke Anhan's integrity and the potential consequences of opposing him. Chaos ensued, as the wicked manipulated the system, eventually usurping the throne, expelling the virtuous, and exterminating the loyal. Duke Anhan was accused by Xu and Yuan and forced into retirement. The government collapsed, discipline was lax, and the disaster of danger and ruin was imminent. As the Book of Songs says, 'when people are in chaos, the state is in ruins.' This encapsulates his legacy."
At this time, the throne was vacant, and Dong Xian took control, relying on the influence of the Fu family's daughter. They knew they'd made powerful enemies, and if they made enemies in Zhongshan, they would surely face the same worries. They must unite and work together, using a forged will as pretext, lavishing rewards and punishments, first eliminating those they feared, urgently attracting those they relied on, then framing innocents and even reaching out to distant relatives for support. The situation was now easily manageable! Thanks to the Duke's arrival, Dong Xian was immediately removed, along with his followers. At this time, the Duke demonstrated his keen judgment; he displayed his former power, his steely gaze, and fierce determination. He took advantage of their weakness, prevented trouble before it happened, stirred up movement, and crushed the enemy. Even legendary figures like Bian Yu, Chu Li, and Guiguzi would have been outmatched. Order was swiftly restored. Without Your Majesty's support, the Duke would not have been able to overcome this disaster. His swift actions mirrored the decisive leadership of King Wu, showcasing the wisdom of Confucius's words on the importance of decisiveness.
So the Duke recommended Feng, the former prefect of Si Shui, and Han, the magistrate of Lai, as well as Guang, the Grand Minister, and Shun, the General of Chariots and Cavalry, to establish the foundation of the state. They were all ennobled for their service, becoming renowned ministers.
The court lauded the Duke's virtues and accomplishments, drawing comparisons to the legendary Duke Zhou. He was offered the title of Anhan Duke and additional lands, but he humbly declined. As the saying goes, true virtue lies in humble refusal.
When it came time to establish the empress and concubines for the emperor, the officials submitted names, with the Duke's daughter as the first choice. The Duke deeply declined but reluctantly accepted the decree. A father naturally desires his son's success and glory above his own. While his daughter's elevation to empress was unprecedented, the Duke prioritized the stability of the realm. His actions perfectly embody the spirit of Shun, who famously prioritized virtue over power.
Since taking office, he has been diligent and earnest, always striving to be better, using his refined approach to govern, leading by example to encourage simpler living, cutting back on expenses and making sacrifices to lead by example, ensuring fairness in his dealings with officials, and raising his children to value learning and contribute to the nation. His servants wore simple clothes, his horses were not given the finest feed, and his own diet was modest. As the *Book of Songs* says, "Warm and respectful people, like gathering around wood," reflecting the nobleman's character. Confucius said, "Eat without seeking to be full, live without seeking to be secure."
Restraining himself and being frugal, he provided food for the needy, managing his affairs carefully and never accumulating excess. He also petitioned the Emperor of Filial Piety to increase his fief, donated money to buy fields, exhausted his family fortune, and set an example for the people. Thus, from small to large, harmony in villages, following the wind of transformation, from the highest nobles to the humblest guards, all were united in heart, each giving their all, some giving money, some donating fields to help the poor and support the needy. His dedication to duty echoed that of Lord Yin Ziwen, who never left the court before nightfall, and Duke Yi of Lu, who eschewed luxuries.
He welcomed scholars from all walks of life, diligent in political affairs, overseeing all governance, personally overseeing local officials, showing great discernment. As the *Book of Songs* says, "Day and night not at ease, serving only one person," and the *Book of Changes* says, "Throughout the day diligent and alert, in the evening cautious as if in danger."
Serving as a high-ranking official for three generations, accompanying the Grand Marshal on two occasions, holding the position of Prime Minister, securing the nation's stability, receiving reports from all corners of the country, all can be handled properly. The book says, "Accepting at the foot of the mountain, arranging the winds, thunder, and rain without confusion," which means managing affairs with clarity and composure; this is what a nobleman is called.
All of these are rare in the past, difficult for even the legendary rulers Yu and Ji, but the nobleman has encompassed it all from beginning to end, consistently carrying it out, truly thorough! In three years, remarkable achievements, seemingly miraculous in their speed and scope, could it be that this is not the credit of Your Majesty's ability to recognize and employ talent? Therefore, it is not only Your Majesty's mandate, but also the life of your humble servant that is not in vain. Like Duke Yu, who was granted the jade tablet, and Duke Zhou, who received the royal sacrifice, all to fulfill the mandate of heaven, not daring to claim the achievements of heaven. His conduct set an example for the world, and his achievements laid a foundation for generations to come. To fail to adequately reward such achievements would be a disservice to the nation and a disregard for Heaven's will.
The Gaozu Emperor generously rewarded those who had served him well, and Prime Minister Xiao He's holdings were doubled, receiving special treatment. He was exempt from the usual formalities of court reporting and could enter the palace without bowing, and more than ten of his relatives were ennobled. His generosity knew no bounds; rewards were given freely without selection, and a single successful strategy guaranteed ennoblement. Therefore, Gongsun Rong, starting as a lowly attendant, rose rapidly through the ranks, ultimately receiving a fiefdom of two thousand households. Emperor Wen showered Marquis Jiang with honors, increasing his enfeoffment to ten thousand households and granting him five thousand catties of gold. Emperor Xiaowu recorded military achievements, granting Wei Qing a fiefdom of thirty thousand households; even his infants became marquises. Emperor Xiaoxuan favored Huo Guang, expanding his family's holdings and ennobling three more relatives. Marquis Jiang relied on the strength of the Han vassals and the power of the Zhu virtual, supported by various generals and ministers. Although his actions were seen as questionable, they ultimately did not succeed. Huo Guang held a heavy position, took advantage of great victories, and never faced setbacks, though he was accused of feigning illness to leave the court. The court officials were all his accomplices, disrupting long-standing traditions of governance. Although he was said to have merit, the reasons were also straightforward, yet there were still strategies that overlooked the implications of past events. As for Qing and Rong, they thrived due to oversight, achieving success with minimal effort, yet still received great rewards. Comparing the achievements of Jiang and Huo, they were created and caused; in contrast to Qing and Rong, their accomplishments were as different as night and day. And you also have the effect of governing; you should be as highly praised as Yu the Great, Duke of Zhou, and others—not just mentioned in the same breath as them! But you didn't get anywhere near the same rewards, and I just don't get it!
They say that unrewarded merit deserves boundless reward, and unpraised virtue deserves boundless praise. Therefore, King Cheng and the Duke of Zhou extended the boundaries to a hundred li, bestowed nine ranks of merit, expanded the territory by seven hundred li, and incorporated the peoples of Shang and Yan. They granted vassal status to six Yin clans, providing them with grand roads and banners, and enfeoffed the weakened descendants of the Xia dynasty and the Zhou royal ancestors. They appointed priests, diviners, and historians; established administrative systems, sacrificial vessels, and rituals; and performed the rites of the suburbs and borders. The king said, "Uncle, establish your descendants." Both father and son prostrated themselves in acceptance. It can be said that they did not disregard the loss of merit. Moreover, all six sons were enfeoffed. The Classic of Poetry states, "Unrebuked wrongs, unrewarded virtue." Better a fitting reward than none at all. Recent history shows that only the Liu clan were expected to become kings, yet the Lord of Fan was made King of Changsha. His loyalty was rewarded by royal decree, demonstrating the ruler's flexibility. Duke Zheng presented music, and Duke Dao generously gifted him half of it. Wei Jiang humbly declined, but the Marquis of Jin said, "Master Wei, without your help, I'd never cross this river. Rewards are a matter of state policy, not to be disregarded. Please accept this." Thus, Wei Jiang had the music of gold and stone, and the Spring and Autumn Annals praised him, taking his ministers' loyalty into account to reward them. Your Majesty is aware of the Duke's merits, yet refuses the rewards bestowed by King Cheng, accepting his refusal and ignoring the precedents set in the Spring and Autumn Annals. What will history say of such actions? This is not in the best interests of the state. I humbly suggest that you restore the Duke's state, following the example of the Duke of Zhou; establish his descendants as was done for the Duke of Boqin; and grant them similar gifts. Enfeoff his sons as you did the six sons of Zhou. Such actions would inspire loyalty in your subjects and gratitude in your people. What greater achievement could there be for a king? Your Majesty must heed the lessons of your ancestors, respect the Mandate of Heaven, emulate the glories of Yu and Zhou, and bestow upon the Duke the same rewards given to Boqin, without neglecting the precedent set by the Duke of Zhou. By upholding Heaven's law and ancestral tradition, you will bring prosperity to the land.
The Empress Dowager observed the officials' earnest deliberations; then the matter of Lu Kuan came up.
At first, Mang wanted to seize power. Empress Dowager Wang said, "When the late Emperor Ai was enthroned, he turned his back on grace and righteousness, favored his non-noble relatives and advisors, and caused chaos in the country, almost endangering the state. Now the Emperor, in his youth, is once again honoring the ancestral rites to become the Emperor. It is appropriate to reaffirm the principle of unity and to caution against past events, setting a precedent for future generations." Therefore, Zhen Feng was sent to deliver the imperial seal and ribbon, and immediately appointed the Emperor's mother, Lady Wei Ji, as the Princess Dowager of Zhongshan, granting the Emperor's uncle Wei Bao and his younger brother Xuan the title of Marquis of Guannei, both to remain in Zhongshan and not go to the capital. Mang's son, Yu, feared the Emperor's future resentment and didn't want to completely cut ties with the Wei family, so he secretly sent someone to communicate with Bao and others, instructing the Empress Dowager to write a letter requesting to enter the capital, as detailed elsewhere. Mang did not listen. Yu, along with his teacher Wu Zhang and his brother-in-law Lv Kuan, discussed the reason behind this. Zhang believed that Mang could not be advised and was superstitious, so they should orchestrate a spooky event to intimidate him, and Zhang suggested giving power back to the Wei family. Yu then had Kuan daub blood on Mang's gate at night, but the gatekeeper discovered it. Mang arrested Yu and sent him to prison, where he took poison and died. Yu's pregnant wife was also imprisoned, and after giving birth, she was killed. Mang reported, "Yu was misled by Lv Kuan and others, spreading rumors and misleading the public. He is guilty of the same crime as Guan Cai. I dare not conceal it; he deserved to die." Zhen Han and others petitioned the Empress Dowager, saying, "Even great rulers like Tang Yao (who had Dan Zhu) and King Wen (who had Guan Cai) had bad sons — some people are just incorrigible. You're acting like the Duke of Zhou, the main support of Emperor Cheng, carrying out the punishment of Guan Cai without allowing personal relationships to harm authority. We greatly appreciate this. In the past, Duke of Zhou punished the rulers of the four states, and great achievements were made, leading to peace. You should focus on assisting the country and aim for stability." As a result, Mang exterminated the Wei family, intensified the trial of Lv Kuan, and implicated many prominent figures in the provinces who had criticized him, including Princess Jingwu, Prince Liang, Marquis Hongyang, and Marquis Ping'a. Under pressure, they all committed suicide. Hundreds perished, causing shock throughout the country. Grand Marshal and Protector Bao reported, "Duke Anhan was implicated in the guilt of Guan Cai by his son Yu. Despite his deep love, he did not dare to prioritize his personal feelings over the imperial family. Only Yu was punished, and he wrote eight letters in anger, warning future generations. Provincial officials should teach his writings." The matter was brought to the officials in court, requesting that all officials in the country be able to recite his teachings, just like the *Classic of Filial Piety*.
In the spring of the fourth year, ancestral sacrifices were offered to Heaven, and Emperor Xiaowen was honored with sacrifices to the Supreme Deity. On the Dingwei day of the fourth month, Wang Mang's daughter was appointed as empress, and a general amnesty was declared throughout the country. The Grand Minister of State, Chen Chong, along with seven others, was sent to various regions to find out what the people thought and to investigate their customs.
Taibao Shun and others said: "The Spring and Autumn Annals states that the top three achievements are establishing virtue, merit, and then words. Only truly wise and virtuous people can accomplish all three. For ministers, those born with great rewards will eventually become top officials, such as Yi Yin of the Yin dynasty and the Duke of Zhou of the Zhou dynasty." Over eight thousand people sent petitions, all saying: "Yi Yin was the prime minister, and the Duke of Zhou was the chief minister. The Duke of Zhou enjoyed the fiefs of seven sons, even better than the previous chief minister's rewards. It should be as Chen Chong said." The officials proposed, "Give back the two counties previously granted, along with Huangyouju and Xinye fields, and give him the titles of Yi Yin and the Duke of Zhou. Appoint the Duke as the chief minister, with a position equal to the previous Duke. The chief minister's salary is six hundred stones. The three highest ministers could speak freely. No other official could use the same title as the Duke. He'll be escorted by twenty guards from the Qimen Gate and thirty from the Imperial Guard, with ten carriages. His wife gets the title of 'Honored Lady of Merit', with a food estate of two thousand households, a gold seal, and a red sash. Two sons of the Duke are enfeoffed as Marquis of Baoxin and Marquis of Rewarding Capital. A dowry of thirty-seven million is also given, totaling ten million, to demonstrate grand ceremonies." The Empress Dowager herself presented the titles. The Duke of Anhan bowed first, followed by his two sons, following the example of the Duke of Zhou. Mang bowed and refused, presenting his petition, wishing to only receive the title of Mother, and return the seals, sashes, titles, positions, households, and estates of An and Lin. Tai Shi Guang and the others reviewed the matter, all saying, "The rewards don't reflect his achievements. He's always been modest, but we can't ignore this." Mang insisted on his refusal. The Empress Dowager issued a decree: "Every time the Duke visits, he bows and cries for mercy. Now that he is ill, should we still listen to his refusal and let him handle the matter? Should we execute the rewards as planned and send him back to his residence?" Guang and others said, "An and Lin personally received the seals and titles, which is clear and just. He controls most of the land in Huangyou, Zhaoling, and Xinye. If he wants to give some of it back to help the country, we should let him. Governance should be completed in time, and the position of chief minister shouldn't be passed down for generations. The taxes are for the Empress Dowager, not him. The title and estate won't be passed down. Three thousand households is a small reward for two marquis titles. The loyalty of a minister should also involve self-sacrifice and trust in the righteousness of the ruler. Send the Grand Minister and chief minister to tell him to get back to work." The secretaries shouldn't accept any more petitions from him. The Empress Dowager approved the decree.
Mang Naqi addressed the Empress Dowager, saying, "One night in June of the second year of Yuanshou, the Marquis of Xindu unexpectedly brought me to the Weiyang Palace; on the day of Gengshen, I was appointed as the Grand Marshal and took up one of the Three Excellencies' posts; in the first year of Yuanshi, on the Bingchen day of the first month, I was appointed as the Grand Tutor and granted the title of Duke of Anhan, holding one of the four high-ranking ministerial positions; in the fourth month of this year, I was again appointed as Chancellor, with the position of Duke. I, Mang, humbly submit that I am unworthy, as my titles, honors, and position are far beyond my merit. I have received the grace of the emperor five times, far beyond my deserts. By the third year of Yuanshi, the realm was at peace, and officials should be appointed accordingly. Ancient texts say: 'The ruler's ministers should be known throughout the four seas.' I believe that a Chancellor governs the officials and brings peace to the land, but without a seal, the title lacks the authority to match the responsibility. I, Mang, am not talented enough to hold multiple positions. Since the court has seen fit to appoint me, I request that a seal be engraved for the Chancellor, Grand Tutor, and Grand Marshal and presented to me." The empress dowager decreed, "Granted. Go to the Prime Minister's residence, and I will personally present it to you." Mang then donated a large sum of money as a gift to those who were taking care of the Longle Palace. The Grand Protector Shun reported, "The whole world knows that the Duke refuses to accept the land of a thousand chariots and declines the currency of ten thousand gold coins, generously giving away millions. Men from Shu, like Lu Jian, have withdrawn their complaints, ashamed of their actions. This should be announced to the world." The report was approved. When the Chancellor traveled, he was accompanied by ten large chariots in the front and rear, with a retinue of officials including secretaries, censors, and guards. The Chancellor carried his staff of office; when he stopped, an envoy would hold it. The Chancellor's secretaries received a salary of six hundred shi, and the Three Excellencies were known for their outspokenness.
In this year, Mang oversaw the construction and restoration of the Mingtang, Biyong, and Lingtai, built ten thousand housing units for scholars, established markets, and ensured full granaries, leading to a very prosperous system. A canon of music was established, and the number of scholars increased, with five in each category. Over eleven experts in various fields were recruited from across the land to teach various arts and sciences, including classical texts such as the *Yi Li*, *Classic of Poetry*, *Zhou Rites*, *Er Ya*, astronomy, divination, music theory, calendars, military strategy, and historical texts. Those who understood the meanings of these subjects were invited to the court. Thousands of experts were assembled to standardize knowledge and correct errors.
The ministers reported, "In the past, the Duke of Zhou inherited the royal line and held the highest position, but it took seven years to establish the system. The Mingtang and Biyong have been in ruins for a thousand years without restoration. Now, Anhan Gong has risen from a humble family to assist Your Majesty, and in just four years, he has made remarkable achievements. In the eighth month, he embarked on this mission, and the court used books to inspect and levy taxes and build fortifications. Over the course of about twenty days, the scholars and common people came together in harmony, with a total of one hundred thousand people gathered, and the great task was completed. The prosperity of the Tang and Yu dynasties and the achievements of the Zhou dynasty are truly unprecedented."
The Chancellor's position should be elevated to reflect his achievements, and he should be given silk and jade, a chariot for a great country, and a chariot for personal use, along with two teams of black horses." The Emperor said, "Approved. You may discuss the specific implementation of the Nine Bestowments further."
A huge winter wind ripped the roof tiles off the east gate of Chang'an.
In the first month of the fifth year, a grand ceremony was held in the Mingtang Hall, with twenty-eight princes and kings, one hundred and twenty marquises, and over nine hundred members of the royal family participating in the grand sacrifice. After the rituals were completed, thirty-six of Emperor Xiaoxuan's descendants were appointed as marquises, while the rest were granted increased households and titles, with rewards of gold and silk bestowed accordingly. At that time, forty-eight thousand, seven hundred and seventy-two petitions poured in from officials and commoners protesting Mǎng's refusal of the Xīnyè lands, and those who visited the princes, kings, marquises, and members of the royal family all bowed and pleaded for greater rewards for Duke Ānhàn. Mǎng then wrote a memorial to the throne, expressing his deep humility and anxiety about his inadequacy for the position, and requesting to be allowed to complete the rituals and music to demonstrate his loyalty and dedication to the empire. He conveyed his willingness to accept any punishment if he failed in his duties, while hoping for leniency from the emperor. The empress dowager, acknowledging the overwhelming support for Mǎng, approved his request, praising his contributions to the empire and instructing the princes and officials to defer to his decisions. The completion of the rituals was to be reported to the throne for final approval, with the discussion of the Nine-Vessel Ceremony being prioritized in the ongoing deliberations.
High-ranking officials and nobles, including the Duke of Fuping, Zhang Chun, and 902 others, all said: "Our wise and benevolent Emperor values talent and merit. Virtue and merit are richly rewarded. Therefore, the ministers with the title of Nine Lives Grand Master are granted the favor of Nine Xideng (a prestigious honor in our tradition). The realm enjoys unprecedented peace and prosperity; harmony reigns throughout the land and among the nations. Your Majesty's reign surpasses even that of the legendary Emperors Tang and Yu; your ministers rival the legendary loyalty and accomplishments of Yi and Zhou. This auspicious moment mirrors the harmonious convergence of past glories. Guided by the wisdom of the Six Arts and the classics, particularly the Zhou rituals and the Book of Rites, we humbly request the honor of the Nine Lives grant." The request was granted.
In the fifth year of the Yuan Shi reign, in the fifth month, on the day of Gengyin, the Empress Dowager held court in the front hall and addressed Gong Jin thusly: "Gong Jin, listen to my words. For sixteen years, you loyally served Emperor Xiaocheng as an Imperial Guard, implementing policies and bringing justice through the just condemnation of the former Marquis of Dingling, Chunyu Chang, to suppress chaos and treason. You were appointed as the Grand Marshal, responsible for internal affairs. When Emperor Xia'ai ascended the throne, his favored concubines schemed, and corrupt officials sowed discord, and you bravely denounced Dong Hong, the Marquis of Gaochang, rectifying the wrongful accusations against the mother of the former King of Taotang. Since then, your judgment has guided the court. Illness forced your retirement to your family estate, where you fell victim to the machinations of treacherous officials. Following the Emperor's recovery and the quelling of the rebellion, he realized your loyalty and reinstated you in Chang'an. Even in his worsening illness, the Emperor remembered your service and promoted you again. That night, with the throne unclaimed and the court rife with corruption, the situation was perilous. Only your wisdom and experience can stabilize the realm. Your wisdom has guided the court, your actions have rectified injustices, and your unwavering commitment has upheld the law. Your virtuous leadership and remarkable achievements have earned the admiration of all. The empire enjoys peace, and all nations look to you with respect. Even distant tribes and foreign nations acknowledge your wisdom and virtue. Your efforts have revitalized ancient traditions and restored respect for ancestral rites. Your actions have ensured the prosperity and stability of the ancestral temples and shrines. The entire empire relies on your wisdom and guidance, and your position is one of great honor. So, with nine honors bestowed upon you, you'll be taking part in ceremonies and helping to govern, and we'll also honor your ancestors posthumously."
Mang then knelt down and performed another kowtow, receiving ceremonial robes of green embroidered silk, magnificent jade ornaments, ceremonial shoes, a phoenix-drawn chariot, a dragon flag with nine tails, a plain white silk headdress, a military carriage, red and black bows, a suit of armor, two jugs of millet wine, two jade tablets, two green jade tablets of the Nine Provinces, and a vermilion gate. Officials from the Ministry of Rites, priests, diviners, historians, and three hundred tiger warriors were all appointed, with one administrator for each official. The Ministry of Rites, priests, diviners, and historians all had assistants to help the Marquis of Anhan. Tiger warriors guarded the outer gate of the central palace, keeping a record of those who entered and left. When the four assistants or three ministers had business at the palace, they all used the same entrance. The former residence of the King of Chu became the Marquis of Anhan's residence, which was renovated and connected to the Zhouwei road. The ancestral temple and the ancestral shrine were both marked with a vermilion gate. Chen Chong also proposed, "At the Marquis of Anhan's ancestral shrine, when leaving the city gate, the city gate captain should lead the riders." There were guards accompanying them when entering and leaving the city, demonstrating the might of the state. Mang approved this proposal.
That autumn, with the Empress's son Rui's birth, Mang ordered the construction of the Ziwu Road. The Ziwu Road started from Duling and cut straight through the Nanshan Mountains, heading towards Hanzhong.
Eight envoys returned from their mission, reporting that the customs and traditions throughout the country had been unified. They fabricated songs and poems praising his achievements, totaling thirty thousand words. Mang approved and issued a decree to make it official. It was also reported that markets were stable, justice was swift, the city had no thieves, the countryside had no starving people, the roads had no lost items, and men and women were to walk separately, with punishment for those who disobeyed. Liu Xin, Chen Chong, and twelve others were appointed supervisors of the Mingtang, responsible for spreading education and were ennobled as marquises.
Mang has brought peace, pacified the Xiongnu in the north, won over the Qiang tribes in the west with gold coins to entice them, and expanded overseas in the east, while the Huangzhi in the south have also been brought into the fold. Therefore, he sent Zhonglang General Ping Xian and others to urge the foreign Qiang tribes to offer their land and submit to the Han dynasty. Xian and others reported: "The Qiang chieftains and people are willing to submit, with a population of about 12,000. They are willing to become subjects, offering fresh water seas, salt marshes, fertile land, and beautiful grasslands to the Han people. They will reside in the rugged areas as a barrier. When asked about their willingness to surrender, they replied: 'Under the wise rule of the Empress Dowager and the benevolence of the An Han Duke, peace and prosperity abound. The harvest was so bountiful that stalks of grain towered over ten feet tall, single grains yielded three times their normal size, crops grew without planting, and silkworms were unnecessary to produce silk. Sweet dew fell from the heavens, and springs of sweet water bubbled from the earth. Phoenixes appeared, and divine blessings rained down. Since the age of four, the Qiang people have not suffered any hardships, so we seek joy in submission.' It is appropriate to establish a subordinate state to protect them." The matter was presented to Mang, who then reported: "The Empress Dowager has ruled for several years, her grace overflowing, peace prevailing in all directions, and various customs and traditions being admired. The Yue Shang clan has once again offered the white pheasant, the Huangzhi have presented the live rhinoceros from three thousand miles away, the Dongyi King has crossed the vast sea to offer precious items, and the Xiongnu Chanyu has obediently followed the orders, removing his titles. Now, the loyal chieftains of the Western regions have once again offered their land as subjects. In the past, Emperor Tang Yao received tribute from all directions, without any further additions. Today, there are already provinces in the East Sea, South Sea, and North Sea, but there is no province in the West Sea. Please accept the land offered by the loyal chieftains as the province of the West Sea. I have also heard that wise kings have observed celestial bodies, determined geography, and established boundaries based on mountains, rivers, and local customs to form the provinces. The Han dynasty has vast territory, having experienced two emperors and three kings, with a total of thirteen provinces. However, most of the province names and boundaries do not match the records in the classics. Yao established twelve province boundaries, later reduced to nine provinces. The Han dynasty expanded its territory, with provinces extending over thirty thousand miles, which cannot be limited to nine. Therefore, it is appropriate to correct the names and boundaries of the twelve provinces according to the classics, to match the original intentions." The report was approved. Furthermore, fifty new laws were added, with tens of millions exiled for violations, causing discontent among the people. Marquis Quanling, Liu Qing, submitted a memorial stating: "King Cheng of Zhou was young and known as a child, while the Duke of Zhou acted as regent. Now, the Emperor is well into his reign, and it is appropriate to allow the An Han Duke to perform the duties of the emperor, just like the Duke of Zhou." All the ministers agreed with Qing's suggestion. In winter, Mars transited the moon.
During the illness of Emperor Ping, Wang Mang wrote a memorial, requesting an imperial mandate at the Tai Temple, wearing jade ornaments and holding a jade scepter, offering himself as a substitute. The memorial was wrapped in silk and placed in the front hall, with instructions for officials not to speak of it. In the twelfth month, Emperor Ping died, and a general amnesty was declared. Wang Mang summoned ritual experts and officials of the rank of 600 shi or above, ordering them to observe a three-year mourning period. He posthumously honored the Temple of Filial Piety as the Temple of Ancestral Unity and the Temple of Filial Peace as the Temple of Original Ancestry. With Emperor Yuan's line extinct, Wang Mang rejected the older potential successors, declaring, "Brothers cannot inherit the throne from one another." He then chose the youngest great-grandson, the two-year-old son of the Marquis of Guangqi, falsely claiming that divination had revealed him as the most auspicious choice.
In this month, Xie Xiaozou and Meng Tong, renowned for their military achievements, obtained a cylindrical stone from the well, inscribed with red characters that read, "Announcing that Han Gong Mang is the emperor." This marked the beginning of the mandate. Mang sent a group of officials to report to the Empress Dowager, who said, "This is a deception of the empire, and cannot stand!" The Grand Guardian Shun said to the Empress Dowager, "The die is cast; we cannot stop it now. Moreover, Mang has no ulterior motives; he merely seeks to consolidate his power and secure the realm." The Empress Dowager acquiesced, and Shun and others immediately had her issue a decree stating, "When the people of the world are unable to govern themselves, a ruler must be established to govern them. The emperor is young and must have a regent, so that he can carry out the will of heaven and bring peace and prosperity to the people. As the saying goes, 'Heaven works, and man follows suit.' In my late husband's minority, I ruled as regent, preparing him for adulthood, before his untimely death. I have already ordered the officials to select twenty-three descendants of Emperor Xiaoxuan to succeed Emperor Xiaoping. The heir is an infant; without a wise regent, the throne is insecure. Han Gong Mang has served three generations; his time to lead has arrived, and he will bring glory to the Han. Regarding the inscribed stone reported by Xie Xiaozou and Meng Tong, I have carefully considered its implications. 'To be emperor' signifies regency. Order requires precedent; otherwise, chaos will ensue. Therefore, I appoint Han Gong Mang as regent, following the precedent of Zhou Gong, and grant him Wugong County as Han Guangyi. So ordered."
Then the ministers said: "The Empress Dowager, divinely guided, is both wise and virtuous. She has ordered the Duke of Anhan to assume the regency. It is said that when King Cheng of Zhou was young, the Zhou dynasty was not yet established, and he was unable to govern the empire or cultivate both civil and military excellence. If the Duke of Zhou assumes the regency, the Zhou dynasty will be established, and the royal family will be secure; if he does not, the Zhou dynasty may lose the mandate of heaven. The ancient texts say: 'If my descendants serve their descendants but are unable to share the responsibilities of ruling, they will cut off the radiance of their ancestors, not knowing that fate is not easily changed. When heaven responds with ominous signs, they will lose the mandate of heaven.' It is said that the Duke of Zhou wore the crown of the Son of Heaven, faced south to the ministers, issued orders, and always referred to the king's commands. Although the Duke of Shao was wise, he did not understand the sage's intentions, so he did not agree. The Book of Rites states: 'The Duke of Zhou received the feudal lords at the Hall of Light, the Son of Heaven carried an axe and stood facing south.' This indicates that 'the Duke of Zhou assumed the position of the Son of Heaven; for six years he received the feudal lords, established rites and music, and all under heaven greatly respected him.' The Duke of Shao was not pleased. At the time of King Wu's death, the period of mourning was still ongoing. This means that when the Duke of Zhou first assumed the regency, he occupied the position of the Son of Heaven, rather than six years later. The Book of Yi Jiahe says: 'The Duke of Zhou held the sacrificial wine and stood on the steps of the altar, inviting the king to ascend, and praised him saying, 'May the king rule justly and bring peace to the land.' This is the Duke of Zhou assuming power, praised by others. When King Cheng put on his ceremonial robes, the Duke of Zhou then took over the governance. The text says, 'I have returned to serve the enlightened ruler'; the Duke of Zhou always referred to the king's commands and carried them out without fail. The ministers request that the Duke of Anhan assume the regency, wear the crown and ceremonial robes of the Son of Heaven, stand with his back to the axe between the doors and windows, face south to the ministers, and attend to government affairs. When the chariot enters and exits, it is heavily guarded, and all would bow before him as to an emperor. The offerings to heaven and earth, the ancestral sacrifices at the Hall of Light, the sacrifices to the ancestral temple, and the offerings to the myriad spirits are all praised as 'granted by the emperor'; the people and ministers refer to him as 'acting emperor,' and he refers to himself as 'I.' In handling court matters, he always refers to the imperial edicts as 'decrees,' in order to follow the will of heaven, support the Han dynasty, protect the young emperor Xiaoping, fulfill the entrusted duty, and uphold the principles of governance and peace. In his court appearances before the Empress Dowager and the empress, he always acts as a subject. In his palace, he governs the state and educates his family with the same rituals as the feudal lords. Ministers facing capital crimes would petition the Empress Dowager for judgment." The Empress Dowager agreed. The following year, the era name was changed to 'Assuming the Regency.'
In the first month of the first year of JuShè, Wang Mang offered sacrifices to the God of Heaven in the southern suburbs, welcomed spring in the eastern suburbs, and held a big archery contest in the Mingtang. Afterwards, he offered sacrifices to the Three Elders (a reference to three legendary figures in Chinese history) and the Five Changes (referring to the five changes in the seasons or elements), completed the ceremony, and withdrew. He appointed five historians under the columns, with the rank of court historian, to oversee political affairs and keep a record of their activities.
In the third month of the year of Jichou, he established Emperor Xuandi's great-grandson, Ying, as the Crown Prince, with the title of Ruzi. Wang Shun was appointed as the Left Grand Tutor (a senior educational advisor), Zhen Feng as the Right Grand Tutor, and Zhen Han as the Grand Guardian (a senior protector). He also appointed four young officials, each with a rank of two thousand shi (a unit of rank equivalent to a certain salary).
In the fourth month, the Marquis of An, Liu Chong, conspired with the Prime Minister Zhang Shao, saying, "Wang Mang controls the court and poses a threat to the Liu clan. Everyone hates him, but no one dares to be the first to rebel. This is a disgrace to our family. I will lead my clan to revolt first, and the world will surely respond." Shao and others, totaling over a hundred followers, attempted to attack Wancheng but failed before they could enter. Shao was Zhang Song's paternal cousin. Song and Chong's father, Liu Jia, surrendered to the court, and Wang Mang pardoned them. Song, on behalf of Jia, submitted a memorial:
"Between the reigns of Jianping and Yuanshou, the great lineage was almost extinguished, and the royal family was nearly abandoned. Thanks to Your Majesty's virtue, you supported and rescued, protected and defended, and restored the country's mandate. The royal family's future is secure. In managing court affairs, issuing commands, starting with the royal family, and appointing officials from the nine lineages. Supporting relatives, establishing marquisates, and considering the vulnerable ones in the south, totaling in the hundreds. Reclaiming lost territories, reviving the abandoned, restoring those who have been marginalized, and assisting the Han nation, supporting the Han royal family. Establishing the Yong altar, setting up the Mingtang, following heavenly laws, spreading saintly virtues, enlightening the later generations, and shining with literary virtues, the royal family and nobles have all benefited and expanded their territories. Everyone's praising him, and his reputation fills the ears. The country submits to this beauty, upholds this reputation, enjoys this blessing, and receives this honor, all thanks to the thoughts of the Empress Dowager and the vigilance of Your Majesty! What does this mean? Chaos is controlled by reason, danger is met with safety, calamity brings fortune, extinction leads to continuation, youth replaces responsibility, day and night are busy, cold and heat are diligent, no rest, and unwavering diligence, all to benefit the world, to honor the Liu clan. We all understand."
But An Zhonghou, in his hubris, plotted treason, engaged in sedition, raised troops, and sought to endanger the ancestral temple. This heinous act demands swift and merciless punishment. He is a traitor to the throne, a menace to the realm, and an enemy of the people. Therefore, his kin have denounced him, the populace has abandoned him, sealing his fate. To slaughter a centenarian mother and her babe, leaving their finery untouched as their heads were impaled – the barbarity is unconscionable!
Ancient practice dictates that when a rebellious state is punished, its palaces are razed and converted into "evil voids," fetid pools of refuse. Though vegetation springs forth, it remains uneaten. The lords of the clans served as a grim warning, displayed at the city gates. Now that the whole world has heard of An Zhonghou's rebellion, all yearn to avenge him. Those first to arrive will swiftly dispatch him. Later arrivals will raze his estate to the ground, leaving the ground covered in ruins. The Imperial family is consumed by righteous fury, for his betrayal of loyalty and virtue.
Though distant, the Imperial family, upon hearing the news, is consumed by righteous anger and demands retribution. Fathers, sons, and brothers will march to Nanyang, razing his palaces and restoring order as tradition dictates. Let An Zhonghou's shrine serve as a grim warning to all, mirroring the Bo shrine. Let the court deliberate, and let justice be seen throughout the land.
Then Mang declared. The officials said, "They all agreed." Mang petitioned the Empress Dowager to issue a decree: "The Jia family—father, sons, and brothers—despite their ties to Chong, vowed impartiality. At the first sign of trouble, they were to report it; once disaster struck, they were to unite against the enemy, upholding ancient traditions of loyalty and filial piety. Du Yan was created Marquis of Jia, and Jia's seven sons were all granted the title of Marquis of Guannei." Later, Dong was also appointed as Marquis of Shude. A Chang'an saying went: "To win favor, outshine Zhang Bosong; on the battlefield, clever memorials trump brute force." Mang also ennobled over a hundred meritorious Nanyang citizens and razed Liu Chong's Wuchi estate. Subsequent rebellions were all traced back to Wuchi.
The officials again petitioned: "Those who conspired against Liu Chong did so because they underestimated Mang's power. Showing him respect would awe the empire." In May, on the Jia Chen day, the Empress Dowager ordered Mang to attend court and called him the 'acting emperor.' On the day of Bing Chen in the tenth month of winter, there was an eclipse.
In the twelfth month, the officials requested: "Bolster the Han Gong Palace's security detail and staff. Appoint additional officials, including temple, stable, and kitchen stewards, over a hundred Tiger Elite, and three hundred guards. Rename Han Gong's residence 'Sheshe,' office 'Shedian,' and mansion 'Shegong.'" The request was approved.
The Empress Dowager issued a decree: "Though Grand Tutor Guang had died, his accomplishments were duly noted. The Grand Preceptor Shun, Grand Minister Feng, General of Light Chariots Han, and General of Infantry Jian all contributed to the strategy against the Xiongnu, as well as managing the Lingtai, Mingtang, Biyong, and the suburbs, establishing regulations, opening the Zimu Road, speaking of virtues with the same heart as the Prime Minister, cooperating with each other; their achievements are outstanding. Shun's son Kuang was appointed as Marquis of the Same Heart, Lin as Marquis of Speaking Virtue, Guang's grandson Shou as Marquis of Cooperation, and Feng's grandson Kuang as Marquis of Joint Efforts. Han and Jian each received grants of 3,000 households."
That year, resenting Mang's annexation of their lands to form Western Sea Commandery, Pang Tian, Fu Fan, and other Western Qiang leaders rebelled, forcing Governor Cheng Yong to flee. Mang had Yong executed and dispatched Protector of the Qiangs Dou Kuang to quell the rebellion. In the spring of the second year, Dou Kuang and others defeated the Western Qiangs.
In May, new currency was minted: the "wrong knife" (incorrectly named) was worth 5,000; the "correct knife" (also incorrectly named) was worth 500; the large coin was worth 50, and circulated together with the five zhu coins. Counterfeiting became rampant among the populace. Anyone below marquis rank was banned from carrying gold, and those of marquis rank and below were required to hand over their gold to the imperial treasury for evaluation, but got nothing close to fair market value in return.
In September, the governor of Dong Commandery, Zhai Yi, feverishly rallied support and declared the Marquis of Yanxiang, Liu Xin, as the emperor, issuing proclamations to all commanderies and states, accusing Mang of poisoning Emperor Ping, seizing the throne, and seeking to end the Han dynasty. Confusion spread among the commanderies and states; the rebels numbered as many as 100,000. Mang, gripped by fear and losing his appetite, prayed day and night with his child in his arms at the suburban temples, issued edicts, and published policies, sending advisors such as Huan Tan to announce them throughout the realm, urging them to restore the rightful heir. He sent eight generals, including Wang Yi and Sun Jian, to attack Yi, stationed at various passes and guarding the passes. Zhao Ming and Huo Hong, from Huaili, joined Zhai Yi's rebellion, arguing that with the imperial army's elite troops deployed east, Chang'an was vulnerable. As their numbers grew, Mang feared and sent generals Wang Qi and Wang Ji to resist them. He appointed Zhen Han as Grand General, received the seal at Gaomiao, led the armies of the realm, holding the left command staff and the right seal, stationed outside the city. Wang Shun and Zhen Feng patrolled the palace day and night.
In December, Wang Yi and others defeated Zhai Yi at Yu. War Minister Chen Chong memorialized the throne, claiming: "Your Majesty's rule is divinely ordained; you bear the mandate of heaven, foreseeing success and failure, responding to signs and omens—this is what is meant by the divine will. The ruler of heaven, when concerned, changes the atmosphere; when speaking, moves creatures; when acting, brings about transformations. I read the imperial edict the next day and calculated the timing. The holy spirit was aroused, and the enemy was defeated; as the edict was written, the enemy was greatly defeated; as the decree was issued, the enemy was completely decimated, and the generals had not yet gathered their full strength. Though my assessment is incomplete, victory is ours." Mang was overjoyed.
In the spring of the third year, there was an earthquake. A general amnesty was declared.
Wang Yi and others returned to the capital, and together with Wang Ji and others, they launched a joint attack on Ming and Hong, all of whom were completely defeated, as recorded in "The Biography of Zhai Yi." Emperor Mang hosted a grand banquet at the White Tiger Hall in the Weiyang Palace to reward the soldiers. An edict was issued to assess and rank Chen Chong's military achievements. Mang then submitted a memorial, stating: "During the reign of the wise emperors, the country was filled with talents, as seen in the times of Tang and Yu, where merit was appropriately recognized. For example, during the Xia Dynasty's gathering at Mount Tu, tributes were brought from various states, with vassal states offering jade, while tributary states presented silk. King Wu of Zhou had eight hundred vassal lords above Mengjin, with the Duke of Zhou presiding over the sacrifices to Hou Ji to pair with Heaven, and the sacrifices to King Wen in the Bright Hall to pair with the Emperor. Thus, the entire realm participated in the sacrifices according to their roles, with a total of eighteen hundred vassal lords. The Book of Rites records that there were over seventeen hundred states under the rule of the king, as Confucius noted in the *Classic of Filial Piety*, 'Even the subjects of small states dare not forget their duties, how much more so for dukes, marquises, earls, and viscounts?' This is the filial piety of the emperor. The Qin regime pursued a disastrous course, destroying the vassal lords to create commanderies and counties, seeking to monopolize the benefits of the world, leading to its downfall after two generations. Emperor Gaozu was appointed to rectify the situation, rewarding achievements and establishing hundreds of states, but later declined, leaving only a few remnants. The Empress Dowager personally governed the empire, generously granting rewards to encourage goodness, reviving and continuing the lineage for eternity, leading to great cultural advancements and prosperity. The Qiang people invaded the Western Sea Commandery, and rumors of rebellion spread in the Eastern Commandery. Rebels incited the people in the western regions. Loyal ministers and filial sons were roused to action, restoring peace to the land by subduing and eliminating them. Now, in establishing rites and music, Zhou's system of nobility comprised five ranks, and its land allocation system had four levels, all clearly defined. Yin's system, however, had only three ranks, with descriptions but no formal regulations. I propose a five-rank nobility system and a four-level land allocation system for the generals." The memorial was approved. Subsequently, those ennobled received titles ranging from marquis to baron, with those granted the title of Marquis of Guannei being renamed as Fucheng, totaling several hundred people. The Western Sea battle units bore the "Qiang" symbol, the Huaili unit bore the "Wu" symbol, and the Zhaiyi unit bore the "Lu" symbol.
The ministers reported: "The Empress Dowager has generously rewarded merit, both ancient and modern, both civil and military, without exception. Now that the Regent Emperor has ascended the throne, it is appropriate to distinguish this time from the time of the Prime Minister, even though the system has not yet been fully established. Let both sons be made Dukes. As the Spring and Autumn Annals say, 'Reward the virtuous, and their descendants shall also be rewarded,' the descendants of the virtuous should inherit land. King Cheng granted lands to all six of Duke Zhou's sons. Collateral branches and even the descendants of famed Han generals and statesmen like Xiao and Huo were also rewarded. Let Guang, the elder brother's son, be made a Marquis; after the system is perfected, the Grand Tutor and Grand Preceptor will submit a list of rewards for the grandchildren, in accordance with previous edicts." The Empress Dowager decreed: "Raise the Regent Emperor's son Bao to the rank of Duke Xinju, reward the Marquis Du as Baoxin, and confer Guang as Yanguo Marquis." Upon Wang Mang's return to Xin Du, the court proposed making his grandson the Marquis of Xin Du. Having crushed Zhai Yi, Wang Mang felt his prestige soaring, convinced of Heaven's favor, and began plotting his ascension to the throne.
In September, Gong Xianjun died, and his mother, Mang's mother, did not grieve but ordered the empress dowager to decree her mourning. Young A, Xihe, and Liu Xin, along with seventy-eight other scholars, all stated, "The purpose of the regency is to govern the heavenly achievements, uphold the imperial way, establish order, and secure the realm. In the past, after the death of King Cheng of Yin, his heir died young, and his son Taijia was too young and inexperienced. Yi Yin was placed in the Tong Palace to oversee the regency and promote the Yin way. After King Wu of Zhou died, the Zhou way was not yet established, and King Cheng was young, so the Duke of Zhou took over the regency to establish the Zhou way. Thus, Yin had a careful transformation, and Zhou achieved order through punishment. Now, the empress dowager has suffered from the family's misfortune, entrusting Grand Minister An Han to govern the ministers and balance the world. The young child is still immature and cannot share the responsibilities of leadership; thus, heavenly omens were auspicious, and the empress dowager issued a decree appointing Grand Minister An Han to take over the regency and assume the throne, in order to achieve the Han dynasty's cause and compare with the Tang and Yu dynasties. The regent emperor then opened the imperial archives, gathered the scholars, established rituals and music, and finally established the civil service, achieving the heavenly accomplishments. The regent's wisdom was profound and unparalleled, revealing the Zhou rituals to follow ancient precedents, and the gains and losses were adjusted accordingly, just as Confucius heard the Shao, and the sun and moon cannot be grasped. If not for the saints and sages, who can be like this! Order was restored, and everything was in place; this is the reason for protecting the holy Han and stabilizing the countless affairs of state. Now that Gong Xianjun has passed away, the ritual states, 'commoners' sons observe mourning for their mothers.' The saying goes, 'one's duty to the state supersedes personal grief.' The regent emperor inherits the holy virtue of the emperor, receives the decree of the empress dowager to take over the regency and assume the throne, serves as the heir of the Han ancestral temple, with the heavy responsibility of heaven and earth, the state, and the worries of the countless affairs of state, and cannot care about his private relatives. Therefore, the empress dowager bestowed upon her grandson the title of Marquis of Xin Du, as the mourning marquis. The regent emperor and the elders are one body, offering sacrifices to the ancestral temple and serving and supporting the empress dowager, unable to serve their private relatives. According to the Zhou rituals, 'the king wears mourning for the marquis,' 'wearing a cap and adding mourning,' with the same surname, wearing linen, and with a different surname, wearing hemp. The regent emperor should wear mourning for Gong Xianjun, wearing a cap and adding mourning, like the emperor mourning for the marquis, to comply with the holy regulations." Mang then acted accordingly, mourning twice over the designated periods, and established the Marquis of Xin Du as the head of the imperial clan, mourning for three years.
Chen Chong, a government official, reported that Yan Gong Hou Guang secretly told Chief Commandant Dou Kuang to have someone killed. Kuang was arrested and executed. Mang flew into a rage and berated Guang. Guang's mother said, "You're nothing compared to Changsun and Zhongsun!" Consequently, Guang, his mother, and Kuang all died by suicide. At first, Mang claimed he was devoted to his mother, sister-in-law, and nephew, but he soon turned cruel and put on a hypocritical show of justice. He appointed Guang's son Jia as the new Marquis. Mang wrote in a letter: "My deadline for 'Suppressing Secrets' is the end of December. The New Year's sacrifice is in January, and the eight musical tones must be played. How many nobles and scholars will attend? What is the meaning of the five and eight tones? Let all of your scholars consider this carefully and submit their interpretations."
In the year 9 CE, the Marquis of Guangrao, Liu Jing, the General of Chariots and Cavalry, Qian Renhu Yun, and the Grand Protector, Zang Hong, all presented their memorials. Jing spoke of a new well in Qi County, Yun spoke of a stone ox in Ba County, and Hong spoke of Yongshe in Fufeng. Mang accepted all three reports. In the eleventh month, Mǎng memorialized the Empress Dowager, saying: "Your Majesty, in your sacred wisdom, we find ourselves facing dynastic misfortune, at the cusp of the thirty-seventh year of the Han's twelfth generation. Heaven has granted me its mandate, appointing me regent, entrusted with the care of the young Emperor and the fate of the realm. I am filled with apprehension, fearing that I may fail to live up to this great responsibility. The Marquis of Guangrao, Liu Jing, presented a memorial, saying: 'In the middle of the seventh month, the head of Changxing Pavilion in Linzi County, Qi, Xin Dang, dreamed several times in one night, saying: 'I am sent by the Heavenly Emperor. The Heavenly Emperor sent me to tell the head of the pavilion that the regent emperor should be real.' If you do not believe me, a well, a hundred feet deep, appeared before him in this pavilion.' The head of the pavilion got up in the morning to look in the pavilion, and indeed there was a new well, a hundred feet deep.' On Renzi, the eleventh month, which also marked the winter solstice, the stone ox from Ba County arrived on Wuyu; the Yongshi inscription arrived as well, both appearing before the front hall of the Wuyang Palace. I, along with the Grand Protector, the Marquis of Anyang, and others, witnessed a violent wind and flying sand and rocks. After the wind stopped, a bronze tablet with the inscription 'Heaven's decree to the emperor, the presenter will be ennobled. Accepting the mandate of Heaven, using the decree of the gods.' The Cavalry Commandant Cui Fa and others carefully examined and interpreted it. When I reviewed the edict issued in the second year of the reign of the late Emperor Xiaoping, changing it to the first year of the Yuanchu era, I consulted the oracles of Gan Zhongke and Xia Heliang stored in the Lantai, and the content was... I interpret the 'Yuanchu' era's inaugural year as signifying the great general's assumption of regency. It is now confirmed. The "Book of Documents: Kang Gao" records: 'The king said: 'Meng Hou is my brother, and I am appointing him as the Marquis.' This is the text of the Duke of Zhou taking over the reign as king. Duke Yin of Spring and Autumn did not speak of his accession, but took over the reign. These two classics, attributed to various authors and compilers, serve as precedents for later generations. Confucius said: 'Fear the mandate of Heaven, fear great men, and fear the words of the sages.' I dare not disobey! I request to serve the spirits and ancestors, and I propose that the Empress Dowager and the late Empress Xiaoping be both referred to as the Empress. Henceforth, all edicts shall be issued in my name, and all reports shall omit the term 'regent.' The third year of my regency shall be designated as Year One of the new reign. I have nurtured the young emperor day and night, allowing him to emulate the virtues of King Cheng of Zhou, and to proclaim the majesty and virtue of the Empress Dowager to all corners of the world, aiming to enrich and educate. The young emperor will don the ceremonial robe and will resume the ancestral rites, following the example of the Duke of Zhou.' The memorial was approved. The populace saw this as divine mandate; the court buzzed with the imminent ascension of Wang Mang.
Qi Men Lang Zhang Chong and six others conspired to usurp power from Mang and establish the King of Chu. When discovered, they were killed.
The people of Zitong mourned for Ai Zhang Xuewen in Chang'an, who was of obscure background and fond of making grand claims. Upon seeing Mang in power, he immediately crafted a bronze box containing two seals, one inscribed "Heavenly Emperor's Imperial Gold Seal Box" and the other inscribed "Imperial Seal of the Red Emperor, a certain transmission to the Yellow Emperor's Gold Letter." The term 'certain' refers to the founder Liu Bang. The letter proclaimed Wang Mang the true emperor, divinely appointed through the Empress Dowager. The document listed eight of Mang's ministers and also added the auspicious names Wang Xing and Wang Sheng, making a total of eleven individuals, all with official titles to assist. Upon hearing about the Qi Jing and Stone Ox incidents, Zhang immediately dressed in yellow, took the box to the Gaomiao Temple at dusk, and handed it over to the Grand Secretary. The Grand Secretary reported this. On the day of Wuchen, Mang went to Gaomiao Temple to receive the divine mandate contained within the gold box. He wore the royal crown, paid respects to the Empress Dowager, then sat in front of the main hall of the Weiyang Palace and wrote a letter stating: "Due to my lack of virtue, I entrust myself to the descendants of the Yellow Emperor through the ancestors of Emperor Huang, the descendants of Emperor Yu through the ancestors of Emperor Yu, and the descendants of the Empress Dowager. The Heavenly Emperor's great blessings and divine instructions, the gold box and the letter, have been bestowed upon me to govern the people of the world. The spirit of the Red Emperor, the Han Emperor Gaozu, has received the mandate of heaven and passed down the golden letter of the country. I am deeply in awe and dare not refuse! On the day of Wuchen, I will wear the royal crown and truly ascend to the position of the Son of Heaven, with the title 'New Emperor' bestowed upon me. I will change the calendar, clothing colors, livestock, flags, and implements. The first month of the first year of the establishment of the country will be the 12th month of Guichou, with the time set at the crowing of the rooster. The imperial color will be yellow, symbolizing virtue; white animals will be used in sacrifices, symbolizing purity; and the new imperial banners will be pure yellow, bearing the inscription 'Five Authority Flags', to demonstrate the majesty of the Heavenly Emperor."
