In the first month of the first year of the founding of the country, Wang Mang, along with dukes, marquises, and officials, accepted the imperial seal from the Empress Dowager and proclaimed her accession, thereby ending the Han dynasty. Initially, Wang Mang’s wife, Wang, Lady of Yichun, was made Empress. They had four sons: Yu, Huo, An, and Lin. His eldest two sons met untimely deaths, and An was known for his recklessness, so Lin was made Crown Prince and An was given a minor post. Yu's six sons were enfeoffed: Qian as Duke Gonglong, Shou as Duke Gongming, Ji as Duke Gongcheng, Zong as Duke Gongchong, Shi as Duke Gongzhao, and Li as Duke Gongzhu. A general amnesty was declared throughout the country.
Wang Mang then formally invested his young son as Duke Ding'an, saying, "My son, our ancestor, the Heavenly Emperor, was also the ancestor of the Taizu, ruling for twelve generations and enjoying the throne for two hundred and ten years; destiny has chosen me. As the poem says, 'The marquis serves Zhou, but the mandate of heaven is not constant.' I appoint you as Duke Ding'an, forever an honored member of the new dynasty. Honor Heaven's will, go and take your place, and do not neglect my orders." He also said, "The lands of Pingyuan, Ande, Luoyin, Ge, and Chongqiu, comprising ten thousand households and covering a hundred square miles, shall constitute the Duchy of Ding'an. Establish the ancestral temple of the Han ancestors alongside the ancestral temples of the Zhou, following their calendar and dress code. Serve your ancestors throughout the generations, forever honoring their virtues and ensuring the continuation of ancestral sacrifices. Appoint Empress Xiaoping as Empress Dowager Ding'an." Upon completing the investiture, Wang Mang personally held the young child's hand, tears streaming down his face, and sobbed, saying, "The Duke of Zhou, after seizing power, eventually restored the rightful heir, but now I am alone, constrained by the Mandate of Heaven, unable to achieve my wishes!" He remained silent for a long time, overcome with emotion. The Imperial Tutor led the young child down from the hall, prostrated himself, and pledged his allegiance. A hush fell over the court.
According to the records of Jin Gui, all the key advisors were appointed officials and granted titles. The Grand Tutor, Left Assistant, and General of the Cavalry, Wang Shun, Marquis of Anyang, was appointed Grand Preceptor, Duke Anxin; the Grand Minister of Works, Hou Pingyan, Marquis of Jiude, was appointed Grand Tutor, Duke Xin; the Marquis of Hongxiu, Shaoya, and Jingzhao, Liu Xin, was appointed National Teacher, Duke Jiaxin; the Marquis of Aizhang in Zitong was appointed National General, Duke Meixin. These four constituted the highest echelon of advisors. The Grand Protector, Marquis Zhenhan of Chengcheng, was appointed Grand Marshal, Duke Chengxin; the Marquis of Pijin, Wang Xun, was appointed Grand Minister of Works, Duke Zhangxin; the General of Infantry, Marquis of Chengdu, Wang Yi, was appointed Grand Minister of War, Duke Longxin. These are the Three Grand Ministers. The Marquis of Guangyang, Right Assistant, Grand Minister of Works, and General of the Guard, Zhen Feng, was appointed General of the Beginning, Duke Guangxin; King Xing of Jingzhao was appointed General of the Guard, Duke Fengxin; the General of Light Chariots, Marquis of Chengwu, Sun Jian, was appointed General of Establishing the State, Duke Chengxin; King Sheng of Jingzhao was appointed Chief General, Duke Chongxin. In total, there are eleven dukes. Wang Xing was formerly the gatekeeper of the city gate. Wang Sheng used to sell cakes. Wang Mang, following the results of divination, identified more than ten people with this name, and two of them matched in appearance, so he appointed them from commoners to official positions, believing it divinely ordained to test their suitability for office. All of them were appointed as junior officials. On that day, hundreds of people were appointed as ministers, court advisors, and officials. All the Liu family relatives who served as county magistrates were reassigned as advisors. The Bright Palace was renamed the Palace of Stability, where the Empress Dowager resided. The former Grand Heraldry was designated as the residence of the Duke of Stability, with guards appointed to oversee it. Wang Mang ordered that the nursemaid not be allowed to speak to her, and she was kept locked in a room, growing up without even being able to name six domestic animals. Later, to consolidate his power, Wang Mang married his granddaughter Yuzi to her.
The officials of Mang Ce said: "The Celestial Year Office is solemn, the Grand Astrologer of the East directs the timing, the Green Luminary's auspicious ascent is measured using the gnomon to track the sun's progress. The Fiery Warden Division is diligent, the Grand Astrologer of the South directs the appropriate timing, the Red Luminary heralds harmony, using musical tones to gauge the time. The Great White Division is cautious, the Grand Astrologer of the West directs the timing, the White Luminary symbolizes harmony, using the balance to measure. The Morning Star Division is strategic, the Grand General of the North directs the timing of the cold, the Mysterious Luminary brings peace, using the water clock to observe the stars. The Moon Punishment Yuan Guzu is on the left, the Minister of Rites directs the martial response, using the square to examine the method, in charge of astronomy, revering the heavens, respectfully bestowing the people with timing, putting effort into agriculture, to ensure a bountiful harvest. The Sun Virtue Yuan Huan is on the right, the Minister directs the literary auspiciousness, using the rules to examine the harmony, in charge of human ethics, the Five Teachings serve as guidance, leading the people in following above, proclaiming the beauty of customs, and teaching the Five Ranks. The constellation of the Big Dipper is central to the physical map, the Master of Works directs the assessment, in charge of the land, governing the water and soil, overseeing the famous mountains and rivers, with numerous birds and beasts, and flourishing plants." Each official received their mandate according to their responsibilities, in the style of an imperial decree.
Appointing the Grand Marshal as the Minister of Defense, the Grand Minister as the Minister of Ritual, and the Grand Preceptor as the Minister of Works, all holding the rank of Guqing (a high-ranking official title). The Minister of Agriculture was renamed Xihuo, later changed to Nayan; the Minister of Justice was called Zuoshi; the Minister of Rites was named Zhizong; the Minister of Finance was known as Dianyue; the Minister of Works was called Gonggong; and the Minister of Public Works was named Yuyu. Together with the three company ministers (a term for officials in charge of various departments), they totaled nine ministers under the three dukes. Each minister had three Daifu (a title for high-ranking officials), and each Daifu had three Yuanshi (junior officials), totaling twenty-seven Daifu and eighty-one Yuanshi, responsible for various tasks in the central government.
The Minister of Rites was renamed Sizhong; the Grand Equerry was called Taiyu; the Commandant of the Guards was known as Taiwei; the Commandant of Justice was named Fenwu; the Commandant of the Army was called Junzheng; and a Grand Steward was appointed to oversee the royal carriages and ceremonial attire, later taking charge of military ranks, all holding the rank of Shangqing (senior official title), collectively known as the Six Supervisors (a more descriptive term reflecting their functions). The Prefect of a commandery was renamed Dayin; the Commandant of a capital was called Taiwei; the Magistrate of a county was known as Zai; the Imperial Censor was called Zhifa; the Superintendent of the Imperial Stud was named Wanglu for the four gates; the Palace of Eternal Harmony was called Changyue Chamber; the Palace of Eternal Peace was named Shoucheng Chamber; the Front Hall was known as Wanglu Hall; and Chang'an was referred to as Chang'an.
The Minister of Finance was renamed Shushi; three hundred shi (a unit of measure for salary or rank) was called Xiashi; four hundred shi was known as Zhongshi; five hundred shi was called Mingshi; six hundred shi was named Yuanshi; a thousand shi was referred to as Xiadaifu; compared to two thousand shi, it was called Zhongdaifu; two thousand shi was known as Shangdaifu; and between two thousand and three thousand shi was called Qing. The ceremonial and official attire varied in quality. There were also officials in charge of propriety, ceremonies, intelligence, communication, and the middle officials, as well as poetry reciters and food supervisors, to oversee any misconduct.
It was said in the imperial edict: "I have heard that the sage above desires to manifest his virtue and will not fail to carefully cultivate his own character, to bring peace to distant regions. Therefore, I establish you as ministers in charge of these five matters. Do not hide faults, do not pretend to be without fault, do not deviate from good and evil, stand firm in the center. In jest, be diligent!" The order was given to set up banners for promoting good deeds, not to use wooden tablets for defamation, and to have drums for those who wish to offer advice. Four advisors were always seated at the gate of Wanglu (the office responsible for receiving petitions) to hear petitions.
The descendants of the Wang clan who wore mourning attire were granted the title of Marquis; those with great achievements were named Count; those with minor accomplishments were called Viscount; and those wearing coarse cloth were given the title of Baron, while their daughters were all named Ren. The males were given the title "Mu" (meaning harmony) and the females were called "Long" (meaning prosperity), all receiving seals. Orders were given for the feudal lords to appoint Grand Madams, Madams, and Heirs, who were also given seals and ribbons.
The text states: "Heaven has no two suns, earth has no two kings; the principle of one king at a time is immutable. The Han vassals may be called kings, as do the surrounding non-Han peoples, going against the classics and contradicting unity. Vassals who styled themselves kings would be demoted to dukes, and those who usurped the title of king among the surrounding non-Han peoples shall be reduced to vassals."
It is stated again: "The succession of emperors is unbroken; great virtue will be inherited and honored for hundreds of generations. I admire the virtuous reigns of the Yellow Emperor, Shao Hao, Zhuan Xu, Ku, Yao, Shun, Yu, as well as the achievements of Gao Yao and Yi Yin, who all possessed saintly virtues bestowed by the heavenly emperor, their great accomplishments shining far and wide. I greatly praise them, honoring their descendants and ensuring the perpetuation of their memory." The Wang clan is descended from Emperor Ku; the Liu clan is descended from Emperor Yao. Therefore, Yao Xun received the title of Marquis of Chumou, serving the descendants of the Yellow Emperor; Liang Hu was granted the title of Earl of Xiuyuan, serving the descendants of Emperor Shao Hao; Huangsun Gonglong was named Duke of Qian, serving the descendants of Emperor Ku; Liu Xin received the title of Earl of Qilie, serving the descendants of Emperor Zhuan Xu; the State Preceptor's son, Liu Xie, was honored as the Marquis of Yixiu, serving the descendants of Emperor Yao; Gui Chang was named Marquis of Shimu, serving the descendants of Emperor Yu; Shan Zun received the title of Viscount of Baomou, serving the descendants of Gao Yao; Yi Xuan was honored as the Viscount of Baoheng, serving the descendants of Yi Yin. Liu Ying, the Empress Dowager Ding'an of the Han dynasty, Ji Dang, the Duke Wei of the Zhou dynasty (later appointed as Duke Ping of Zhang), Kong Hong, the Duke Song of the Yin dynasty (later appointed as Marquis Zhao of Zhang), and Shi Feng, the Duke Liaoxi of the Xia dynasty (appointed as Marquis Gong of Zhang), all held positions of honor. The descendants of the four ancient houses (Zhou Gong, Bao Lu, and Xuan Ni Gong, Bao Cheng) were honored in the Hall of Light to pay homage to the imperial ancestors, tracing back to Yao and Shun.
Mang said: "When I was regent before, I built the suburban palace, established the order of ancestral sacrifices, and set up the altar of soil and grain. At that time, there were signs of the appearance of gods, some manifested as beams of light descending from the heavens, transforming into crows; some were a radiant yellow vapor ascending, shining brightly, to show the merits of the Yellow Emperor and the Emperor Yu. From the Yellow Emperor to the Lord of Jinan, five generations shared the same surname. The Yellow Emperor had twenty-five sons, and twelve surnames were given. Emperor Yu's ancestors bore the surname Yao, known as Gui in Taotang, Chen in Zhou, Tian in Qi, and Wang in Jinan. I think of my ancestors, the Yellow Emperor and the Emperor Yu, offering sacrifices in the ancestral hall, following the order of the ancestral temple. There are five ancestral temples and four ancestral halls; all the consorts were included in the sacrifices. The Yellow Emperor is worshipped in the suburbs to match the heavens, and the Yellow Empress is worshipped to match the earth. The Duke of Xindu, my elder brother, would perform the annual sacrifices. My family would lead the sacrifices throughout the land. The Yao, Gui, Chen, Tian, and Wang families, all five surnames, are descendants of the Yellow and Yu Emperors, my relatives. As the scriptures say, 'Honor the nine kindred.' Therefore, let the world register these five surnames in the royal family, passing down from generation to generation without mixing with others. The Yuancheng Wangs were to remain separate, preserving the distinct lineage." Chen Chong was appointed as the Marquis of Tongmu, serving the Queen Hu; Tian Feng was appointed as the Marquis of Shimu, serving the Queen Jing.
Zhai Yi, Zhao Ming, and others had previously governed the various states and counties, showing loyalty and filial piety, appointing governors as males and administrators as affiliated cities. Also, old benefactors Dai Chong, Jin She, Ji Hong, Yang Bing, and others were all appointed as males.
The Cavalry Captain Xiao and others were sent to manage the Yellow Emperor's Garden at Shangdu Bridge, the Emperor Yu in Lingling Jiuyi, Queen Hu in Huaiyang Chen, Queen Jing in Qilinzi, Queen Min in Chengyang Ju, Lord Bo in Jinnan Dongpingling, Young Lord in Weijun Yuancheng, with envoys offering sacrifices throughout the year. As for temple construction, given the recent pacification of the land, sacrifices would initially be centralized at the Mingtang Temple.
Wang Mang designated the Han Gao Temple as the ancestral temple. Mang said: "My imperial ancestor, Emperor Yu, claimed the divine right from the Tang Dynasty, which is recognized as the founding ancestor of the Han Dynasty. There is a tradition of dynastic succession. I have personally received the spiritual mandate from the spirit of Emperor Han Gao. Thinking of treating the previous dynasty well, how can I forget? The Han imperial ancestors, seven generations in all, were honored with temples in Ding'an. Those ancestral temples in the capital should not be abolished, and sacrifices should continue as before. In September, I personally visited the ancestral temples of the Han family—Gao, Yuan, Cheng, and Ping. All those with the surname Liu were placed under the jurisdiction of the Jingzhao prefect, and their past wrongdoings should not be investigated again. Let them enjoy their old age in peace, and the provincial governors should take good care of them and not let them suffer any grievances."
He also said: "Before, when I was in Daliu, and later when I became regent, I deeply realized the decline of the Han Dynasty. The fate of the Han Dynasty had come to an end. After much thought, in order to help the Liu clan continue, I spared no effort. Therefore, I took decisive action to assist them. However, just as Confucius wrote the Spring and Autumn Annals to reflect the cyclical nature of dynasties, we see that the fourteenth year of Ai's reign marked the end of his dynasty. The situation is the same now; it will also perish in fourteen years. The fate of the world is exhausted, and it cannot be forcibly saved. The heavens have shown their power; my virtue should prosper, and the mandate of heaven has been given to me. Now the people all say that heaven will overthrow the Han and establish a new dynasty, abandoning Liu and raising a king. The character 'Liu' can be analyzed into 'Mao, Jin, Dao.' January is the month of Mao, and the sharpness of the golden knife is not needed. The ministers all say that this is the will of heaven, very clear. Don't interpret the 'Mao' radical as mere decoration, and don't consider the knife-shaped coins as mere wealth." He then made small coins, six fen in diameter, weighing one zhu, inscribed with 'One Wen Small Coin' on the top, and they were classified as second grade alongside the previous 'Fifty Wen Large Coin,' and circulated. To curb private minting, the possession of copper and charcoal was outlawed.
In the fourth month of this year, Liu Kuai, the Marquis of Xuxiang, raised an army of several thousand men to rebel in his country. Kuai's brother Yin, formerly the King of Jiaodong under the Han, had his title changed to Duke of Fuchong. Kuai raised troops to attack Jimo, but Yin closed the city gates and imprisoned himself. The officials and people resisted Kuai, forcing his retreat; he died at Changguang. Emperor Mang proclaimed, "My ancestor, King Min of Jinan, was once besieged by the Yan, and he fled from Qi Linzi to Ju for refuge. Our ancestor Tian Dang devised a brilliant strategy, killed the Yan general, and restored order in the Qi state. Now the people of Jimo united to defeat the rebels. I commend their loyalty and share their grief. I pardon Yin and others, excluding Liu Kuai's immediate family and any accomplices. The matter is closed. The dead and wounded will receive compensation, with burial money of fifty thousand cash per person. Yin, understanding the gravity of his actions, deeply regretted his rebellion and repeatedly confessed his guilt. Yin's domain comprised ten thousand households, spanning a hundred square miles." Mang also appointed over ten officials with imperial mandates.
Mang proclaimed: "In ancient times, there were eight families around a well, each man and woman had a hundred mu of fields, and they paid a tenth in taxes. The state ensured the people's well-being, leading to widespread prosperity. This was the way of Tang and Yu, followed by the three generations. The Qin were tyrannical, imposing heavy taxes to support itself, draining the people's strength to indulge its own desires, destroying the sage's system and abolishing the well fields. This led to annexation, greed, and baseness, with the strong monopolizing thousands of fields while the weak had no place to stand. They established a slave market, treating human beings as mere livestock, controlling the people as subjects, and taking their lives at will. The wicked profited by selling even wives and children, defying Heaven and humanity itself, violating the very principle that human life is sacred. The book states, 'I am a slave, I am a woman,' and only those who disobey orders will face punishment. The Han reduced the land tax to one-thirtieth, but additional levies were frequent, and the burdens of taxation and labor were heavy, forcing the elderly and weak to work, while the rich oppressed and seized land. While officially a thirtieth, the tax effectively amounted to half. Despite toiling in the fields year-round, families barely survived. Thus, the rich, with grain to spare for their animals, grew arrogant and wicked, while the poor, scraping by on husks and bran, resorted to dishonesty. Both suffered the consequences of their actions, facing harsh penalties. While in Dalu, I established public fields and wells, resulting in bountiful harvests until rebellions disrupted them. Henceforth, all lands are designated 'Royal Fields,' and slaves are 'Private Property,' neither to be bought nor sold. Any man supporting fewer than eight people, with land exceeding that allotted to a single well, will have his surplus redistributed among his nine nearest kin. Those without land, but eligible under this system, shall receive land accordingly. Any who defy this sacred system and mislead the people will be exiled, as was done in the time of Emperor Yao."
Back then, everyone used Han Wu Zhu coins because the Mang coins were all different sizes, hard to tell apart, and kept changing. They didn't trust the Mang coins, so everyone secretly used Han Wu Zhu coins to buy things. Rumors spread that the big coins were going to be scrapped, and no one would take them. So, the emperor issued an edict: "Anyone caught using Han Wu Zhu coins or spreading rumors about the big coins being scrapped would be exiled!" As a result, farmers and merchants lost their jobs, the economy tanked, and people were crying in the streets. Land, houses, and slaves were changing hands illegally. People were privately minting coins. From nobles to commoners, countless people were punished.
In autumn, the five high-ranking generals Wang Qi and twelve others were dispatched to circulate forty-two imperial decrees throughout the world. Of the five virtues and auspicious signs, twenty-five edicts were issued, and twelve blessings were received, totaling forty-two decrees. The auspicious omens and virtuous signs cited included the sightings of the Yellow Dragon in Chengji and Xindu, the sprouting of branches at the grave gate of King Bo by Emperor Gaozu, and the edicts related to wells, stones, and golden caskets. The blessings referred to hens transforming into roosters. These statements are highly symbolic, but overall, they all point to the usurpation of the Han Dynasty by Wang Mang. It can be summarized: "Emperors who receive the mandate must have signs of virtue and auspiciousness, harmonize the five decrees, confirm with blessings, and then be able to establish great achievements, pass them on to their descendants, and enjoy lasting imperial reign. Therefore, the rise of the new dynasty is based on the auspicious signs that emerged after the three hundred and seventy-ninth generation of the Han Dynasty. The mandate began in Xindu, received auspicious signs in Huangzhi, was established in Wugong, ratified in Zitong, completed in Badang, and sanctioned blessings in the twelve responses. The determination of the new dynasty is so deep and firm! The red stones of Wugong, which symbolize the new era, emerged at the end of the Han Dynasty, when the fire virtue was extinguished and the earth virtue was in power. Heaven favored the emperor, beginning with the discovery of the red stones. The emperor humbly declined the throne, taking temporary residence, which was not in line with the will of Heaven. Therefore, in the seventh month of autumn, the heavens sent three capable horses. The emperor declined the throne again, not yet ascended, so three iron contracts, four stone turtles, five yu tokens, six wen gui tokens, seven mysterious seals, eight Mao Ling stone inscriptions, nine mysterious dragon stones, ten divine wells, eleven great divine stones, and twelve bronze token silk maps were given. The auspicious signs of the mandate gradually became prominent, and by the twelfth, they were clearly announcing the new emperor. The emperor, awed by Heaven's power, considered that the might of Heaven must not be underestimated, so he abandoned the temporary title, still informally using the title of regent, and changed the era name to a new one, in order to comply with the will of Heaven and to secure Heaven's favor. However, it was not the intention of Heaven to solemnly bestow the mandate. Therefore, on that day, the heavens decided to encourage writing. Furthermore, the attendant Wang Xu saw a figure clad in a single white garment, adorned with a red silk square collar and a small cap, standing in front of the Wanglu Palace, and said to Xu, 'Today the heavens are in harmony, and all the people of the world belong to the emperor.' Xu was surprised, took more than ten steps, and the figure suddenly disappeared. In the evening of Bingyin, there was a golden casket inscription in the Han imperial temple: 'Emperor Gaozu received the mandate from Heaven to pass the country to the new emperor.' The next morning, Marquis Liu Hong reported the discovery and summoned the officials for discussion. Before a decision was made, a voice, seemingly emanating from the great divine stone, declared, 'Hurry to the high imperial temple to receive the mandate for the new emperor, do not delay!' So the new emperor ascended the chariot and went to the Han imperial temple to receive the mandate. The day of receiving the mandate was Dingmao. Ding represents fire, the virtue of the Han Dynasty, and Mao is the character of the Liu surname. After the brilliance of the Han Liu fire virtue was extinguished, it was passed on to the new dynasty. The emperor was humble and had repeatedly declined, but with the pressure of the twelve tokens, the mandate could not be refused. He went three nights without sleep and three days without food, consulting with dukes, marquises, ministers, and grandees, all of whom said, 'You must accept Heaven's mandate.' Therefore, he changed the era name and established a new reign throughout the country. After the new dynasty was established, the gods were pleased, and blessings and auspicious signs followed one after another. This echoes the sentiment of the Book of Songs: 'Harmonious with the people, receiving blessings from heaven; protecting the mandate, as proclaimed by heaven.' The five elite commanders were entrusted with the mandate, carrying the seals and ribbons, and the names of officials, as well as members of the Wang and Hou families, were all given the seals and ribbons of the new dynasty, while collecting those of the former Han Dynasty. Officials were granted two ranks, commoners one rank, and women of a hundred households received sheep and wine, with different gifts for the barbarian tribes and foreigners. A general amnesty was declared throughout the land.
The Five Great Generals will ride the Qianwen chariot (a symbol of authority), driving the six horses of Kun, adorned with the feathers of the Feng bird, and their attire is magnificent. Each general will have a commander positioned on the left, right, front, back, and center, totaling five commanders. Their uniforms, chariots, and horses were color-coded and numbered according to rank. The generals represented Taiyi, carrying command staves, while the commanders, bearing flags, represented the Five Emperors. Mang decreed, "We will conquer everything from here to the ends of the earth!" Those who go east will reach Xuantu (modern-day Ji'an), Lelang (part of modern Korea), Goguryeo, and Buyeo; those who go south will pass beyond Yueshang (in modern Sichuan), traversing Yizhou, and demoting King Jutiancheng (verify the name) to a marquis; those who go west will reach the Western Regions, changing all their kings to marquises; those who go north will reach the Xiongnu court, bestowing the seal of the Chanyu, altering the Han seal script, removing "seal" and calling it "chapter." The Xiongnu Chanyu demanded his old seal back, but Chen Rao, in a bold move, smashed it to pieces (see *Xiongnu Chronicles* for details). The Chanyu was furious, and the subsequent rebellions of Jutiancheng and the Western Regions stemmed from this act. Rao returned, was appointed as the Grand General, and was granted the title of Son of Great Virtue (verify the title). Winter brought the unusual sight of thunder and the blooming of the Tonghua tree (specify the type of tree if possible).
Five commanders were appointed, each to command one of the four gates of the central city, plus one more. The highest-ranking official under the commander would oversee the twelve gates of the main city. Marquis Chen Chong, the newly appointed commander, was told, "Chong, disobedience breeds chaos; wickedness ruins the nation; counterfeiting money depletes the treasury; arrogance and indulgence lead to ruin; leaking state secrets brings dire consequences; and privately expressing gratitude for rewards leads to loss of salary and administrative failure. These six points are the bedrock of our nation. Therefore, as your commander, you must be upright and compassionate, not oppress the people, not fear power, obey the emperor's orders, and be harmonious in the court." Marquis Cui Fa was instructed, "Be prepared to defend against external enemies. You are appointed as the central commander of the five forces, to set an example for the world through your virtuous conduct." Marquis Wang Ji was told, "You are appointed as the front gate commander, guarding against threats from the south, particularly those from Jing and Chu, responsible for defending the front line and intimidating all directions." Marquis Wang Jia received the order, "You are appointed as the rear gate commander, holding the defense line and maintaining order in the rear." Marquis Wang Qi was assigned, "You are appointed as the left gate commander, facing difficult challenges and commanding the left side." Marquis Wang Fu was directed, "You are appointed as the right gate commander, holding a strong position and commanding the right side." Fifty advisers were sent to various places to mint coins. In that year, in Chang'an, a mad woman named Bi shouted in the street, "The emperor is furious, return to the country quickly! Otherwise, you will be killed in September!" Mang ordered her arrest and execution. Chen Cheng, the chief of public security, resigned his post. Liu Du and others in Zhending secretly plotted a rebellion, but were all killed after the plot was discovered. The Zhending and Changshan areas experienced hailstorms. In the second month of the second year, a general amnesty was declared. The seventy-two commanders of the five forces presented themselves, and all the princes of the Han Dynasty surrendered their seals, becoming commoners without any resistance. The sons of generals were given official positions, and the sons of commanders were given lesser official positions.
Initially, six state-controlled industries were established. County officials were tasked with making and selling alcohol, selling salt and ironware, minting coins, and taxing the resources of famous mountains and great marshes. Government merchants were instructed to purchase goods at low prices and sell them at high prices, while providing loans to the people at an interest rate of three percent per month. Alcohol tax collectors were appointed, with one per county, who traveled by official carriage to oversee alcohol sales. Crossbows and armor were banned; violators were exiled to the far west.
The Xiongnu leader requested the return of an old seal, but Wang Mang (a usurper who briefly ruled China) refused. This prompted a Xiongnu raid on the border, resulting in the massacre of officials and civilians.
In November, a report was submitted stating: "The Western Regions have sent a memorial. In the ninth month of Xinsi, the military officer Chen Liang and the military officer Diao Hu, who were leading the bandits, killed Diao Hu, abducted officials and soldiers, and declared themselves as pretenders to the title of Han General, fleeing to the Xiongnu. Also, on the day of Guichou this month, a man stopped my carriage and claimed to be 'Liu Ziyu of the Han clan, the Emperor Cheng's son-in-law. The Liu clan should be restored and take possession of the empty palace.' The man detained is named Wu Zhong of the Chang'an family. They are all acting against Heaven and committing treason. It is requested to punish Wu Zhong and the relatives of Chen Liang. The Han Emperor Gaozu once warned that officials and soldiers should be treated as honored guests, truly wanting to follow the will of Heaven and protect their descendants. The ancestral temple should not be in the city of Chang'an, and the Liu clan who are princes should be abolished along with the Han. Your Majesty's benevolence has led to a delay in decision. The former Marquis Liu Chong, Marquis Xu Xiang, Marquis Liu Zeng, Marquis Liu Gui, and others conspired to rebel. Now the rebellious and treacherous tribesmen either falsely claim to be the deposed Han General or claim to be the son of Emperor Cheng, causing chaos and destruction, which has not been stopped. This rebellion must be nipped in the bud. I foolishly believe that Emperor Gaozu of the Han Dynasty should be treated as a guest of the new dynasty, enjoying sacrifices in the Mingtang. Emperor Cheng was not of the imperial bloodline, and Emperor Ping was the Emperor's son-in-law; they should not be allowed to return to their temple. Emperor Yuan and the Empress Dowager are of the same body, and their virtues are to be honored. I request that all Han temples in the capital be abolished. The Liu clan who are princes should be divided into five classes based on their population; those who are officials should be dismissed and wait at home for arrangements. By following Heaven's will, we honor the memory of Emperor Gaozu and crush this rebellion." Mang said, "Okay. Jiaxin Gongguoshi, appointed as my assistant by divine mandate, along with the Marquis Mingde Liu Gong, the Marquis Lüli Liu Jia, and a total of thirty-two people all understand the will of Heaven; some presented heavenly symbols, some offered auspicious words, some reported on rebel tribesmen, and their contributions were great. Those of the Liu clan and the thirty-two who share a common ancestry should not be dismissed, and they shall be granted the surname Wang." Only the national teacher was married to Mang's son, so he was not granted the surname. Empress Dowager An's title was changed to Huang, formally severing ties with the Han.
It thundered in the twelfth month of winter. The Xiongnu Chanyu was renamed Subjugated Slave. Mang said: "Subjugated Slave defies the Mandate of Heaven, betrays the four principles, invades the Western Regions, reaching even the borders, causing great harm to the populace, and is deserving of extermination. Wang Mang ordered General Sun Jian and eleven other generals to lead ten armies to show the might of Heaven, punishing Subjugated Slave. Only the ancestors of Subjugated Slave, the former Hanxie Chanyu, were loyal and filial for generations, protecting the borders. It is unbearable to extinguish the line of the Hanxie Chanyu for the sins of one Subjugated Slave. Now, the Xiongnu territory and people are divided into fifteen, with fifteen descendants of the Hanxie Chanyu appointed as Chanyu. Generals Lin Bao and Dai Ji were sent to the frontier to appoint the new Chanyu. All Xiongnu people involved in Subjugated Slave's crimes will be pardoned. Five generals, including Miao Xin and Wang Kuang, were sent to Wuyuan; Chen Qin and Wang Xun were sent to Yuncheng; Wang Jia and Wang Meng were sent to Daijun; Li Shen and Li Weng were sent to Xihe; Yang Jun and Yan You were sent to Yuyang; Wang Jun and Wang Yan were sent to Zhangye, along with a total of 180 others. Thirty thousand convicted criminals, laborers, and soldiers were recruited from all over the country, and supplies were sent to the northern border. The urgency of the situation caused widespread unrest throughout the empire. Advancement was delayed until all troops arrived at the border towns and preparations were complete.
Wang Mang ultimately did not implement the currency and issued an edict: "People consider food as essential and goods as assets; therefore, the Eight Regulations prioritize food (an ancient political system that emphasizes agriculture). If precious goods are all heavy, small denominations will not be given; if they are all light, transportation costs will be high. With a variety of weights and sizes, usage will be convenient, and the people will be happy." Therefore, he created five grades of precious goods, as stated in the Records of Food and Goods. The populace ignored this and continued to use only small and large coins. Counterfeiting by one family resulted in collective punishment for five, with confiscation of property. Officials and commoners were required to carry cloth coins as a travel permit; those without were stopped at checkpoints, where inspections were rigorous. The nobility carried them to gain entry to the palace gates, hoping to impress with their wealth. At that time, there was competition to become feudal lords, and those who did not were teased, saying, "Is there no heavenly mandate then?" General Chen Chong advised Wang Mang, saying, "These corrupt officials are undermining the Mandate of Heaven; their influence must be eradicated." Wang Mang was also disgusted by this, so he had Minister Zhao Bing investigate; all those holding titles not conferred by the Five Commanders were imprisoned.
At first, Zhen Feng, Liu Xin, and Wang Shun were part of Mang's inner circle, pushing for his continued rule and singing his praises. The titles of "Anhan" and "Zaiheng" (signifying high-ranking officials) and the ennoblement of Mang's mother, two sons, and nephew were all planned by Feng and the others. Feng, Shun, and Xin received rewards and became rich and noble, no longer opposed to Mang's seizing power. The push for Mang to become regent came from Liu Qing, Xie Xiao, and Tian Zhongshu. With his power established, Mang wanted to take over. Feng and the others played along, and Mang then re-enfeoffed Shun's two sons and Feng's grandson. Content with their high rank, they still feared the Han aristocracy and its powerful figures. Those who opposed them were silenced with fabricated orders, which Mang used to justify his seizure of power. Shun and Xin were secretly terrified. Feng, who was usually strong-willed, was thought to be unhappy by Mang, so he demoted him, making him a general alongside the lowly Wang Sheng, a mere baker. Feng and his son remained silent.
Zi Xun, then Minister of the Imperial Household and Marquis of Maode, issued an order proposing that the new regime emulate the Zhou, dividing power between two high-ranking officials, with Feng as the right and Ping Yan as the left. Mang agreed, making Feng the right-hand man. Before Feng could even start his new job, Zi Xun issued another order, claiming that the former Han dynasty's Empress Dowager Huang was Zi Xun's wife. Mang, suspecting that the ministers were slandering him, wanted to show his authority and intimidate them, so he angrily asked, "The Empress Dowager Huang, the mother of the nation? What's the meaning of this?!" He then arrested Zi Xun. Zi Xun ran, and Feng killed himself. Zi Xun followed a Taoist into Mount Hua but was captured a year later. His confession ensnared the Imperial Tutor’s son, the Minister of Five Offices, and several other high-ranking officials.
General Que, Prefect of the Hall of Wei, along with Shi Zhong, the Qiduwei Ding Long, and others, implicated hundreds of officials and nobles, leading to their deaths. The body bore the inscription "emperor." It was said, "This is either a great son or a son of the sixth rank; the number six, signifying execution, suggests that the father and son will be executed." Fen was exiled to Youzhou, Xun to Sanwei, and Long to Yushan, and their bodies were transported in carts.
Mang's face was a mask of ferocity; his eyes bulged, and his voice was a harsh bellow. Standing seven and a half feet tall, he favored thick-soled shoes and towering hats, draping himself in extravagant robes, his head held high in arrogant disdain for those around him. Imperial astrologers, using divination to predict his future, remarked, "They said Mang had the eyes of a hawk and the mouth of a tiger—a wolfish grin." When this was reported to Mang, he had the diviner executed and rewarded the informant. He habitually hid behind a screen of shimmering mother-of-pearl, granting audiences only to his closest confidants.
That year saw Yao Xun's appointment as General of Ningshi.
Three years later, Mang declared, "The officials have been rearranged and their duties shifted. The laws and regulations are not yet fully established, so we will follow the laws and regulations of the Han Dynasty for now. I appoint one person from each of the four gates of the imperial palace to report on officials of all ranks who are virtuous, knowledgeable in politics, eloquent, and well-versed in literature."
Zhao Bing was dispatched north to cultivate the rich lands of Wuyuan and establish agricultural administration. He was made General of Agriculture and dispatched troops to cultivate the land, bolstering military supplies.
At this time, generals were stationed at the border, but the troops were scattered and disorganized, needing to be mobilized. The inland counties were suffering under constant conscription. The common people fled the cities and towns, becoming bandits, especially in Bingzhou and Youzhou. Wang Mang allowed the seven high-ranking marquises and six other high-ranking officials to be appointed as generals and sent military generals such as Lu Bing to guard the capital. Fifty Langzhong and fifty Xiu Yi officers were dispatched to fill the major border counties, supervising those who committed crimes lawlessly, creating chaos, accepting bribes, and oppressing the people. Mang wrote: "The enemy knows they deserve death, so I've sent twelve legions of fierce generals to attack simultaneously and decisively. Internal military officials were supposed to enforce orders, and twelve external supervisors were to oversee them, so that the soldiers could all abide by military discipline. But now, they are acting on their own, oppressing the people, arbitrarily arresting people, extorting money, and then fleeing. All kinds of atrocities were occurring, driving farmers to flee. With the supervisors behaving this way, what hope is there? From now on, anyone who dares to break the law will be arrested and reported to the court." Yet, they continued their lawless behavior.
Lin Bao and Dai Ji arrived at the border, luring Xian, the Chanyu's brother, and his son, Xianzi, to enter the border, forcing Xian to be called the filial Chanyu, showering him with a thousand catties of gold and fine silks before dismissing them. When they arrived in Chang'an, they were appointed as the compliant Chanyu and stayed in Chang'an.
Grand Tutor Wang Shun's condition worsened after Wang Mang usurped the throne, and he passed away. Mang said: "The Duke of Qi, through generations of virtuous conduct, became Grand Tutor to the Zhou. This is the example I am following. His son will inherit his title as the Duke of Anxin, and his brother Kuang will become Grand Tutor General, ensuring the dynasty's continued success."
To appoint four teachers and four friends for the Crown Prince, all with the rank of official. Therefore, the Minister of Public Works, Ma Gong, was appointed as the main teacher, the Minister of Finance, Zongbo Feng, as the deputy teacher, the Scholar, Yuan Sheng, as the assistant teacher, and the Intendant of Jingzhao, Wang Jia, as the protector, making up the four teachers; the Minister of Records, Tang Lin, as the secretary, the Scholar, Li Chong, as the administrator, the Censor, Zhao Xiang, as the advisor, and the Palace Guard Commander, Lian Dan, as the guard, making up the four friends. Also appointed were one Master of Ceremonies, one Palace Attendant, one Censor, and one Master of Ceremonies of the Six Classics, making a total of nine Masters of Ceremonies with the rank of Upper Minister. Left Xian lectured on the Spring and Autumn Annals, Man Chang lectured on the Book of Songs, Guo You lectured on the Book of Changes, Tang Chang lectured on the Book of Documents, Chen Xian lectured on the Rites, and Cui Fa lectured on Music. A messenger was sent to present the official carriage and insignia of office, and the Chu State's Gong Sheng was appointed as the Crown Prince's Master of Ceremonies for Teachers and Friends. Sheng refused the appointment and died of starvation. General Ning Shi, Yao Xun, was dismissed, and the Palace Attendant, Kong Yong, was appointed as General Ning Shi. That year, in Chiyang County, there was a dwarf named Jing, over a foot tall, who rode in carts and on horses or walked, collecting objects of all sizes, which somehow fit together perfectly, and he stayed for three days. Locusts infested Binhe Commandery. The river broke through Wei Commandery and flooded several counties east of the Qing River. Originally, Mang feared that a breach in the river would harm the imperial tombs at Yuancheng. When the breach occurred eastward, Yuancheng was not threatened by the water, so no embankment was built. In the second month of the fourth year, a general amnesty was declared throughout the empire. In summer, a red vapor emerged from the southeast, piercing through the sky. General Yan Nan, Chen Xin, reported capturing live prisoners, and those who violated the border were all acting under the orders of the Xiongnu Chanyu Xianzi Jiao. Mang, in anger, had Chen Xin's son executed in Chang'an as a warning to others. Grand Marshal Zhen Han died, and General Ning Shi, Kong Yong, was appointed as the Grand Marshal, while the Palace Attendant, Fu, was appointed as General Ning Shi. Whenever Mang went out, he would first conduct a city-wide search for hidden rebels. This lasted for five days that month.
Emperor Mang, at the Ming Tang, granted the feudal lords their territories. The letter reads: "Though unworthy, I succeed my illustrious ancestors, ruling over all nations. My concern for the people's well-being leads me to establish the marquisates, dividing states and territories to promote good customs. Following established precedents, I aim to establish principles and rules. Adhering to the laws of Yao, there are twelve states, with Wei having five domains of governance. The poetic kingdom comprises fifteen regions, spread across the nine states. The Yin odes contain the phrase 'nine have nine,' and the nine states of Yu's tribute do not include Bing and You, while the Zhou ritual does not mention Xu and Liang. Emperors and kings succeed one another, each with their own justifications. Some clarify their actions, while others emphasize their origins; righteousness is clear and prominent, and their duties are unified. In the past, the two Zhou emperors received their decrees, hence there were Eastern and Western capitals. Our decree is also like this: Luoyang will serve as the new Eastern capital, and Chang'an as the new Western capital. The border regions are interconnected, with each having its own responsibilities. The nine states follow Yu's tribute, while the titles are derived from the Zhou clan's five ranks. The lords number eighteen hundred, and the number of attached cities is the same, awaiting achievements. All officials are of equal rank, overseeing ten thousand households and a territory of one hundred square miles. Marquises and counts govern a single domain with five thousand households and a territory of seventy miles. Sons and males each govern two thousand five hundred households and a territory of fifty miles. The largest attached cities receive nine-tenths of the food estate, with nine hundred households and a territory of thirty miles. For ranks below nine, reductions are halved until reaching one-tenth. The five ranks are all complete, combined into one. Those who have already received the thatched land include fourteen dukes, ninety-three marquises, twenty-one counts, one hundred and seventy-one sons, and four hundred and ninety-seven males, totaling seven hundred and ninety-six individuals. There are one thousand five hundred and eleven people in the attached cities. Eighty-three women from the nine clans are appointed. Additionally, the granddaughters of the Han clan, Zhongshan, Chengli Jun, Zunde Jun, and Xiuyi Jun, are also appointed. This includes eleven dukes, nine ministers, twelve nobles, and twenty-four scholars. The locations of the various state estates have been determined, and the Grand Master Kong Bing and others, along with officials knowledgeable about geography and maps, will jointly organize and manage them at the Shou Cheng Zhu Niao Hall. I have discussed and reviewed the plans with the various officials, wine stewards, and senior ministers, and all have been informed. Praising virtue and rewarding achievements is to show kindness and wisdom; harmonizing the nine clans honors kinship. I will always follow the past, consider the achievements of my predecessors, and distinguish between good and evil to establish peace." Pending completion of the land surveys and assignments, they will receive a monthly stipend of several thousand coins while residing in the capital. The lords are all impoverished, to the point where some have to rely on unskilled laborers.
Zhonglang Bojian Mang said: "Although the well-field system is a law of the sage kings, it has long been abandoned. The Zhou dynasty's decline meant the people no longer followed its ways. The Qin dynasty knew how to follow the hearts of the people and could gain great benefits, so they abolished the well-field system and established the system of fields and roads, thus ruling over all the states, and even now, the people haven't grown weary of this system. To now defy popular sentiment and reinstate a system abandoned for a millennium, even if Yao and Shun were to rise again, without a hundred years of transition, it cannot be done. The world has just been settled, the people are newly attached, and it is truly not advisable to implement it." Mang, knowing the people's grievances, then wrote a letter saying: "Owners of royal lands are free to sell them, without restriction by law. Private transactions and trade with the people will be tolerated."
When the Five Wei generals set out and demoted the King of Jucheng to Marquis, Wang Han rebelled. Wang Mang had Zhou Xin, the Zangke Grand Commandant, assassinate Wang Han. Han's brother then raised troops to attack and kill Zhou Xin. Earlier, Wang Mang dispatched Gaoju Li troops against the Xiongnu, but they deserted, fleeing across the border and turning bandit. The Grand Commandant of Liaoxi, Tian Tan, pursued and killed them, and the commanderies blamed Marquis Zou of Gaoju Li. Yan You reported: "The Mo people's crimes weren't Zou's doing; they had other motives, and the commanderies should try to pacify them. Their hasty prosecution risks alienating them further, potentially winning support from others. Undefeated Xiongnu would embolden the Yuezhi and Mo, a grave threat." Wang Mang did not appease them, and the Mo people rebelled, so he ordered You to attack them. You lured the Marquis of Gaoju Li, Zou, and beheaded him, then sent his head to Chang'an. Wang Mang was pleased and issued a decree saying: "Recently, I have sent fierce generals to inflict terrible punishments: arms and flanks severed, chests and bellies ripped open. This year's campaign begins in the east, with the annihilation of the Mo. Marquis Zou's death marks the beginning of the end for our enemies. This victory is a testament to divine favor and the united strength of our officials and people. I greatly appreciate this. Gaoju Li is henceforth to be known as Xiaju Li; let this be known throughout the land." Consequently, Mo incursions intensified, and unrest spread through the northeast and southwest.
Wang Mang, feeling his power at its height and believing that the four barbarian tribes were insufficient for his ambitions, became preoccupied with antiquarian pursuits and wrote a letter: "My imperial ancestor, Emperor Yao, is revered by me for having received the Mandate of Heaven, harmonizing the celestial bodies, performing sacrifices to the ancestors and spirits, and touring the empire, thereby establishing his righteous rule. I have presented my case clearly and demonstrated my achievements. I received the mandate and truly arrived in the fifth year of the founding of the country, which is already five years. The ninth month of Yang has passed, and the hundred and sixth meeting has passed. The year is marked by the auspicious star, filling the bright hall, with the dragon in the granary in the year of Guiyou, and virtue in the central palace. Consulting the oracle, the auspicious signs confirmed the timing of my journey, so in the second month of this year, during the festival of Yin, I will tour to the east with the proper ritual arrangements." The officials requested levies of men, horses, and supplies, and also sought to purchase horses from twelve inner counties. 450,000 bolts of silk were to be sent to Chang'an, with no need for simultaneous delivery. When more than half of them arrived, Wang wrote a letter: "The Empress Dowager's health has taken a turn, necessitating a temporary suspension of the project." That year, the title of the eleven dukes was changed from "Xin" (心) to "Xin" (信). In February of the fifth year, the Empress Dowager Wen was buried in Weiling, alongside Emperor Yuan, and a moat was dug to separate them. A temple was built in Chang'an, where the descendants of Wang Mang would worship for generations. The offerings for Emperor Yuan were placed beneath the bed. Wang mourned for the Empress Dowager for three years. Grand Marshal Kong Yong requested retirement and was granted a carriage and horses, being promoted to a special position. The Marquis of the Same Wind, Lu, was also appointed as Grand Marshal. At that time, the people of Chang'an heard that Wang Mang wanted to move the capital to Luoyang, so they refused to repair or rebuild their houses, and some even demolished them. Wang said, "The inscription on the Xuanlong Stone proclaims, 'Establish the Emperor's virtue, and Luoyang shall be the capital.' The decree is clear, so how can I not obey it! Since the founding of the country eight years ago, the annual star is entwined, and the capital is in Luoyang. Be diligent in repairing the capital of Chang'an, and do not let it fall into ruin. Any defiance will be met with severe punishment!"
In this year, the Wusun sent envoys to pay tribute. The Great Kunmi was a grandson of the Chinese imperial family. His wife was the Little Kunmi's daughter, and the Wusun submitted to him. Seeing the Xiongnu encroaching on the borders, Mang sought to secure the Wusun's loyalty, so he sent messengers to give the Little Kunmi's envoy precedence over the Great Kunmi's. Bao Chengshi, a colleague of the Grand Minister of Sacrifice, accused the messengers, saying, "Barbarians, recognizing China's superior civilization, submit to its authority. The Great Kunmi is a lord, and now you have placed the envoy of the Little Kunmi in front of the envoy of the Great Kunmi, which is a grave insult to the envoy!" Mang was angry and dismissed Chengshi.
The Western Regions turned against Mang, and Yanqi rebelled first, killing the Protector General Dan Qin. In the eleventh month, a comet appeared and disappeared after more than twenty days. In this year, due to too many people violating the law against smuggling copper and charcoal, the law was repealed. The following year was designated the Tianfeng era. In the first month of the first year of Tianfeng, a general amnesty was declared.
Mang said: "In the second month, during the festival of Jianyin, I will conduct the ritual of touring and hunting. The Imperial Chef will bring provisions, and no one is to offer supplies during the journey. During my eastern tour, I will personally carry the plough and cultivate in every county to encourage farming in the east. During my southern tour, I will personally carry the hoe and weed in every county to encourage farming in the south. During my western tour, I will personally carry the spade and harvest in every county to encourage harvest in the west. During my northern tour, I will personally carry the flail and gather grain in every county to ensure ample grain reserves. After completing the ritual of the northern tour, I will make Luoyang the capital. Anyone who acts rashly or violates the law will be dealt with by military law." The officials collectively submitted: "His Majesty is a devoted son. Last year, when the Empress Dowager was ill, he personally took care of her, dressed in plain clothes of mourning. Due to the sadness over the Empress Dowager's passing, his complexion has not recovered, and his diet has been reduced. Now, with four tours in one year covering thousands of miles, it is not suitable to rely on provisions. Furthermore, without the need for touring and hunting, it is necessary to postpone the grand ceremonies to ensure the Emperor's well-being. We officials will do our best to rule and care for the people, following the imperial decree." Mang said: "Officials of all ranks should all work together to govern and shepherd the people, in order to honor me. Therefore, I heed your advice and urge you to work hard! Keep your promise. In the seventh year of Tianfeng, when the capital was Daliang (Bingchen year), I will conduct the ritual of touring and hunting. In the following year, when the capital was in Shichen and the year was Xinsi, I will establish the capital in Luoyang." Therefore, the Grand Tutor Ping Yan and the Grand Minister of Works Wang Yi were dispatched to Luoyang to build palaces, plan ancestral temples, the altar of the land god, and suburban altars. On the last day of the third month, there was a solar eclipse. A general amnesty was declared. The edict of the Grand Marshal Lu Bing was as follows: "With the sun obscured and unrest continuing, the Grand Marshal's seal will be transferred to the Marquis position. Grand Tutor Ping Yan will not oversee the affairs of the Secretariat, and officials holding multiple positions will be relieved of their duties. Xun, a capable and qualified man from the Miao tribe, shall be appointed as the Grand Marshal."
Wang Mang was ruthless, especially as a great minister. He undermined his subordinates and promoted those who dared to criticize powerful officials. Kong Ren, Zhao Bo, Fei Xing, and others, who had the audacity to challenge the great ministers, were trusted and appointed to prestigious positions. When officials entered the palace, there were regular numbers of attendants. The Grand Tutor Ping Yan followed the example of the attendants, and the Supervisor of the Ye Gate was disrespectful in his questioning, leading to the arrest of Ping Yan and the attendants. Wang Mang was furious and sent officers to surround the Grand Tutor's residence with hundreds of chariots and cavalry. The attendants were captured and executed on the spot. The Grand Minister of Works passed by the Fengchang Pavilion at night, where the pavilion keeper was disrespectful and drunk. When the official asked for his name, the pavilion keeper contemptuously retorted, "Do you have an official token?" The official struck the pavilion keeper with a horsewhip, and in response, the pavilion keeper beheaded the official. The official escaped, but the county authorities pursued him. His family petitioned, and Wang Mang said, "The pavilion keeper was carrying out his duties, do not pursue him." The Grand Minister of Works was demoted to appease Wang Mang. The country was in mourning, and Wang Mang appointed He Shu to address the situation, commanding, "Not only protect the families of the country's mourners, but also protect the relatives in the western province." All officials were treated with contempt, but He Shu was especially humiliated.
In April, there was frost that killed crops, especially along the coast. In June, a thick yellow fog blanketed the land. In July, a ferocious wind uprooted trees, tearing the roof tiles from the North Gate and the city walls. The storm brought hail and torrential rain, killing livestock.
Wang Mang's administrative reforms reorganized the officials of the Zhou dynasty and the royal system, appointing Prefects, Commandants, and Grand Masters with duties akin to those of governors; and subordinate officials and leaders with responsibilities similar to those of commandants. Twenty-five governors and department supervisors were appointed, enjoying the same status and ceremonial privileges as the Three Dukes. Each chief official controlled five counties. The Gong clan acted as governors, the Hou clan as Commandants, the Bo clan as Grand Masters, the Zi clan as subordinate officials, and the Nan clan as leaders, with those without titles serving as officers. The six villages adjacent to Chang'an were divided, with a leader appointed for each village. The Three Adjuncts were divided into six guard counties, with Hedong, Henei, Hongnong, Henan, Yingchuan, and Nanyang designated as the six administrative divisions, each with a Grand Master acting as governor and a Commandant. The chief official of Henan was renamed Protector of Loyalty and Trust. Thirty additional counties under its jurisdiction were added to Henan. Six suburban governors were appointed, each overseeing five counties. The names of other officials were also changed. Large counties were divided into five. There were three hundred and sixty counties named in accordance with the command texts, referencing pavilions. Border areas also had border guards, all male. The land between the vassal states was subject to constant adjustments, including land redistribution and border disputes.
Wang Mang wrote: "The Western Capital is referred to as the Six Villages, with the various counties known as the Six Teams. The Eastern Capital is known as the Six States, with the various counties also referred to as the Six Teams. Within the grain-producing regions are the Inner Counties, while those outside are the Outer Counties. Counties with border defenses are called Border Counties. In total, there are one hundred and twenty-five counties. Within the Nine Provinces, there are two thousand two hundred and three counties. Officials in the capital wear ceremonial robes, known as the Wei City; those in the vassal states wear robes of peace, known as the Wei Ning; those in ministerial and feudal states wear robes of authority, known as the Wei Han; those in guest robes are known as the Wei Ping; those in charge of civil education and military defense are known as the Wei Yuan; those outside the Nine Provinces are known as the Wei Fan: each takes its name according to its location, making up the myriad states."
Afterwards, the names of the counties were changed yearly, from one to five, but then reverted to their original names. The officials and the populace struggled to keep track of these changes, leading to significant confusion. Each decree would mention the old names, stating: "By decree, the Chief Officer of Chenliu and the Commandant: in the coming year, the lands south of the boundary will be reassigned to Xinping, formerly known as Huaiyang. The lands east of Yongqiu will be reassigned to Chending, formerly Liangjun. The lands east of Fengqiu will be reassigned to Zhiting, formerly Dongjun. The lands west of Chenliu will be reassigned to Qisui, formerly Xingyang. Chenliu no longer has its own county. The Chief Officer and the Commandant shall proceed to their posts." Other changes in commands followed a similar pattern, reflecting the ongoing administrative turmoil.
Throughout the empire, primary schools received an imperial decree: the Wuzi year was declared the start of a new sixty-year cycle, with Wuzi day as New Year's Day and the Wuyin decade designated as inauspicious. Many folks disregarded this.
The Chanyu of the Xiongnu knew of his impending death, and his younger brother Xian was made Chanyu, seeking peace and alliance. Wang Mang sent envoys with a mountain of gifts, falsely promising to return his hostage son Deng, and then sought to purchase Chen Liang, Zhong Dai, and others. The Chanyu then handed over Liang and the others to the envoys, who brought them in a prisoner's cart to Chang'an. Wang Mang burned Liang and the others north of the city, ordering the populace to gather and watch.
There was a great famine along the border, with people eating each other. Advisors were pushing for a troop pullback, saying, "The soldiers stationed at the frontier have suffered for a long time, and the border commanderies have nothing to support them. Now that the Chanyu has made peace, it is appropriate to withdraw the troops." The Colonel Han Wei responded, "With the power of the new regime, we can crush the barbarians without breaking a sweat. I request five thousand brave soldiers, without provisions, to feast on enemy flesh and drink their blood, allowing us to dominate." Wang Mang was impressed by his words and appointed Wei as a general. However, he took Ru Pu's advice and recalled all the generals stationed at the border, exempting Chen Qin and eighteen others, as well as disbanding the garrisons of four border commanderies. When Xiongnu envoys returned, the Chanyu learned that his son Deng had been executed, leading to border raids. Wang Mang then deployed troops to the border. As a result, border residents fled to the interior, becoming slaves and servants. Wang Mang issued a decree: anyone found harboring border residents in secret would face severe punishment.
The barbarians of Yizhou killed the Grand Commandant Cheng Long, causing uprisings on all three borders. The General Pacifying the Barbarians, Ma Mao, was sent to lead troops against them.
The General Who Calms the Beginning, Hou Fu, was dismissed, and the Minister of Rites, Dai Can, was appointed as the General Who Calms the Beginning.
In the second month of the second year, a banquet was held at the Wanglutang Hall, with officials and nobles serving the wine. A general amnesty was declared throughout the empire.
At that time, a star blazed in the noonday sky.
The Grand Marshal Miao Xin was demoted to Minister of Justice, and the Marquis of Yande, Chen Mao, was appointed as the Grand Marshal.
False rumors spread that a yellow dragon had fallen and died in the palace on Mount Huang, causing a massive crowd to flock to witness it. Wang Mang was furious and launched a full-scale investigation, but the root of the rumor could not be found.
Chanyu Xian had already made nice and asked for his son's body back. Mang was worried Xian would get revenge and kill the envoy. So he arrested General Chen Qin—the guy who'd suggested killing Xian's son—on trumped-up charges. Qin said, "So you want me to smooth things over with the Xiongnu?" He then committed suicide. Mang picked Jinan Wang Xian, a sharp scholar, to head the mission, with generals like Liangye Fu'an as commanders, to deliver the body of his son. He ordered them to open the Chanyu's tomb and whip his corpse with thorny branches. He also demanded the Xiongnu retreat north, give back 10,000 horses, 30,000 cattle, and 100,000 sheep, and return all the people they'd kidnapped from the border. Mang was a real blowhard. Xian arrived at the Chanyu's court and laid into him for treachery and aggression. The Chanyu, furious, died fighting. Back home, Xian died. His son got made a count, and Fu'an and the others were all given titles, too.
Wang Mang believed that by establishing rules, everything would be hunky-dory. Therefore, he focused on the land, established rituals and music, and discussed the six classics. Officials were constantly in and out, but years of endless meetings yielded nothing, and there was no time to address urgent matters like reviewing lawsuits and grievances of the people. County bosses, often absent for years, piled up multiple jobs and got seriously corrupt. Local law enforcement, from commanders to petty officials, were all abusing their power, passing the buck constantly. Eleven officials were supposed to boost farming. They were also supposed to enforce the laws, check the rules, and generally oversee things. The result? Total gridlock. Officials and civilians were constantly being summoned, arrested, and shaken down for bribes. Bribery was so rampant, corruption was everywhere.
Wang Mang had grabbed power, so he micromanaged everything. His underlings just did the bare minimum to avoid trouble. Eunuchs controlled all the important stuff – the treasury, the grain stores, everything. Any reports from officials or the public? The eunuchs would filter them, keeping the secretaries in the dark. He was terrified of his own officials, so he constantly changed the rules. This led to endless confusion and delays. Wang Mang burned the midnight oil, but it was no use; things were still a mess. The secretaries used the chaos to line their pockets, delaying reports for years, only freeing prisoners after a pardon, and leaving the guards in place for three years. Food prices skyrocketed, leaving the twenty thousand plus border troops relying on the government. County officials were beside themselves. Wuyuan and Dai were hit the hardest, sparking a bandit boom. Thousands of outlaws flooded into neighboring counties.
Wang Mang sent General Kong Ren to crush the rebellion. It took over a year, but eventually, peace returned to the border regions. North of Handan, heavy rain and fog caused flooding, killing thousands. General Sun Jian died; Zhao Hong took over. Dai Can returned to his old post, while Lian Dan became the new Ning Shi General.
In February of the third year of Yiyou, an earthquake occurred, accompanied by a blizzard. Guandong was hit especially hard, with depths reaching about ten feet in some places. Some bamboo and cypress even died. The Works Minister, Wang Yi, submitted a memorial stating: "I haven't accomplished much in my eight years of service. Perhaps my failure to do my job has contributed to this earthquake. I request retirement." Emperor Mang responded: "Earthquakes happen, and while some movement is harmless, shaking is dangerous. Earthquakes are natural occurrences; they're mentioned in ancient texts like the Spring and Autumn Annals and the I Ching, which see change as a natural part of life. These things happen, and there are various explanations. This earthquake is a warning. Why are you retiring? This doesn't help. Tell the others."
In May, the system of official salaries was established, stating: "I encountered the obstacles of Yang Jiu and the meeting of 106, the national budget is insufficient, and the people are in turmoil. From the officials to the common people, the monthly salary is ten bolts of coarse cloth and two bolts of silk, or one bolt of fine silk. I have never felt indifferent when I think about it. Now that the obstacles have passed, although the treasury is not yet sufficient, it has been slightly provided. Starting from the first day of the sixth month, the salaries of officials will be in accordance with the system." The four assistants, high officials, and scholars, down to the chariots and attendants, total fifteen levels. The annual salary of the attendants is sixty-six shu (a unit of grain), slightly increasing and varying, up to ten thousand shu for the four assistants. Mang also said: "The land of the world belongs to the king, and the people of the world are the king's subjects." This is to support the world. In the Zhou rituals, there are 120 dishes; now the princes eat according to their state; the enfeoffed, appointed, and attached cities eat according to their territories; the nobles, officials, scholars, and elite citizens eat according to their class. There are regulations for the quantity. In times of abundance, the rituals are fulfilled; in times of disaster, there are losses, sharing joys and sorrows with the people. When calculating the expenses, if there are no disasters in the world, the imperial dishes will be prepared accordingly; if there are disasters, the dishes will be reduced according to the severity. The Grand Tutor of Mount Tai is responsible for twenty-five commanderies in the eastern regions; the Grand Preceptor of Mount Heng is responsible for twenty-five commanderies in the southern regions; the National Teacher of Mount Song is responsible for twenty-five commanderies in the western region; the National Guardian of the North is responsible for twenty-five commanderies in the northern regions; the Grand Marshal oversees the seven departments, including the Naqing, Yanguan, Shiqing, and Zuqing. The Grand Minister is responsible for five commanderies, including the Leqing, Dianqing, Zongqing, and Chiqing. The Grand Minister of Works is responsible for ten commanderies, including the Yuqing, Gongqing, and others. The six ministries and six officials follow their respective officials to protect against disasters and reduce their salaries according to the severity. The attendants, officials, and central officials in the capital receive reduced salaries as a cost-cutting measure. The princes, enfeoffed lords, appointed officials, and local officials also protect against disasters. In theory, this fostered unity and agricultural prosperity, but the complex evaluation system of Mang's system was ultimately unworkable; officials never received their salaries, resorting to bribery to survive.
In the month of Wuchen, the west bank of Changpingguan collapsed, and the Yongjing River ceased flowing, its course diverted northward. The Minister of Works, Wang Yi, was sent to inspect and report back. Court officials saw this as a good omen, believing that the filling of the river with soil as described in the River Diagram was a sign of the downfall of the Xiongnu. The Governor of Bingzhou, Song Hong, and the military commander Ren Meng were sent to lead troops to attack the Xiongnu and stationed at the border.
In the seventh month of Xinyou, the gate of Ba City caught fire, which the people called the Green Gate.
On the day of Wuzi, there was a solar eclipse. A general amnesty was declared throughout the empire. Officials, nobles, and regional governors were each required to recommend one person for four different positions. The Grand Marshal Chen Mao was relieved of his duties because of the eclipse, and Wu Jianbo was appointed as the new Grand Marshal.
In the tenth month of Wuchen, the Zhu Bird Gate at Wanglu rang incessantly day and night. Cui Fa and others said, "Emperor Yu opened the four gates to connect with the four directions. The ringing of the gate is a sign to follow the rituals of the ancient sages and attract talents from all over." The court celebrated this interpretation, and the recommended candidates entered through the Zhu Bird Gate to present their strategies.
The General in charge of pacifying the barbarians, Feng Mao, attacked Juteng, but the soldiers fell ill, with six to seven out of ten dying. Taxes were increased, and people's wealth was confiscated, but Yizhou suffered losses and was not successful. Feng Mao was arrested and died in prison upon his return. Emperor Mang summoned Generals Lian Dan and Shi Xiong to attack Juteng, achieving some success. Dan and Xiong requested to adjust their strategies and promised victory before returning. Despite heavy taxation, Governor Feng Ying objected, stating that the decade-long conflict with the Niu and Tong tribes remained unresolved. Feng Mao had forced many from their homes, leading to significant casualties. The people were further burdened by additional taxes, resulting in failure in Liangzhou. It was advised to disband the troops, establish a clear reward system, and cease further military actions. Emperor Mang was furious and dismissed Ying from his position. Later, realizing his mistake, he reinstated Ying as the Governor of Changsha.
Wang Sunqing, an accomplice of Zhai Yi, was captured. Wang Mang had him carved open, his innards meticulously examined, and his meridians probed with bamboo tubes to observe their paths, after which he claimed they could be used for medical treatment.
That year, Wang Mang sent Wu Wei to lead Wang Jun, Protector Li Chong, and Wujijiaowei officers on a campaign to the Western Regions. All the countries along the way came out to welcome them and presented tribute. Those countries had previously killed the Protector Du Qin. Wang Jun wanted to attack them, so he ordered the deputy commander He Feng and Wujijiaowei Guo Qin to set out separately. The people of Yanqi pretended to surrender but ambushed and attacked Wang Jun and his men, resulting in all of them being killed in battle. Guo Qin and He Feng arrived later, slaughtering the defenseless, and returned to the border from Che Shi. Wang Mang appointed Guo Qin as the General of the External Frontiers and titled He Feng as the Commander of the Frontier Tribes. That effectively severed ties between the Western Regions and the Central Plains.
