In this world, the leaders have been around for a long time, and the places illuminated by the sun and moon are vast and endless. However, upon closer inspection, there are more animals than humans; our Central Plains region is densely populated, while other areas are sparsely populated. If you look at the strange and marvelous tales recorded in ancient books, there are countless, and the bizarre stories in the "Shan Hai Jing" are even more numerous. The words of sages like Duke Zhou and Confucius are now interpreted in various ways, making it difficult to discern truth from fiction. Qin Shi Huang levied heavy taxes and engaged in wars everywhere; the Han Dynasty had a powerful army and fought in many places. The Xiongnu were defeated, rendering their nation weak; fine horses from the Western Regions were brought in, yet the common folk suffered. Therefore, Yanmen Pass and Longdui Mountain are natural barriers created by nature to separate the Central Plains from the barbarian tribes; the hot southern regions and northern deserts also serve as natural boundaries to delineate internal and external areas. Moreover, we lack the strength and ambition of Qin Shi Huang or Han Gaozu; if we go against the natural order and rely on brute force to conquer the world, it will only burden the populace and squander resources, resulting in quick failure. Thus, ancient wise rulers emphasized education, first ensuring good governance of the Central Plains before dealing with the barbarians; wise sages prioritized moral cultivation over blind territorial expansion. Even Great Yu controlled the floods, extending his rule from the eastern coast to the western desert; the territories described in the "Zhou Li: Wang Zhi," from north to south, only extended to the cave-dwelling region of Jiaozhi. Isn't this a testament to their understanding of greater principles, ensuring their merits would be remembered for generations?
After the Zhou Dynasty experienced turmoil, it finally settled down, pacifying all directions with military force and using strategy to maintain peace along the borders. When the national treasury was empty, they strengthened ties with the minority ethnic groups in the west. This led to a clear system of rewards and punishments, and their reputation spread far and wide. People from various ethnic groups, dressed in diverse clothing and furs, came to pay tribute; merchants and travelers flocked to the post stations. Although the eastern Wu Yue region and the southern Bai Yue region were not completely conquered, the prestige of our country had spread far and wide, and our culture had influenced many places, which was quite an achievement in itself. The minority ethnic groups that came to pay tribute are all recorded later in the text. As for the distance of the journey, local products, and customs, detailed information can be found in previous historical records, though some details may differ. These records have been compiled based on historical accounts to ensure nothing is omitted.
Speaking of Goguryeo, it originally came from the Buyeo Kingdom. They claim their ancestor was Jumong, born when the daughter of the River God was impregnated by the sun. Jumong grew up to be both intelligent and capable, but the Buyeo people grew to dislike him and expelled him. He fled to Jolbon Fortress, declared himself king, named his kingdom Goguryeo, and took the surname Gao. His grandson Mohe strengthened Goguryeo's power, defeating Buyeo and making them submit. Lian, Mohe's grandson, was the first to establish diplomatic relations with Northern Wei.
The territory of Goguryeo extends from the east to Silla, more than two thousand li to the west of the Liao River, adjacent to Baekje in the south, and bordering the Malgal in the north, spanning over a thousand li. Their capital is called Pyongyang City. This city, with a length of six li from east to west, is situated by the Pothong River in the south. Inside the city, there are stored grains and weapons, and only when bandits arrive do they defend the city to the death. The king has built a residence outside the city and typically does not live there. Outside the city, there are the Inner City and Hanseong, which can also be regarded as additional capitals, as well as several dozen cities such as Liao Dong and Xuanmu, each governed by officials with mutual jurisdiction.
The highest official position in Goguryeo is called Dae Du Lu (Great Chief), followed by Taedae Hyeong, Dae Hyeong, So Hyeong, Yiseosa, Ujeol, Taedasija, Dasija, So Sija, Yuseosa, Eulso, and Seonin Bing Yusa, totaling thirteen levels, responsible for internal and external affairs. Dae Du Lu holds great power, and those who are powerful often compete for the position, which is not appointed by the king. Their legal system is as follows: those who conspire to commit treason or rebellion face execution by burning, beheading, and confiscation of their property; thieves are fined ten times the value of the stolen items. If they are too poor to pay or owe debts to the government or private individuals, their children may be sold into slavery to repay the debt.
A man is wearing a loose-sleeved shirt and baggy pants, with a white leather belt and yellow leather shoes. The hat is called a "Gusu cap," mostly made of purple silk, adorned with gold and silver ornaments. Officials may wear two bird feathers in their caps for distinction. Women wear dresses with wide sleeves. The books they read include the "Five Classics," "Three Histories," "Records of the Three Kingdoms," and "Book of Jin." Their weapons include armor, crossbows, bows and arrows, halberds, spears, and pikes. Taxes are paid in silk and grain, based on individual circumstances and wealth levels. Their land is barren, and their lives are simple, but their behavior is generally elegant. However, they are quite cunning and hypocritical, speaking vulgarly and disregarding familial ties, even bathing together and sharing beds. Their customs are immoral, and they do not feel ashamed. Some women behave promiscuously, frequently changing husbands. The wedding ceremony is very simple, with almost no bride price; if a bride price is accepted, it is seen as selling a woman into servitude, which is considered very shameful in the local culture. The mourning system for deceased parents and husbands is the same as in the Central Plains; for deceased brothers, they only mourn for three months. They practice Buddhism, particularly engaging in debauched rituals. There are also two temples: one dedicated to the Fuyu deity, with a statue carved from wood in the shape of a woman; the other dedicated to the God of Ascending Heights, believed to be the son of the Fuyu deity. Both temples are guarded by officials. It is said that this is the story of the daughter of the River God and Zhu Meng. Cheng, the fifth descendant of Fuyu, sent envoys to offer local specialties in the twelfth year of the Northern Wei Daitong era. After Cheng's death, his son Tang succeeded him. In the sixth year of the Northern Wei Jiande era, Tang sent envoys again to pay tribute. Emperor Gaozu bestowed upon Tang the title of Grand General and the privilege of opening a government office, Duke of the Founding of Liaodong, and King of Liaodong.
Baekje was initially a vassal state of Mahan and was also a branch of the Goguryeo kingdom. A man named Qiu Tai founded this nation. Thus, Baekje's territory shares borders with Silla to the east, Goguryeo to the north, and is bordered by the sea to the southwest. It spans 450 li from east to west and more than 900 li from north to south. Its capital is Guma City. Additionally, there are five other locations: the central region is known as Gusha City, to the east is De'an City, to the south is Jiuzhixia City, to the west is Daoxian City, and to the north is Xiongjin City.
Mr. Wang, a Goguryeo native, has the courtesy name Yuluoxia. The locals refer to him as Qianjizhi, which roughly translates to "Joint King" in Chinese. His wife is named Yulu, which means "Consort" in Chinese. The official ranks in their country total sixteen levels. The Left Ping, consisting of five members, holds the first-grade official position; Dalu, with thirty members, holds the second-grade position; Enlu is third grade; Delu is fourth grade; Hanlu is fifth grade; and Nailu is sixth grade. Officials of sixth grade and above decorate their hats with shiny silver embellishments. Jiangde, a seventh-grade official, wears a purple belt; Shide, an eighth-grade official, wears a black belt; Gude, a ninth-grade official, wears a red belt; Jide, a tenth-grade official, wears a blue belt; Duide, an eleventh-grade official, and Wendux, a twelfth-grade official, both wear yellow belts; Wudux, a thirteenth-grade official, Zuojun, a fourteenth-grade official, Zhenwu, a fifteenth-grade official, and Keyu, a sixteenth-grade official, all wear white belts. The number of officials below Enlu is variable; each official position has its own jurisdictional department responsible for different affairs. This hierarchical structure reflects the organization and governance of their society.
The official positions inside the palace include: Front Interior, Grain Department, Meat Department, Internal Raiding Department, External Raiding Department, Horse Department, Knife Department, Merit Department, Medicine Department, Wood Department, Law Department, and Harem Department. The official positions outside the palace include: Military Department, Ministerial Affairs Department, Construction Department, Supervision Department, Inspection Department, Guest Department, Outer Dwelling Department, Silk Department, Solar Official Department, and Urban Department. The capital houses over ten thousand households, divided into five sectors: Upper Sector, Front Sector, Central Sector, Lower Sector, and Rear Sector, with each sector managing five hundred soldiers. There are five directions, each with a regional commander, held by a second-rank official; each direction governs ten counties, each with three county commanders, led by a fourth-rank official. Each direction oversees a military force between seven hundred and twelve hundred. The common folk both within and outside the city, along with other smaller towns, are all under their jurisdiction.
Their clothing is similar to that of the Koreans for men. During court ceremonies, they wear hats adorned with wing-like decorations on both sides, which are not worn during battles. The etiquette for greeting high officials is to kneel with both hands on the ground as a sign of respect. Women’s clothing is similar to robes, with slightly wider sleeves. Unmarried girls braid their hair and wear it piled on top of their heads, allowing a strand to hang down as decoration; married women split their hair into two sections. Their weapons include bows and arrows, knives, and spears (a type of long spear). They highly value horseback archery and enjoy reading historical texts. Many of the more distinguished individuals are able to write and have some understanding of Yin-Yang and the Five Elements theory. They use the Song Dynasty's "Yuanjia Calendar" to calculate time, with the first month of the lunar year marking the start of the year. They also possess knowledge of medicine, divination, fortune-telling, and physiognomy. They have games like throwing pots and Chupu, but they prefer playing chess. There are many temples and pagodas, but no Taoist priests. Taxes are collected in the form of cloth, silk, thread, hemp, and rice, with varying amounts based on the harvest each year. Their punishments are: for rebellion, fleeing, and murder, the punishment is beheading; for theft, the punishment is exile and a double fine on the confiscated goods; for women who commit adultery, they are forced to serve in their husband's household. The marriage customs are similar to those in our Central Plains. When parents or husbands die, one must observe a three-year mourning period; for other relatives, the mourning period ends after the funeral. The land there is relatively moist, and the climate is warm. The grains, fruits, vegetables, alcohol, meat, and medicines are similar to those found inland. However, they lack camels, donkeys, mules, sheep, geese, and ducks. Their king performs sacrifices to Heaven, Earth, and the Five Emperors in the middle months of spring, summer, autumn, and winter. Each year, they also perform ancestral sacrifices at the temple of their ancestors, known as Qiutai, four times.
After the Jin, Song, Qi, and Liang Dynasties took control of the Jiangnan region, the Northern Wei Dynasty took control of the Central Plains. Both sides sent envoys to acknowledge each other's sovereignty and accepted each other's titles. The Qi Dynasty was powerful, and their king, King Long of Qi, had also sent envoys to pay tribute. After King Long died, his son Chang ascended to the throne. By the sixth year of Jian De, the Qi Dynasty fell, and only then did King Chang begin to send envoys to offer treasures. By the first year of Xuan Zheng, they sent envoys again to pay tribute.
The tribes are all descendants of Pan Hu. They are numerous and scattered among places like Ruzhou and Yuzhou, between the Yangtze River and the Huai River. They rely on the rugged terrain to cause trouble and have been bandits for generations. Once the Wei state lost its control, their actions became even more violent. Among them, the Ran, Xiang, and Tian clans were the most powerful, with the larger clans having tens of thousands of households and smaller ones having thousands. They colluded with each other, illegitimately claiming noble titles, occupied the Three Gorges, and blocked waterways, forcing those traveling between Jingzhou and Shuzhou to pay a toll.
The founding emperor subdued the Yique Pass, and his reputation spread to the south, causing the various tribal groups to fear his authority and yield. In the fifth year of Datong, the barbarian king Lu Chaoming of Caiyang surrendered to the court and was appointed governor of Nanyang Province, and he was granted this position for life. In the eleventh year of Datong, the barbarian leader Meilete came to pay tribute with local specialties. Soon after, the barbarian chief Tian Duqing and his followers from Mianzhou and Hanzhou began causing trouble again, and General Yang Zhong led troops to defeat them. Later, the barbarian chief Du Qing, who styled himself as the governor of Bazhou, requested to submit to the court, and the court granted him the title he had claimed. However, Qing later rebelled, attacking and besieging Dongliangzhou. Meanwhile, the barbarian Tian Lu Jia from Tangzhou also rebelled, claiming to be the duke of Yuzhou. Wang Xiong, Quan Jingxuan, and others successively quelled their rebellions, which are detailed in the records of Quan Zhongzun and Jing Xuan.
In the early years of the Wei Emperor Feidi, the barbarian leader Fan She led his tribe to submit to the court and was appointed as the military commander for the three provinces in northern Huai, the governor of Huaizhou Province, and the Marquis of Huai'an County. After Yu Jin and others pacified Jiangling, the barbarian tribes across various regions began to stir once more. The court ordered Dou Luning, Cai You, and others to go suppress them, and they succeeded in defeating the rebels.
In the second year of the Wei Emperor Gongdi, the barbarian leader Yimin Wang Tian Xingyan, the governor of North Jingzhou Mei Jichang, and others subsequently submitted to the court. The court appointed Xingyan and Jichang as officials of the Ministry of Ceremonial, and Jichang was bestowed the title of Count of Shitai County. Later, the Ba Xi leader Qiao Yan incited various barbarian tribes to ally with the Liang Dynasty. The barbarian leaders Xiang Zhenhou, Xiang Bai Biao, and others responded to Qiao Yan. Xiang Wuzi Wang also captured Xinzhou. Tian Wudu, Tian Duting, and others cut off the traffic on the river. Wen Zirong occupied Wenyang County in Jingzhou and proclaimed himself as the governor of Renzhou. The governor of the neighboring province, Pu Wei, also revolted. The court ordered Tian Hong, He Ruodun, Pan Zhao, and Li Qianzhe to go and suppress them, and they were defeated. The specific records are in the biographies of Dun, Qianzhe, Yang Xiong, and others.
It is said that not long after Wu Zetian became the emperor, the barbarian tribes in Wenzhou rebelled. The state dispatched troops to quell the rebellion, successfully suppressing the uprising. However, shortly thereafter, Ran Lingxian, Xiang Wuzi Wang, and others stirred up trouble once more. They captured Baidi City, killed the court's official Yang Changhua, and then rebelled together.
The court sent officials Yuan Qi, Zhao Gang, and others multiple times to lead troops in suppressing the rebellion. Although they killed many of the rebels, the main instigators remained at large.
In the first year of the Tianhe era, the court ordered Lu Teng to lead an army to quell the rebellion. Lu Teng led his troops, advancing by both land and water. After arriving at Tangkou, he first sent scouts to assess the situation. At the same time, he ordered Ling Xian to strengthen the city defenses and prepare for an attack. He also had Ling Xian's eldest and second sons lead their people to construct ten cities at strategic locations throughout Jiangnan and make contact with the Cenyang tribes to gain their support. Ling Xian commanded his elite troops to hold Shuolao City.
Lu Teng convened the generals to discuss the battle plan. Everyone wanted to take Shuolao City first and then subdue Jiangnan. However, Lu Teng countered, "Ling Xian relies on the strong defense of Shuolao City, the support of the Cenyang tribes, and an ample supply of food and excellent weapons. If we attack their stronghold from a distance, we might boost their morale if we fail to capture it. It would be wiser to camp at Tangkou first, strike at Jiangnan to diminish their forces, and then attack Shuolao City. This is the key to victory!" Everyone found this reasoning sound.
So Lu Teng sent Wang Liang to lead the army to cross the river. Within ten days, they had captured eight cities, and the rebels fled in all directions. They captured the rebel leader Ran Chenggong, over three thousand prisoners, along with more than a thousand households that surrendered. Afterwards, Lu Teng selected elite soldiers to launch a simultaneous attack on Shuolao City from multiple directions. Along the way, they passed through Shibicheng, a city characterized by steep terrain and cliffs on all sides, which is how it got its name. There was only one narrow path that required climbing ladders to reach. The tribes believed that this terrain rendered it impossible for an army to traverse. Lu Teng took the lead, climbing up first, with the other soldiers following closely behind, overcoming numerous challenges and spending several months to rediscover the original route.
Lu Teng had previously served as the governor of Longzhou. He knew that the tribal leaders Ran Boli and Ran Anxi had conflicts with Ling Xian. Therefore, Lu Teng persuaded them to surrender, establishing a bond akin to that of father and son, and gifting them a substantial amount of gold and silver. Ran Boli and the others were delighted and agreed to guide Lu Teng. Next to Shui Luo City, there was also a strategically significant Stone Victory City, which Ling Xian had stationed his nephew Long Zhen to guard. Lu Teng secretly persuaded Long Zhen, promising that if he captured Shui Luo City, he would appoint Long Zhen in Ling Xian's place. Long Zhen was overjoyed by this news and secretly sent his son to meet Lu Teng. Lu Teng received him warmly and gifted him many treasures. The tribal warriors, driven by their greed and desire for achievement, said to Lu Teng, "If you want to capture the city I guard, I'm afraid there won't be enough manpower." Lu Teng promised him three hundred troops for support. Instead, he secretly dispatched two thousand soldiers to advance under the cover of night. Long Zhen was unable to resist, and Stone Victory City was captured just like that.
The next morning, the main forces reached Shui Luo City, where the tribal army was defeated, resulting in over ten thousand enemy casualties and more than ten thousand captured. Ling Xian fled but was later caught after a pursuit; he and his descendants were put to death. Sima Yi then captured more than twenty cities and apprehended the tribal leader Ran Sangong and others. Lu Teng stacked their corpses beside Shui Luo City to construct a memorial. Later, when the tribal people saw this, they wept loudly. From then on, they would no longer dare to revolt.
Wuzi Wang had taken control of Shimu City, and his father instructed his son Baosheng to defend Shuangcheng. After Shuoluo had been pacified, the court sent envoys multiple times to persuade Wuzi Wang to surrender, but he refused to listen. With no other options, the court sent Wang Liang to guard Laoping and Sima Yi to guard Shuangcheng, preparing for a pincer attack. The court was worried that Shuangcheng was difficult to attack and that if the enemy abandoned the city and fled, it would be hard to pursue. Therefore, the army was ordered to erect barricades around the area to cut off their escape routes. This terrified Wuzi Wang and his followers! Consequently, when the court's army charged, they routed them, capturing Wuzi Wang in Shimu City and Baosheng in Shuangcheng, executing all the leaders involved in the rebellion, and capturing over ten thousand people alive.
Xinzhou’s original capital was located in Baidi City. Later, the court constructed a new city south of Liu Bei's former palace, north of Bazhen Tu, and close to the river, moving the capital of Xinzhou there. Since Wuxian, Xinling, and Zigui are key strategic locations in the gorge, the court also built cities there, set up defenses, and used them as important barriers.
In the sixth year of Tianhe, the Manchu leaders Ran Zuxi and Ran Longxiang revolted once more, so the court dispatched General Zhao Yin to quell the rebellion, successfully subduing them. Since then, those tribes have kept their heads down and dared not rebel again.
The Liao people are actually a branch of the Southern Barbarians, found throughout the regions from Hanzhong to Qiongzhou and Zezhou, in the caves scattered throughout Sichuan and Shu. Their customs are rather peculiar; many do not adhere to surnames and often lack personal names. Children are simply addressed by their birth order. Men are referred to as A Mu, A Duan, etc., while women are called A Yi, A Di, etc.; these are all names given based on their order of birth. When they are joyful, they come together; when they are angry, they turn on each other, even if they are family members, such as fathers and sons or brothers. They plunder and trade people, showing no regard for familial ties. If someone who has been sold resists or tries to escape, they will have the buyer pursue them, much like pursuing a fleeing traitor, and if caught, they will be tied up. Once someone has been bound even once, they become a lowly individual and no longer dare to consider themselves a good citizen. They are deeply superstitious regarding ghosts and deities and particularly partake in lewd sacrificial rites and shamanistic practices, with some even selling their siblings, wives, and children merely to make offerings. They typically elect a leader to be their king, but this king's authority extends only over a limited area.
From the south of the Yangtze River to the Central Plains, passing through Bashu, most of the local people relied on the challenging terrain to defy the court's authority. After Taizu pacified Liangzhou and Yizhou, he ordered the local officials to appease them. Those barbarian tribes who lived among the Han people were also made to bear some taxes and labor. However, they were known for their volatile nature, and they would often cause disturbances. Every year, the court would send troops from nearby states to subdue them, and the captured barbarians were enslaved, referred to as "yaliao." Later, when merchants came to trade, they viewed these barbarians as commodities, and there were many barbarian slaves in the homes of both high officials and ordinary people. In the third year of Emperor Wei's reign, the caged barbarians of Lingzhou rebelled, and the court ordered General Lu Teng to suppress them. As a result, Lu Teng defeated them, capturing and killing 15,000 people. In the second year of the Baoding era, the Tie Mountain barbarians rebelled again, and they even disrupted key transportation routes along the river. Lu Teng sent troops again, breaking through their three cities, capturing 3,000 people, while 30,000 households of barbarians surrendered. These events are detailed in the "Biography of Lu Teng."
In simple terms, the barbarians in the southern Bashu region frequently rebelled, leading the court to dispatch troops to quell the unrest, and the captured barbarians were used as slaves and even treated as goods for trade. Later, the barbarians in Lingzhou and Tie Mountain rebelled in succession, both of which were suppressed by General Lu Teng.
In the year 700, the Hengling Liao tribe of Liangzhou rebelled, and General Zhao Wenbiao was ordered to quell the rebellion. When the army arrived in Bazhou, Zhao Wenbiao intended to launch a direct attack. His subordinate officers voiced their concerns: "These Liao people have resisted stubbornly for a long time and are very strong. In the past, when we dealt with them, we surrounded them from all sides and defeated them one by one to weaken their strength. If our main army charges directly without sending some elite troops, they are likely to concentrate their forces against us, and we might not win."
Zhao Wenbiao said, "Since the previous methods aren't working, we need to change our strategy. If we attack from all sides, the Liao will have no way to retreat, and they will definitely fight to the death. If we only take one route, we can demonstrate our might and show both strength and mercy, sending people to reason with them, hitting hard when needed and comforting where necessary. Once good and bad are clear, things will be much easier to handle. We should deal with matters flexibly; why must we adhere strictly to the old ways?"
Zhao Wenbiao shared his thoughts with the entire army. At that time, there were some guides in the army who were familiar with the customs of the Liao, and they were well acquainted with Heng Ling, so they conveyed Zhao Wenbiao's plan to Heng Ling.
Heng Ling and his tribesmen gathered to discuss it, but they had not yet made a decision when Zhao Wenbiao's army had already arrived in their territory. The Liao had two routes: one was relatively flat, and the other was extremely steep.
Just then, several Liao chieftains voluntarily came to see Zhao Wenbiao and said, "We are concerned that your troops are not familiar with the mountain roads; please let us guide you."
Zhao Wenbiao shot back, "This road is wide and flat; there's no need for a guide. You may return and persuade your tribesmen." He then sent them away.
Zhao Wenbiao told his soldiers, "The chieftains just suggested we take the flat road; they must be lying in wait for us there! We will take the steep road and catch them off guard, and the Liao will naturally scatter."
Thus, Zhao Wenbiao ordered the army to advance along the steep mountain path, fixing the road wherever it was blocked. Upon reaching a high point to survey the area, they indeed discovered the Liao people's ambush.
The Liao's plan failed, and they hurriedly retreated with their families to lay low in a more secure location. Zhao Wenbiao stationed his army at the foot of Dapeng Mountain, talking sense into them and appealing to their feelings, explaining what’s in it for them, and the Liao began to surrender one after another.
Zhao Wenbiao calmed them down, collected their taxes as usual, and no one dared to resist. Later, Zhao Wenbiao was appointed as the governor of Pengzhou, where he won over a lot of support from the Liao.
During the Jiande period, Li Hui served as the governor of Liangzhou, and the Liao people in Liangzhou also submitted. However, the number of Liao people continued to grow in number. They lived by the mountains and rivers, hiding in deep mountains and forests, moving as if they were on level ground. Although troops were sent to subdue them many times, it was very difficult to completely eliminate them. Moreover, they were ignorant and nearly beast-like. Of all the minority ethnic groups, they were the most difficult to influence with righteousness and morality.
The Qiang people of Dangchang, their ancestors were likely descendants of the ancient Sanmiao. During the Zhou Dynasty, they, along with eight other countries including Yong, Shu, Wei, and Lu, followed King Wu to defeat the Shang Dynasty. During the Han Dynasty, there were Qiang tribes like Xianling and Shaodang, who had long been a source of trouble on the border. Their territory was bordering the Central Plains to the east, leading to the Western Regions in the west, and extending for thousands of miles north and south. Different surnames formed their own tribes, each with their own chiefs and territories, not governed by any central authority. Dangchang is one of these tribes. They were all local indigenous residents, living in houses topped with roofs made of yak tails and goat wool. They had no laws or regulations, nor taxes or labor obligations. They only gathered together during wartime; otherwise, they led their own lives and had little interaction. They wore leather and coarse cloth garments, herding yaks, sheep, and pigs to sustain themselves. If a father, son, brother, or uncle died, they would take their stepmother, aunt, sister-in-law, or brother's widow as wives. They had no written language, instead tracking days by observing the growth and decay of plants. Every three years, they would gather and sacrifice cattle and sheep to their deities.
Liang Qin came from a long line of tribal chieftains and was held in high regard by the powerful Qiang leaders, and thus he declared himself king. His territory stretched over a thousand miles west from Chou Pool and eight hundred miles south from Xi Shui. The landscape was rugged, housing over twenty thousand households. Liang Qin's grandson Mi Hu began reaching out to the Northern Wei dynasty, and the Northern Wei Emperor Taiwu officially recognized his self-proclamation as king.
From Mi Hu to Jian Ding, there were a total of nine generations, and they regularly paid tribute and maintained a cordial relationship. Later, due to the division of the Two Wei dynasties, Jian Ding harbored rebellious intentions. As the Yongxi era drew to a close, Jian Ding allied with the Tuyuhun to launch an attack on Jincheng. In the early years of the Datong era, he invaded again with his tribesmen. The court sent Zhao Gui and Mo Chen Shun to lead forces against him, inflicting a crushing defeat on Jian Ding. In fear for his life, Jian Ding quickly submitted and pleaded for forgiveness. Emperor Gaozu was gracious and pardoned him, and even appointed him as General of the Pacification Army. Four years later, he was named Inspector of Nantao Prefecture and granted him the title of Anfan King. Later, Tao Prefecture was renamed Min Prefecture, with Jian Ding still serving as Inspector. In the same year, the Zhuangshui Qiang in Qin Prefecture rose up in rebellion, and the troops in the prefecture quelled them.
Seven years later, Lian Ding launched another invasion. At that time, Dugu Xin was stationed in Longyou, and the court ordered Dugu Xin to lead his troops to suppress him. Before the army could arrive, Lian Ding was killed by his own troops. Dugu Xin went over and eliminated Lian Ding's remaining followers. The court intended to pacify these ethnic minorities when they appointed Lian Ding's brother Mi Ding as the King of Tangchang. Sixteen years later, Mi Ding's kinsman Liao Gan seized his position, and Mi Ding fled to the court for refuge. Prior to this, the Qiang leader Bang Qi Tie Cong and others took advantage of Lian Ding's rebellion to gather troops and occupy Qulin Chuan, inciting other Qiang people along with Zheng Wuchou from Weizhou to resist the court's orders. The court sent General Yu Wen Gui, Dou Lu Ning, and the Governor of Liangzhou Shi Ning to suppress Liao Gan and the others, capturing and executing their leaders, and bringing Mi Ding back. This incident is documented in the "Biographies of Yu Wen Gui et al." Later, Qiang leaders Dong Nian Jie and Gong Lian Ju rebelled again, and Generals Dou Lu Ning and Wang Yong suppressed them several times.
In the early years of Baoding, Mi Ding sent people to pay tribute with various items. Three years later, he sent people again to offer some rare and exotic beasts. Four years later, Mi Ding attacked Taozhou, but Commander Li Xian drove him back. In the same year, Mi Ding allied with Tuyuhun to attack Shimen Shu, but Li Xian defeated them again. Emperor Gaozu was very angry and sent General Tian Hong to completely eliminate them, renaming that area Tangzhou.
Deng Zhiqiang is a branch of the Qiang people. There was a man named Xiang Shu Zhi who had served as the chieftain of Baishui for generations and called himself king. Their territory bordered Tangchang, and their customs and resources were similar to those of Tangchang. From Xiang Shu Zhi to Yan Jiao, there were a total of eleven generations. In the first year of Emperor Wei Gong's reign, Yan Jiao lost his territory and came to seek refuge with the court. Emperor Taizu ordered Duke Zhang Wu to lead troops to escort him back and reinstate his rule.
Bailan (白兰) is actually a branch of the Qiang ethnic group. Their territory is adjacent to the Tuyuhun in the northeast, Limotu in the northwest, and Na'e in the south. Their customs and products are similar to those of Dangchang. In the first year of the Baoding era, they even sent envoys with armor made of rhinoceros hide and iron armor!
The Di ethnic group is also a branch of the western Yi people. Since the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, they have had their own leaders, but their leaders changed with each dynasty. Which is why the Book of Songs states, "From the Di and Qiang, none dare to defy the king," meaning they all had to obey the rule of the Central Plains dynasties. During the time of Emperor Wu of Han, they were defeated, and their territory was divided into Wudu Commandery. From the Qianshui and Weishui rivers to Bashu, there was a diverse population of the Di ethnic group. In the late Han dynasty, a Di leader named Yang Ju first occupied Chouchi, with a territory of over a hundred mu, and was very powerful and the most formidable leader among the Di at that time. As the Di grew stronger, Yang Ju boldly proclaimed himself emperor, usurping the throne. By the time of his descendant Fu Jian, they were defeated by Fu Jian. After Fu Jian was defeated, the Di people elected another person as king, named Fu Ding, who was later killed by Qifu Gangui. Fu Ding's brother, Fu Sheng, then inherited their kingdom, receiving rewards from the Wei dynasty for generations and maintaining relations with the Eastern Jin court. However, the Di tribes were often scattered and sometimes submissive, sometimes rebellious, causing frequent disturbances in the region between Longshan and Hanshui.
Speaking of the descendants of King Wuxing Ji Shi, let's begin with him. The Wei dynasty appointed him as King Wuxing. Following Ji Shi's death, his son Shao Xian succeeded him, and then he boldly proclaimed himself emperor, usurping the throne. The Wei general Fu Shuyan led troops to defeat him, captured Shao Xian, and brought him back to the capital, renaming his territory Wuxing Town. Later, when the Wei dynasty was still not fully stabilized in Luoyang, chaos erupted across the land, and Shao Xian fled back to Wuxing, reclaiming his kingship.
After our ancestor, Emperor Taizu, had pacified Qinzhou and Longzhou, Shaoxian submitted to Taizu and sent his wife and children as hostages. In the first year of Datong, Shaoxian requested the return of his wife and daughter, and the Taizu Emperor petitioned the Wei Emperor to release them. After Shaoxian's death, his son, Beixie, succeeded him.
In the fourth year of Datong, the Di people of Nanqizhou, led by Fu Anshou, rebelled, captured Wudu, and proclaimed themselves the Taibai King. The court ordered Grand Commander Hou Mochen Shun and Weizhou Governor Changsun Cheng to lead troops against them, resulting in Fu Anshou being defeated. Fu Anshou surrendered along with his army. In the ninth year of Datong, the leader of the Di people in Qingshui, Li Shuren, rebelled, taking advantage of the rugged terrain, and the Di general, Liang Daoxian, also betrayed them and attacked Nanyou. The Taizu Emperor sent the envoy Zhao Chang to convince them to surrender, and Li Shuren and others surrendered one after another, as recorded in the "Biography of Zhao Chang."
In the eleventh year of Datong, Dong Yizhou was established in Wuxing, appointing Beixie as the governor. In the fifteenth year of Datong, the Anyi Di people revolted again. At that time, Zhao Chang served as the prefect, and he arrested over twenty ringleaders and executed them, thus putting down the remaining rebels. Therefore, the court appointed Zhao Chang to oversee the affairs of Southern Qinzhou.
Later, the Di leaders, Gai Nao and others, united in rebellion. Gai Nao occupied Beigu, his accomplices gathered in Taozhou, Yang Xingde and Fu Shuang besieged Pingdi City, Jiang Fankuai caused trouble in Wuji, and they also allied with the Qiang and Lao tribes of Dangchang to the west, electing Gai Nao as their leader. Zhao Chang then split his forces and sent envoys to persuade them with both reason and emotion, warning them of the consequences of rebellion before leading troops to suppress them. Gai Nao was captured, and the remaining rebels scattered.
The rebellious Di people from Xingzhou invaded Nanqizhou once more, and Chiluo Xie, the Governor of Nanqizhou, quickly called for help. Zhao Chang led his troops to their rescue and decisively defeated them.
At the beginning, the leader of the Di tribe, Yang Fashen, seized control of Yinpíng and proclaimed himself king, claiming to be a descendant of the Western Wei imperial family. During the reign of Emperor Xiaochang of Wei, he led his people to submit to the Northern Zhou dynasty. Since then, he has been paying tribute to the court without interruption. In the year of the deposed Emperor Yuan, Yang Fashen was appointed as the Inspector of Lizhou. Two years later, Yang Pixie led a rebellion in Lizhou, and many Di people followed him in revolt. The court dispatched Chiluo Xie and Zhao Chang to quell the rebellion. Later, Emperor Taizu of Northern Zhou appointed Grand General Yuwen Gui as the Grand Commander and Inspector of Xingzhou, overseeing the military affairs of the Six Provinces. Yuwen Gui was well-known for his formidable reputation, and many Di people were afraid of him and obedient to him. That year, Yang Fashen joined Yuchi Jiong in pacifying the Shu region. After the army returned, Yang Fashen returned to defend Yinpíng. Not long after, he and his kinsmen, Yang Chongji and Yang Chenru, each led their forces against one another. At that time, Zhao Chang was the Commander of Military Affairs for Sanzhou and Chéngzhou, and he sent envoys to mediate. Yang Fashen and his men obeyed the mediation, so their tribes were divided and new prefectures were established to settle them. During the reign of Emperor Gong of Wei, the Di people in Wuxing staged a rebellion and besieged Lizhou. The leader of the Gudao Di tribe in Fengzhou, Wei Tianwang, along with others, gathered troops to join the rebellion. Grand General Dou Luning and his forces decisively suppressed the rebellion.
During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou Dynasty, Duan Zha, a resident of Xingzhou, and the people of Xiabian and Baishu counties rebelled, and they together overran the Langao Garrison. The Di tribe leader Jiang Duo led the Di people from Chuzhong (a locality) and the people from Shu to attack and capture Luocong County to provide support. Zhao Chang led his troops to quell the rebellions in Xiabian and Baishu counties, executing Duan Zha for his rebellion. However, the Di people from Yinping and Lubei counties frequently gathered and coordinated with the people from Chuzhong. Zhao Chang selected elite cavalry and launched a surprise attack on Chuzhong. Upon arriving at Dazhuping, he successfully breached seven fortifications, killing their leader, resulting in the surrender of both counties. Shortly after Zhao Chang returned, the Di tribe leader from Chuzhong emerged again to conduct raids. Zhao Chang then sent the deputy Liu Chongyi and Yuwen Qi to lead the army into Chuzhong to suppress them, inflicting a crushing defeat on the Di army, killing Jiang Duo and others, including Fu Siwang. As a result, all the Di tribes were subdued. Later, Wang Qian raised an army in rebellion, and the Di tribe leader from Shazhou, Yang Yong'an, who held the title of Kaifu, seized the state city in support of Wang Qian, and General Daxi Ru swiftly quelled the rebellion.
The Jihu, also referred to as Buluoji, is actually a branch of the Xiongnu, descended from Liu Yuanhai's five tribes. Some claim they are descendants of the Shanrong and Chidi. They inhabit an area roughly seven to eight hundred miles in radius, located west of Shi and east of Anding, in valleys populated by numerous tribes and a thriving population. Their lifestyle is relatively primitive, though they practice farming. With few mulberry trees and silkworms available, they primarily use hemp cloth. The men dress and conduct their funerals in a manner similar to that of the Central Plains. Women enjoy wearing strings of shells in their ears and around their necks. They also live intermixed with the Han people. Most of their leaders are literate. However, their language differs from ours, necessitating translation for effective communication. They tend to be rude and disrespectful, characterized by greed and fierceness. Their customs are quite licentious, particularly concerning virgins. On the night before a girl’s wedding, she often engages in relations with multiple men before bidding them farewell. Upon hearing this, the groom feels honored to marry such a woman. After marriage, while they remain cautious, if infidelity occurs, punishment is determined by the circumstances. Furthermore, if a brother dies, his elder brother inherits his sister-in-law. Although they are registered in household records and managed by the counties, they face lighter taxes and labor obligations than ordinary citizens. Those residing deep in the mountains and forests rarely participate in labor. They are fierce and leverage their advantageous terrain, frequently engaging in disturbances and robberies.
During the reign of Emperor Xiaochang of Wei, there was a man named Liu Kushi who lived in Yunyang Valley. He proclaimed himself the Son of Heaven, declared an era name, and set up officials. At that time, the political situation in the Wei dynasty was in chaos, and they were unable to subdue him. Liu Kushi sent troops to rob the people, and there was hardly a year of peace in the Fenhe and Jinshui river basins. After Emperor Shenshu of Northern Qi, Gao Huan, moved the capital to Ye City, he began secretly planning to deal with Liu Kushi, pretending to agree to marry his daughter to Liu Kushi’s son. Liu Kushi believed it to be true and sent his son to Ye City. Gao Huan received him with great ceremony but deliberately delayed the wedding date. Liu Kushi, believing in this marriage alliance, let down his guard. In March of the first year of the Datong era, Gao Huan led his troops to launch a surprise attack on him.
Liu Kushi went out with light cavalry to conscript troops and was ultimately killed by his subordinate, Wang Beibu, who then presented Liu Kushi's head to Gao Huan. His subordinates then supported Liu Kushi's third son, Wang Nanhai, as their leader to resist the Northern Qi army. Gao Huan defeated them, capturing Wang Nanhai, his brother Wang Xihai, the queen, and over four hundred nobles and ministers, all of whom were escorted to Ye City.
It is said that most people living in the Hexi Corridor relied on their difficult terrain to be unruly. At that time, they were busy competing with Emperor Shenshu of Northern Qi, having no time to deal with them. The founding emperor dispatched Yang Shen (pronounced the same as "pee") to pacify them. After five years, the tribes in the Heishui region were the first to rise in rebellion. Seven years later, Liu Ping, the governor of Xiazhou, also took control of Shangjun and revolted. Since then, the tribes in the Northern Mountains have harassed, robbed, and plundered every year. The founding emperor successively sent Li Yuan, Yu Jin, Houmo Chen Chong, and Li Bi to suppress these rebellions, eventually restoring peace.
During the reign of Emperor Wu, Hao Abao and Hao Langpi of the Qihu tribe in Yanzhou brought their clans to seek refuge in the State of Qi. Abao declared himself Chancellor, while Langpi proclaimed himself Minister of State, and colluded with another tribal leader, Liu Sangde, gaining considerable influence. The Minister Dou Luning led various armies and, together with the Governor of Yanzhou, Gao Lin, defeated them. Two years later, the remaining forces loyal to Langpi rebelled once more. The court ordered General Han Guo to launch a campaign against them, capturing and executing a large number of them.
During the Baoding period, the Hu tribes from Lishi frequently invaded the area north of the Fen River. Wei Xiaokuan, the Governor of Xunzhou, built fortifications in strategic locations and stockpiled military provisions to repel their incursions. When Yang Zhong launched an assault on the State of Qi alongside the Turks, the Qihu tribe sought to take advantage of the situation and refused to provide grain. Yang Zhong misled their leaders by claiming he would return to confront them after finishing with the Turks. Fearing his threat, the leaders complied and sent grain. This event is documented in the "Biography of Yang Zhong." Later, the Hu tribes from Danzhou, Suizhou, and Yinzou, along with the sub-commander Hao Sanlang of Puchuan, repeatedly defied the court's orders. The court subsequently dispatched Daxi Zhen, Xin Wei, and Yu Shi to quell them, successfully breaking up their tribes.
In the second year of the Tianhe era, Yu Wen Sheng, the governor of Yanzhou, stationed troops in Yinzhou. The Qihu leaders Bai Yujiu, Qiao Shiluo, and others attempted to ambush Yu Wen Sheng's forces but were defeated and slain by him. He also defeated another leader, Qiao Sanwu. Five years later, Liu Xiong, starting from Suizhou, inspected the northern regions of Chuan and Shan. The Qihu leaders Qiao Bailang and Qiao Suwu crossed the Yellow River to take up arms but were again defeated by Liu Xiong.
In 576 AD, Gaozu defeated the army of Northern Qi in Jinzhou, pursued them all the way, and didn't even have time to collect the discarded armor and weapons of the Northern Qi army. As a result, the Jihu took the chance to loot these items. They also established a fellow named Sun Meiduo as emperor, calling himself the Emperor Shengwu, with the regnal name Shiping.
In 577 AD, Gaozu pacified Dongxia and prepared to attack the Jihu people. Some advised completely destroying their stronghold. Prince Gao Xian thought that the Jihu were numerous and located in mountain valleys, which made them hard to conquer, so he suggested capturing their leaders first and then pacifying the rest. Gaozu agreed to this plan and appointed Gao Xian as the commander-in-chief, leading the expedition with Prince Zhao, Prince Qiao, Prince Teng, and others. When Gao Xian's army reached Mayi, they divided and advanced. Sun Meiduo sent his subordinates Tianzhu to guard Hedong and sent the general Muzhi to guard Hexi, trying to use the dangerous terrain to restrain Gao Xian's army. Gao Xian ordered his forces to attack Tianzhu and Muzhi. Both armies achieved victory, killing tens of thousands of enemies. Prince Zhao even captured Sun Meiduo, and the remaining Jihu surrendered.
In 581 AD, the Jihu leader Liu Shuoluo in Fenzhou rebelled again, and Prince Gaosheng led troops to suppress the rebellion, capturing Liu Shuoluo. Since then, bandit activity has decreased significantly.
The Kumo Xi is a branch of the Xianbei tribe. Their ancestors were defeated by Murong Huang and fled to the Songmo region. Over time, their population grew, and they split into five branches: the Ruge main branch, the Mohefu branch, the Qige branch, the Mukun branch, and the Shide branch. Each branch had a Sijin (a title for an official position). A man named A Huishi held the most power, and the other five branches all followed his command. Sometimes they served as slaves to the Turks, and sometimes they fought with the Khitan. After winning battles and looting, they distributed rewards and wrapped the dead in reed mats, hanging them from trees. In 539 AD, they even sent local specialties as tribute.
The historian said: The common people, like the heavens and the earth, have physical forms, all receiving the life force of yin and yang. Intelligence and foolishness originate from nature, strength and weakness depend on the environment. Therefore, where rain and dew gather, where the wind and rain are favorable, marked by nine great rivers and shielded by five great mountains, this is what we call the Central Plains region. The people who live there are more inclined to cultivate a sense of benevolence and righteousness.
Places like Meigu, Yuyi, Guzhu, and Beihu, restricted by red borders and purple frontiers, separated by the sea and rivers, are known as remote areas. People influenced by such environments are more likely to nurture malevolent tendencies. There are numerous tribes, such as the Jiuyi, Badis, Qiurong, and Liuman, scattered throughout the borderlands. Although their customs and preferences differ, they are all greedy, fierce, and combative. When strong, they unite to resist; when weak, they submit. Their nature is the same. Perhaps this is fate; is this all part of a divine plan?
