The *Hong Fan* says there are eight keys to running a country. First is food, followed by the circulation of goods. Food means growing crops to feed everyone, while goods refer to cloth for clothing, as well as gold, silver, tools, and all sorts of valuables – to make sure everyone gets their fair share. These two things – food and trade – are what keep people alive, and they've been important since way back in Shen Nong's day. Shen Nong invented the plow and hoe, taught everyone how to farm, and boom – enough food for everyone!
Midday, everyone'd head to the market – a massive swap meet where everyone could buy and sell whatever they needed. Then everyone went home happy, ensuring the circulation of goods. With an adequate food supply and the circulation of goods, a country can become strong and prosperous, allowing its people to be wealthy and enabling smooth education. Starting with the Yellow Emperor, who knew how to make things easier on the people, Yao told his sons to teach everyone the best time to plant, and Shun made sure no one went hungry. This is the foundation of governing the country.
After Yu the Great controlled the floods, he divided the land into nine provinces, stipulated the land acreage, imposed taxes and tribute based on the different products of each region, and adjusted the surplus and shortage of goods in various regions, and that brought peace to the land. The prosperity of the Yin and Zhou dynasties recorded in the *Book of Songs* and the *Book of Documents* was due to stabilizing the people, making them prosperous, and then educating them. Therefore, the *I Ching* says, "Heaven and Earth's biggest gift is life itself, and a ruler's greatest wealth is his people. How do you keep your people? By being kind. How do you keep them close? By making sure they're well off."
Therefore, a wise ruler governs the people, builds cities for them to live in, stipulates the size of houses and fields to ensure equal land distribution, establishes markets for the circulation of goods, and sets up schools for education. A good ruler gives everyone a job to do: scholars to study and govern, farmers to grow food, craftspeople to make things, and merchants to keep trade flowing. Everyone does their part, and the country thrives. No lazy officials, no lazy people, no empty fields – everyone's working hard.
In this ideal system of land management, land is key for good governance. Therefore, it is necessary to standardize the measurements of *bu* and *mu* and determine the boundaries of the fields. Six feet make up one *bu*, one hundred *bu* make up one *mu*, one hundred *mu* make up one *fu* (a unit of land, 100 *mu*), three *fu* make up one *jing* (a larger land unit), and one *fangli* (a unit of land area) makes up one *jing*, totaling nine *fu*. This land was shared by eight households, each owning one hundred *mu* of private land and ten *mu* of public land, totaling eight hundred and eighty *mu*, with the remaining twenty *mu* used for building houses. Neighbors help each other, watch over one another, and assist each other when sick, so the people live in harmony, education is popularized, and things were balanced between work and production.
The common people divide the land: farmers with the best land are allocated 100 mu, those with average land are allocated 200 mu, and those with the poorest land are allocated 300 mu. Those who cultivate every year are called "high-yield land farmers"; those who fallow for one year are called "medium-yield land farmers"; those who fallow for two years are called "low-yield land farmers," and after three years, they can cultivate again, choosing their own plot. After the farmers receive their land, if there are extra adult sons in the household, they are also allocated land according to the population ratio. Intellectuals, craftsmen, and merchants are allocated land as well, with five people equivalent to one farmer's plot. This is how it worked on the plains. As for hills, woods, swamps, cemeteries, and salty land, they are treated differently based on the fertility or barrenness of the land, and taxes are collected accordingly. The taxes covered one-tenth of the public land and income from the production and sale of artisan goods, commerce, and weighing instruments. Taxes are used to supply vehicles, weapons, the military, and officials' expenses, enrich the national treasury, and for rewards. Taxes are also used for sacrifices to temples, shrines, and gods, as well as for the emperor's upkeep, officials' salaries, and various expenses. The common people receive land at the age of 20 and return it at the age of 60. Those over 70 are supported by the state; those under 10 are cared for by the state; those over 11 receive a good education from the state. When planting crops, it is necessary to grow a variety of five grains to prevent disasters. Trees cannot be planted in the fields to avoid obstructing crop growth. If you work hard and weed often, you'll have a bumper crop. After returning home, they plant mulberry trees and grow vegetables and fruits in an orderly manner. Chickens, pigs, dogs, and sheep must be fed on time. Women would weave silk. By age fifty, they'd be wearing silk. By seventy, they'd be eating meat.
So, living in the countryside (called "Lu") and living in the city (called "Li") are two different experiences. Five families make up a neighborhood, five neighborhoods make up a village, four villages make up a clan, five clans make up a group, five groups make up a state, and five states make up a township. In a township, there are approximately 12,500 households! The lowest-ranking neighborhood leader is equivalent to a corporal, and they gradually rise in rank until they become a magistrate at the township level. This way, everything is well-organized inside and outside the villages, and there is even a school in the township called "Xiang," which serves to educate the people and hold various ceremonies that subtly influence everyone.
In the spring, everyone goes to work in the fields, and in the winter, they all return to the city. Just like the Book of Songs says: "On the fourth day, I act with my wife and children, feasting in the southern fields." It also mentions: "In October, the crickets come under my bed," and "Alas, my wife, the year is about to change, as we enter this room." All of this is to work with the seasons, guard against thieves, and learn etiquette and culture. When everyone heads out to work in the spring, the Li sits in the school on the right early in the morning, while the neighborhood leader sits in the school on the left, waiting for everyone to leave before they return, and this is the same in the evening. When they come back, they must carry firewood, with the elderly and children exempt from this task.
In the winter, everyone returns to the city, and the women gather in the same alley to spin and weave together, with about 45 effective working days in a month. They work side by side to save on lighting, learn from each other, and exchange experiences. If someone is feeling down, they'd all sing together to lift their spirits and share their troubles.
When I was young, I studied in the village school's classroom. At eight, I entered elementary school, learned basic subjects like reading, writing, and arithmetic, and began to understand the family's hierarchy. At fifteen, I began advanced studies and focused on the Confucian classics, learning the etiquette of the imperial court. Top students could continue their education at a higher-level school in the village. The most outstanding students there could advance to the imperial academy. Each vassal state sent its best students to the imperial academy; this was known as the "Zaoshi" system. If students' grades were comparable, their ranking was determined by archery skill.
At the beginning of March, people who gathered together for the winter are about to go their separate ways. At this time, those sent out would sound the wooden clapper (an ancient musical instrument) on the road to collect folk songs, then present them to the music masters to evaluate the melodies and submit the finest songs to the emperor. Therefore, ancient emperors could gauge the sentiment of the land without personally going out to inspect. This is the main strategy of ancient sage kings governing the country, managing the populace, ensuring their prosperity and education. Confucius said: "To govern a country with thousands of chariots, one must rule with respect, integrity, frugality, and care for the people, ensuring timely work." Therefore, the common people work actively and diligently, prioritizing national affairs before personal interests. The Poetry Classic says: "Mist and clouds bring rain, nourishing both public and private lands." Three years of farming allows for one year of rest. When there is no worry about food and clothing, one knows what honor and disgrace are, and a culture of honesty and accommodation takes hold, reducing disputes. Therefore, officials were evaluated every three years. Confucius said: "If someone uses me well, results can be seen in a month, significant achievements can be made in three years." This is the principle. After three evaluations, promotion or demotion of officials occurs, and the remaining three years are used to enjoy the fruits of the harvest. One promotion is called "promotion," two promotions are called "double promotion," and three promotions are called "triple promotion." This system ensured a nine-year food reserve by age twenty-seven. Then, virtue can spread throughout the world, and rituals and music can prosper. Therefore, the saying "a sage ruler needs generations to achieve harmony" makes sense.
After the decline of the Zhou Dynasty, tyrants and corrupt officials disregarded the law, imposed forced labor arbitrarily, and nobody trusted the government anymore. It was a constant game of deception between superiors and subordinates, leading to public lands becoming barren. Therefore, Duke Xuan of Lu implemented a land tax based on the size of the land plots, which was criticized in the "Spring and Autumn" period. As a result, there was corruption at the top, people were furious at the bottom, frequent disasters occurred, and everything went to hell.
During the Warring States period, people valued power and military might over morality and virtue. Getting rich came before good manners. At that time, Li Kui suggested to Marquis Wen of Wei that they should plan land use efficiently. He proposed that in an area of a hundred square miles, totaling ninety thousand hectares (roughly 6 million mu) of land, one-third should be set aside for mountains, forests, towns, and residential areas, leaving six million mu for cultivation. Diligent farmers would get three extra sheng of grain per mu; lazy ones would lose three sheng. A hundred square miles could yield 1.8 million shi more, or less, depending on how the land was cultivated.
He also said: If food prices are too high, folks can't bear it; if food prices are too low, farmers lack motivation. When the common people suffer, they will flee in droves; when farmers lack motivation, the country will become poor. Therefore, the harm caused by wild swings in food prices is the same. A good ruler should ensure that the folks do not suffer and encourage farmers to work hard.
Now, a strong working man has to support a family of five by cultivating one hundred acres of land, harvesting one and a half stones (approximately 200 pounds) of food per acre, totaling one hundred and fifty stones per year. After deducting eleven taxes, which amounts to fifteen stones, he is left with one hundred and thirty-five stones. A family of five eats 1.5 stones of grain per person each month, or 90 stones a year. This leaves them with 45 stones. Forty-five stones of food can be exchanged for one thousand three hundred and fifty wén (an ancient Chinese currency unit). Subtracting three hundred wén for ancestral rites and harvest festivals leaves one thousand and fifty wén. A family of five spends three hundred wén per person per year on clothing, totaling one thousand five hundred wén, leaving a shortfall of four hundred and fifty wén. And that's not counting sickness, death, and other taxes! This is why farmers are always poor and lack motivation to cultivate, and also the reason why food prices remain high.
Therefore, to stabilize food prices, one must carefully observe the quality of the harvest each year. In a year of bumper harvest, four stones can be harvested per acre, and the surplus food can be set aside up to four hundred stones; in a year of medium harvest, three stones can be harvested per acre, and the surplus food can be reserved up to three hundred stones; in a year of poor harvest, two stones can be harvested per acre, and the surplus food can be stored up to one hundred stones. In case of a slight poor harvest, the reserved one hundred stones of food can be used; in case of a medium poor harvest, the set-aside three hundred stones can be used; in case of a severe poor harvest, the stored four hundred stones can be sold. This way, even in times of famine or drought, food prices will not be too high, and the folks will not be displaced. They can use surplus food from a good year to make up for shortages in a bad year. Wei put this plan into action, and boom – the country thrived!
Qin Xiaogong really leaned on Shang Yang, abolished the well-field system, and built roads between the fields while pushing a farming-and-warfare policy. Although this was not the ancient way of governing, the emphasis on agriculture and military affairs made the country powerful, instilling fear in neighboring countries and establishing it as the strongest among the feudal lords. However, the country's laws were also destroyed, the hierarchical system became chaotic, and standards were lost. Wealthy families accumulated huge wealth, while the poor could only eat gruel and scraps; powerful countries annexed large areas of land, while weaker countries lost their own territories. By the time of Qin Shihuang, the country was unified, with massive construction projects underway, expeditions against foreign tribes, and the collection of large amounts of taxes and conscription of soldiers. Men toiled in the fields, but the food was not enough to pay taxes; women worked hard at weaving, but there were not enough clothes to wear. Taking all the country's money to support the government still could not satisfy Qin Shihuang's desires. People were furious, leading to a rebellion in the end.
After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, picking up the pieces after the Qin, various feudal lords rebelled, and people lost their land and jobs, leading to severe famine. Rice cost a fortune, there was widespread violence, and more than half of the population starved to death. Liu Bang had no choice but to allow the common people to sell their children to survive in Shu and Hanzhong. After the country was pacified, everyone was broke; the emperor couldn't even get a decent horse, and some ministers were riding oxcarts! Therefore, Liu Bang simplified the laws, reduced prohibitions, eased land taxes, implemented a one-fifteenth tax system, standardized the salaries of officials, controlled government spending, and made things easier for the people. The tax revenue from mountains, rivers, gardens, markets, etc., was used for private support and no longer handed over to the national treasury. They only moved a few hundred thousand bushels of grain from the east to the capital each year. Under Emperor Xiaohui and Empress Lü, the people's living conditions improved. After Emperor Wen ascended the throne, he really stressed thrift and focused on making sure people had a decent life.
At that time, due to the turmoil experienced during the Warring States period, the common people abandoned agriculture, speculated, and were enthusiastic about business. Jia Yi advised Emperor Wen, saying: "Guanzi once said, 'When the granaries are full, people know etiquette.' If the common people can't get enough to eat, how can they govern the world well? That's never worked, historically! The ancients said, 'If the men don't farm, people starve; if the women don't weave, people freeze.' Life is limited, and if wasted extravagantly, resources will surely be exhausted. In ancient times, governing the world was meticulous, so the country had sufficient reserves to rely on. But now, we've got things completely backwards, with too many people engaged in non-agricultural production, which is a national catastrophe; the trend of extravagance and waste is increasing day by day, crushing the nation. People are being exploited left and right, and nobody's doing anything about it! The whole country's about to collapse, and nobody cares! There are few people producing food, but many wasting it; how can the whole economy not crash? The Han Dynasty has been established for almost forty years now, and the country and the people's savings are pathetic. If there is a natural disaster and no rain, the common people will suffer hunger; if the harvest is poor, the people will have to sell their titles and children. With the country in this state, how can the Emperor not be worried?! There are good years and bad years in the world; this is the law of nature, even Great Yu and King Tang have experienced it. If unfortunately, a severe drought occurs over thousands of miles, how will the country provide relief to the affected people? If there is a sudden emergency at the border and an army of hundreds of thousands is needed, how will the country support them? If both military and drought disasters occur simultaneously, the world will fall into crisis, the strong will gather to attack each other, the tired and elderly will turn on each other, and may even resort to cannibalism. The government's a mess, and those in distant places who already have doubts will rise up in rebellion, and by then, it'll be too late to stop the rebellion!
Stockpiling food and wealth is a top priority for the nation. With plenty of food and money to spare, what couldn't we do? We can use it to attack and grab land, defend our borders, and win wars. We can use it to keep our enemies happy, bring in distant nobles – who wouldn't want to join us? We need to get people back to farming in the countryside. Everyone should work the land and feed themselves; those messing around or doing odd jobs should get back to farming. We could have a strong, prosperous country with a happy populace, but look at the mess! It's a shame, Your Majesty!
People aren't starving because the emperor's out there plowing fields; it's because he's created the conditions for them to prosper. Even back in Yao and Shun's day – nine years of floods! – or during Shang Tang's seven-year drought, nobody starved because they'd stocked up. We've got a unified country, more land and people than Yao and Shun ever had, and no major disasters for years. So why the shortages? It's because we've got tons of uncultivated land, untapped resources in the mountains, rivers, and lakes, and too many people just loafing around. Poor people cause trouble. Poverty means lack of stuff, lack of stuff means no farming, no farming means land problems, land problems mean people scattering like rats – no matter how high the walls, deep the moats, or tough the laws, you can't hold them.
Cold weather requires clothing to keep warm; it doesn't mean the clothes have to be fancy. Hunger requires food to fill the stomach; it doesn't have to be a feast. When people are cold and hungry, they'll do anything. People get hungry after a day without food, and cold after a year without new clothes. When the stomach is empty and there's nothing to eat, when the body is cold and there's no clothes to wear, not even a loving father can protect his kids when they're that desperate, let alone an emperor. How can he govern his people well? Wise rulers understand this principle, so they always encourage the common people to farm and grow silkworms, reduce taxes, and stockpile grain and supplies in order to be prepared for any emergency; that's how they truly win the people's hearts.
People are like sheep; they need rulers to manage them. They chase profit like water flows downhill, going wherever there is something to gain, regardless of anything else. Those gold, silver, and jewels cannot be eaten when hungry, nor can they be worn when cold, but everyone values them because the rulers do. These things are small in size, easy to store, and when used properly, can solve the nation's hunger and cold. But the current problem is that ministers easily betray the ruler. People abandon their homes. Thieves and bandits run rampant. Runaways find easy help. Food and cloth require land, time, and manpower to produce; they cannot be completed in a day. A heavy load of grain is something even an ordinary person cannot carry, so they cannot be easily exploited by bad people, nor can they make people starve or freeze to death in a day. So, wise rulers prioritize food over gold and silver.
Back then, a family of five farmers needed at least two adults working just to survive. Even with 100 mu of farmland—a decent amount—the harvest barely reached 100 shi of grain. In spring, they plowed the land; in summer, they hoed the grass; in autumn, they harvested; in winter, they stored; plus, they chopped wood, dealt with various government affairs, and performed corvée labor. They faced relentless wind and dust in spring, scorching heat in summer, drenching rain in autumn, and bitter cold in winter—there was no respite. They also helped neighbors, attended funerals, visited the sick, and cared for the vulnerable—all part of the job. In such hard work, they still had to face water and drought disasters, endure harsh government orders, and cope with unpredictable taxes, while government decrees changed on a whim. The wealthy squeezed prices when buying, then doubled the interest on loans to the poor, leading some to sell their land or even their children to pay off debts. Wealthy merchants earned huge profits from interest alone, while smaller merchants thrived on speculation and sharp dealing, wandering around the city every day, seizing opportunities to gouge prices, often doubling them. They lived in luxury, raking in huge profits without lifting a finger in the fields. Their wealth and influence allowed them to cozy up to officials, exchanging favors and exploiting the system. They traveled in style, their carriages and horses a constant parade of luxury. This is how the merchants swallowed up the farmers, leaving them destitute and adrift.
A family of five farmers—at least two had to work every day. They farmed around 100 mu of land, yielding at most 100 shi of grain. From spring plowing to winter storage, their lives were a relentless cycle of work: farming, chopping wood, dealing with officials, and forced labor—with no respite. They also had to attend to family matters, such as giving gifts and greetings and caring for orphans and widows. This backbreaking work was further complicated by the ever-present threat of floods and droughts, not to mention arbitrary government decrees and unpredictable taxes. The wealthy squeezed prices, charged exorbitant interest, and forced many to sell their land and even their children to survive. Wealthy merchants grew rich simply by saving money, while smaller merchants thrived on speculation and arbitrage, constantly buying low and selling high in the city. Their men didn't toil in the fields, their women didn't weave cloth; they lived lives of comfort and luxury, raking in the profits. With their newfound wealth, they cultivated relationships with the powerful, enjoyed lavish lifestyles, and traveled extensively. This disparity drove farmers off their land and into the hands of increasingly powerful merchants.
Right now, the law doesn't think much of merchants, but merchants are already very wealthy; farmers are valued, but they are very poor. So, what society values, the court looks down upon; what officials dismiss, the law holds in high regard. The rich and the poor are on totally different pages, and their preferences conflict with each other, yet they still want the country to be strong and the laws to work, which is simply impossible. The most important thing now is to get everyone farming. To get people back to the land, we must value grain; the way to value grain is to use it as a standard for rewards and punishments for the common people. The government's pushing everyone to give up their grain to the officials, to exchange grain for titles and to use grain to atone for sins. In this way, the rich obtain titles, farmers get money, and there is a destination for the grain. Only those with extra grain can trade it for titles; by collecting grain from the wealthy to meet the court's needs, the tax burden on the poor can be lightened, which is the so-called "taking from the rich to help the poor," a good policy that benefits all the common people. This'll have three good effects: first, the court's grain supply will be sufficient; second, the tax burden on the common people will be reduced; and third, agricultural production will be encouraged. If you've got a cart and horses, you must serve an additional three years of military service. Carts and horses are essential for the military, so more military service is required. The teachings of Shennong say: "Even with walls ten ren high, moats one hundred steps wide, and a million soldiers, without grain, it cannot be defended." From this perspective, grain is the king's biggest worry, the whole basis of governing. It is now stipulated that to exchange grain for titles, one must reach the rank of Wudaifu or above to serve an additional year of military service, which is a huge difference compared to those who serve additional military service for owning carts and horses. The emperor can give or take away titles on a whim; grain is grown by the common people, it grows on the earth, and it is inexhaustible. Everyone wants a high title and to get off scot-free. If everyone sends grain to the border in exchange for titles and pardons, the border will be overflowing with grain in no time.
Currently, the law looks down on merchants, but merchants are already very wealthy; farmers are valued, yet they remain very poor. Therefore, what society values, the court looks down upon; what officials disdain, the law holds in high regard. This contradiction from top to bottom, preference for conflict, and the expectation that the country will be strong and prosperous, and that laws will be effective? Fat chance! The most urgent task is to let everyone cultivate the land. If everyone works the fields, we must value food; if we value food, we must use it to reward and punish. The current call for the entire nation to deliver food to the government means that food can be exchanged for noble titles and exemption from punishment. In this way, the wealthy gain titles, farmers gain income, and grain finds a market. Those who can exchange food for titles are affluent individuals; by collecting food from the rich to meet the court's needs and reducing the taxes of the poor, this is a redistribution of resources that benefits the common people. This aligns with the will of the people, with three advantages: first, the court's granaries will overflow; second, the tax burden on the people is reduced; third, agricultural production is encouraged. It is now stipulated that if a household has a carriage and a horse, they must serve an additional three years in the military. Carriages and horses are vital to the nation's military, so more military service is required. The "Classic of the Materia Medica" states, "Even with a city wall ten times the height of a man, a hundred-step wide moat, and a million-strong army, without food, it cannot be defended." It can be seen that food is a major issue for the monarch and the foundation of governance. It is now stipulated that by exchanging food for titles, those above the rank of fifth-rank official will only serve an additional year in the military, which is a stark contrast to the service required for owning carriages and horses. Titles are granted by the emperor, a simple decree; grain is produced by the common people, a seemingly inexhaustible resource. High titles and absolution are sought by all. If the entire nation transports grain to the border in exchange for titles and exemption from punishment, within three years, grain will pile high at the border.
Emperor Wen of Han adopted Chao Cuo's suggestion, allowing common people to transport grain to the border in exchange for noble titles. For every 600 stones of grain transported, one could receive a minor noble title, with higher titles granted for larger amounts of grain. For 4,000 stones of grain, one could be ennobled as a Viscount, and for 12,000 stones of grain, one could be ennobled as a Grand Master; the higher the grain contribution, the higher the title.
Chao Cuo further submitted: "Your Majesty, letting folks trade grain for titles at the border is a pretty sweet deal! However, I am concerned that the supply of grain for the border troops may be insufficient, using up all the grain in the country. If the border grain supply can last for five years, the people can then transport grain to the counties for noble titles; if it can last for more than a year, the people can be temporarily exempt from paying land rent. This way, everyone benefits, and they will work even harder in farming. Even in times of war or natural disasters, the people will not suffer, and things will settle down. With good harvests, the people will be even more prosperous and joyful." Emperor Wen once again accepted his suggestion, ordering the exemption of half of the people's land rent for twelve years. The following year, the people's land rent was completely waived.
After thirteen years, in the second year of Emperor Jing of Han, the court decreed that the people only had to pay taxes on one-tenth of their land. Later, a drought occurred in the west, prompting the court to reintroduce the sale of noble titles, but at lower prices to encourage participation. Additionally, criminals could work off their sentences by supplying grain to the county officials. The court started breeding lots of horses, and that led to more palaces, offices, and carriages. However, Emperor Jing repeatedly reminded officials to prioritize agriculture, so everyone could live comfortably.
Starting from the early years of Emperor Wu of Han, for about seventy years, the country did not experience major wars. Except for encountering floods and droughts, the people's lives were relatively prosperous. Granaries overflowed across the land, and the national treasury also accumulated a large amount of wealth. The capital overflowed with wealth; so much cash that the copper coins were verdigris-covered. Granaries overflowed, the surplus rotting in the open. Every household had horses, and fields were filled with herds of livestock, even so many mares that were not needed. Even the gate guards dined on fine rice, and officials had numerous children and grandchildren. Official positions were hereditary, passed down through families like surnames. People were mindful of their reputations, law-abiding, and eager to do good to avoid shame.
As a result, the world was peaceful, the people were wealthy, taxes were abundant, and land was being consolidated by the wealthy; powerful landlords used force to dominate the countryside. Members of the royal family owned large amounts of land, and even lower-ranking officials vied with each other in extravagance, exceeding the hierarchical system in houses, carriages, and clothing without restrictions. But as they say, what goes up must come down.
Later on, the government was swamped with foreign affairs and big building projects, and all kinds of expenses increased. Folks were too busy to even think about farming. Dong Zhongshu said to the emperor, "'The Spring and Autumn Annals' only records important stuff – like bad wheat and rice harvests. This shows that the sage values wheat and rice the most! Nowadays, the common people in the Guanzhong region do not like to grow wheat, which goes against what the 'Spring and Autumn Annals' says about how important farming is, and also reduces the food supply for the common people! Your Majesty should tell the Minister of Agriculture to get those folks in Guanzhong planting more wheat before it's too late." He also said, "Back in the day, taxes were only a tenth, and corvee was just three days – easy peasy. People had enough left over to look after their families, pay their taxes, and still have something for themselves. Everyone was happy. It was different in the Qin Dynasty, where Shang Yang's laws changed the system of previous emperors, abolished the well-field system, and allowed land to be bought and sold. Wealthy people hoarded large areas of land, while the poor had no land at all. They also monopolized water and forest resources, lived it up, and competed with each other; local officials acted like kings, and the common people were still dirt poor. How could the common people not be impoverished? Furthermore, the common people were forced to serve as soldiers for one year and perform corvee labor for one year, thirty times more than in ancient times; the monopoly on salt and iron was also twenty times more than in ancient times. Farmers working for the landlords were paying half their crops in taxes! Poor folks were wearing animal hides and eating scraps. In addition, corrupt officials were running wild and handing out punishments like candy, causing the common people to be unable to survive, fleeing to the mountains and forests, becoming bandits, and criminals in chains were everywhere, with millions of cases sentenced each year. But even after the Han Dynasty started, nothing changed. Although it is difficult to implement the ancient well-field system all at once, we should move closer to the ancient system, restrict land consolidation, solve the problem of the common people's land shortage, and plug the loopholes in land consolidation. Salt and iron should be returned to the common people. The system of slavery should be abolished, and the tyranny of autocracy should be removed. Reduce taxes, lighten corvee labor, and lighten the burden on the common people. Only in this way can the country be governed well." After Dong Zhongshu died, things only got worse. The country went broke, and people were even resorting to cannibalism.
In the later years of Emperor Wu of Han, he regretted initiating so many wars in his early reign, so he appointed the Prime Minister as the Marquis of Fumin. He then issued an imperial decree, stating, "Now the most important thing is to develop agriculture!" He appointed Zhao Guo as the Minister of Agriculture, specifically responsible for addressing the food issue.
Zhao Guo was very skilled in a farming method called the *daitian* method (literally, "alternate fields"), where one acre of land could be cultivated with three ridges. This ancient technique has been passed down through generations. It is said that Houji was the first to invent this method, using two plows to create a set, resulting in multiple planting rows that improved drainage and soil aeration. With three ridges per acre, one person could cultivate three hundred ridges in a year and then sow the seeds on the ridges. After the seedlings grew leaves, the weeds on the ridges were gradually removed, and the soil was hilled around the roots to stabilize them. The Book of Songs states: "Weeding and hilling the millet and sorghum – a process of tending the crops as they grow." By midsummer, the weeds on the ridges would be cleared, and the roots would be well established, resilient against wind and drought, allowing the crops to flourish.
Zhao Guo's improved farming tools were also very convenient to use. He stipulated that twelve people work together to cultivate a piece of land, equipped with a well and a house, so that each person would manage an average of five acres. They used a coupled plow with two oxen, operated by three people. By the end of the year, the yield per acre was at least a significant increase compared to ordinary fields, with some even doubling. Zhao Guo also had the Board of Rites and the chief agricultural officials in the three prefectures surrounding the capital equipped with sophisticated farming tools and specialized personnel to manufacture these tools. He then ordered local officials to instruct village heads, elders, and experienced farmers in the use of these improved tools and advanced farming techniques.
Some farmers complained that there were too few cattle, making it difficult to cultivate the fields, so Guang of Pingdu suggested encouraging communal manpower plowing. Zhao Guo then recommended Guang to the court, proposing they adopt this manpower plowing method. When there are many people, they can cultivate 30 mu (a unit of land area) of land in a day, and when there are fewer people, they can still cultivate 13 mu. Therefore, cultivated land dramatically increased. Zhao Guo also experimented with this method using palace soldiers near the palace and found that yields were significantly higher than surrounding fields, exceeding a bushel per mu. He also ordered the widespread adoption of this method in the Sanfu area and extended it to the border counties and Juyan City. After that, people across border regions, Hedong, Hongnong, Sanfu, Taichang, and elsewhere began to adopt the Dai Tian method, significantly reducing labor and boosting grain yields. During the reign of Emperor Zhao, refugees gradually began returning, more land was opened up, and the people also saved some money. After Emperor Xuan became emperor, he selected officials based on their abilities, and the people lived and worked in peace, with abundant harvests every year. Grain prices plummeted to five qian per stone, leaving farmers with reduced incomes. At that time, the Minister of Agriculture, Geng Shouchang, was a shrewd calculator who understood the economic realities, and the emperor valued him highly. During the Wufeng period, Geng Shouchang pointed out that the current system of transporting four million shi (a unit of grain volume) of grain from Guandong annually required sixty thousand workers. He proposed instead sourcing grain locally from Sanfu, Hongnong, Hedong, Shangdang, and Taiyuan, which would eliminate over half the labor costs. He also proposed tripling the sea salt tax, a suggestion the emperor accepted.
Inspector General Xiao Wangzhi submitted a memorial to the emperor, saying: "In the past, Xu Gong, an official of the Imperial Secretariat, lived in Donglai. He said that when the salt taxes were increased, no fish could be caught in the sea. The elderly say that during the time of Emperor Wu, when government officials went fishing themselves, no fish could be caught. Later, when the fishing rights were returned to the common people, the fish came back. This reflects the balance of nature. Now, Geng Shouchang wants to purchase grain in the Guannei region and also wants to build warehouses and ships, which will cost over 20 million cash. Such a massive undertaking might bring on a drought, and the common people will suffer. Geng Shouchang was only interested in petty profits; he lacked the foresight needed for such a project. It would be better to follow the previous methods." The emperor did not listen to him. As a result, moving the grain turned out to be a lot easier. Geng Shouchang then suggested building warehouses in the border counties, buying more grain when it is cheap to allow farmers to profit, and selling the grain when it is expensive; this is the Changping Granary. People found it really handy, so the emperor issued a decree, making Geng Shouchang the Marquis of Guannei. Cai Gui, due to his expertise in agriculture, advised various regions to develop agriculture, and his career flourished.
When Emperor Yuan ascended the throne, there were widespread floods, and eleven counties in Guandong were hardest hit. Two years later, there was a famine in Qidu, and grain prices soared to over 300 coins a stone. Many people starved to death, and in Langye County, people even resorted to cannibalism. Most of the scholars in the court said that institutions such as the Salt and Iron Monopoly, the Northern Fictitious Field Monopoly, and the Changping Granary should be abolished to stop them competing with the people for money. The emperor listened to their opinions and abolished them all. He also abolished the guards of Jianzhang Palace and Ganquan Palace. He disbanded the Jiaodi Opera Troupe and the Qisanfu officials, and distributed the royal gardens to the poor. He halved the temple guards of the princes and reduced the stationed troops in Guanzhong by five hundred, using the grain to relieve the poor. Later, when the government ran short of money, they brought back the Salt and Iron Monopoly.
During the reign of Emperor Cheng of Han, things seemed peaceful and plenty, or so it seemed; nobody worried about a thing. However, in reality, people were living it up, and no one thought about storing food. In the second year of Yongshi, the Liang and Pingyuan regions suffered from floods for several years in a row, and it got so bad that people resorted to cannibalism. They canned the governor, prefect, and magistrate. Man, that's rough! That's just how it was back then—disaster always hit the poor hardest.
After Emperor Ai ascended to the throne, Shi Dan helped him with political affairs and suggested, "In ancient times, there wasn't a single good emperor who didn't first implement the equal-field system before being able to govern well. After the downfall of the Zhou Dynasty and the chaos of the Qin Dynasty, the world needed restoration, so Emperor Xiaowen really pushed farming and led by example in advocating frugality. The people gradually became prosperous, without people grabbing all the land, so there were no restrictions on the amount of land and slaves for the people. Now, there have been several generations of peace and prosperity, with wealthy officials and folks having loads of cash, while the poor are becoming increasingly impoverished. Usually, a good leader sticks to what works, but if things are really bad, you gotta change things. This matter isn't easy to say, so it's best to first impose some limitations." The Emperor accepted his advice. Prime Minister Kong Guang and Grand Minister He Wu also submitted a memorial, stating: "The lords and nobles all have land within the country. The nobles residing in Chang'an, the princesses' land in the counties, as well as the land of everyone else in the capital region, should not exceed thirty acres. Please allow the feudal lords to have two hundred slaves, nobles and princesses one hundred, and everyone else thirty. It had to be done in three years, or else you'd lose everything." However, at that time, the prices of land, houses, and slaves were relatively low, the palace eunuchs ran the show, and Dong Xian was calling the shots, making these measures difficult to implement. The Emperor issued a decree saying, "Let's see what happens," and the matter was left unresolved. The palace, parks, and treasury were overflowing with riches, although the people's wealth did not compare to the period of Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing, the country's population had reached a historical peak. Yeah, this policy was all hot air! In the end, it stepped on some powerful toes.
The emperor died, and Wang Mang became the regent, later usurping the throne. At that time, the Han Dynasty inherited an era of peace and prosperity; the Xiongnu all came to pay tribute, and the southern minority ethnic groups submitted, with convenient transportation across the country. The whole empire was under Han rule, the treasury was full, officials were wealthy, and peace reigned. However, Wang Mang was not satisfied at all, believing the Han system was too lax.
Before him, Emperor Xuan of Han had granted the Xiongnu Chanyu an imperial seal, and the king of the southwestern Yi, Juting, was also recognized. Wang Mang then sent people to replace the Chanyu's seal and demoted Juting from king to marquis. This enraged the Xiongnu and Juting, and they began to invade the borders. Wang Mang mobilized an army of 300,000, planning to attack from ten directions simultaneously to annihilate the Xiongnu. He gathered prisoners, strong men, and soldiers from all over the country to transport weapons and equipment from the coast, the Yangtze River, and the Huai River to the northern border. Envoys rushed around urging action, throwing the country into chaos. He also wanted to emulate ancient practices, disregarding the actual situation, making extensive changes to the establishment of provinces and counties, and altering official positions. He ordered, "Under the Han, land taxes were light—only one mu out of thirty—but there were extra taxes on top of that. Even the disabled had to pay, while the rich grabbed land, so that while the tax was nominally on thirty mu, it really fell on only five. Now I rename all the land in the country 'royal fields' and slaves 'private property,' prohibiting buying and selling. If a man has fewer than eight people in his household and exceeds one well (approximately 0.5 hectares) of land, the excess land must be distributed to his nine relatives and villagers." Disobedience was punishable by death. The unstable new system bred corruption, terrorizing the populace and leading to ever-increasing punishments.
After three years, Wang Mang found that the common people were up in arms, so he ordered the selling off of royal lands and private estates to be allowed, and no longer pursued previous illegal activities. However, severe punishments remained, and other policies were chaotic. More than 200,000 soldiers stationed at the border relied on the court for food supply; the military was broke, and the court continued to increase taxes, making the common people even poorer. Droughts were constant; there wasn't a single good harvest, and food prices soared.
In the late years of Wang Mang, the place was overrun with bandits, and the government sent troops to fight them, but the generals and officials were slack and did not take care of matters at all. In the north, Qingzhou, and Xuzhou, people were starving, even resorting to cannibalism, and east of Luoyang, a stone of rice cost a king's ransom—two thousand coins! Wang Mang sent top officials and generals to open all the grain depots in the east to aid the poor, and also sent many doctors and government officials to teach the common people to cook bark mush to eat. As a result, this bark mush was inedible; it just made things worse.
Hundreds of thousands of people fled the famine, and the government established institutions specifically to support them. However, the officials stole the food from the warehouses, causing seven or eight out of ten people starved or froze to death! Wang Mang was mortified and issued a decree lamenting, "I've been hit by every imaginable disaster: the 'Yang Jiu' curse, the 'Bai Liu' blight, drought, frost, locusts—one disaster after another! Barbarians are attacking, bandits are everywhere, and the people are starving and fleeing. My heart aches! But this nightmare is almost over!" He said this every year until his downfall.
