Once, the Turks were, in fact, descendants of the Xiongnu, with the surname Ashina. They were originally divided into several tribes but were later defeated by neighboring countries, resulting in the annihilation of their entire tribe. Only one child, roughly ten years old, survived. The soldiers, seeing that he was too young to kill, mutilated his feet and abandoned him in the grass. Miraculously, a she-wolf nursed him with her meat.
As this child grew up, he grew up living with the she-wolf and even had offspring! Later, the original Turkic king learned that this child had survived and sent men to kill him. The sent men spotted the she-wolf nearby and intended to kill her too, but the she-wolf fled to the northwestern mountains of Gaochang. In those mountains, there was a cave—flat and spacious, filled with lush grass—surrounded by mountains for hundreds of miles around. Inside, the she-wolf gave birth to ten cubs.
As the ten sons matured, they all married and adopted their own surnames, with Ashina among them. Their descendants flourished, gradually growing into several hundred households. After many generations, they emerged from the cave to serve the Ruru people as their subjects, residing south of the Golden Mountain, where they worked as blacksmiths for the Ruru. The Golden Mountain resembles a helmet, and the Ruru people referred to the helmet as "Turk," which is how they came to adopt "Turk" as their clan name.
It is said that the ancestors of the Turks came from Sogdiana, to the north of the Xiongnu. Their tribal leader was named Abanbu, and he had seventeen brothers. One of them was called Yizhinishi Dudu, who was said to be born of a wolf. Abanbu and his brothers were all very foolish, so their nation ultimately fell. However, Nishidu was different; he seemed to be born with extraordinary abilities, capable of summoning wind and rain. He married two wives, who were said to be the daughters of the deities of summer and winter. He had four sons in one go. One turned into a white crane; one established a nation between the Afu River and the Sword River, called Qigu; one founded a country at Chuzheshu; and the last one lived on Chuzheshi Mountain, and he was his eldest son. Abanbu's descendants also lived there, where it often had cold dew. The eldest son used fire to warm them, so that everyone could survive. So, they all rallied behind the eldest son as their leader, also known as Nedu Liushie. Nedu Liushie had ten wives, and the sons he had all took their mother's family name, with Ashina being the son of his youngest wife. After Nedu Liushie passed away, the ten wives and their sons wanted to choose someone to inherit his position, so they gathered under a large tree, saying, "Jump into the tree; whoever jumps the highest will be our leader." Ashina's son, the youngest, jumped the highest, so the brothers chose him as their leader, calling him Axianshe. While this tale may sound a bit odd, he was, after all, still a descendant of the wolf.
Next comes Tumen, whose tribe gradually grew powerful. He started selling silk and cotton at the border and sought to establish trade relations with the Central Plains Dynasty. In the eleventh year of the Datong era, the Northern Wei's Taizu sent Hu Annuo Pan Tuo, a Jiuquan native, as an envoy to the Turks. The Turks were very happy, saying, "Now that a great power has sent envoys, our nation is sure to prosper!" In the twelfth year of Datong, Tumen sent envoys to offer various items. At that time, the Tiele were preparing to attack the Rouran, and Tumen led his army to intercept them, defeating the Tiele and capturing more than fifty thousand households. With their newfound strength, Tumen sought to marry into the Rouran. The Rouran monarch, Anagui, was furious and sent people to insult Tumen, saying, "You are a slave of my Rouran, how dare you say such things!" Furious, Tumen executed the Rouran envoy. Consequently, he severed ties with the Rouran and sought an alliance with Northern Wei. Northern Wei Taizu agreed. In June of the seventeenth year of Datong, Northern Wei arranged the marriage of Princess Changle to Tumen. That same year, Emperor Wei Wendi passed away, and Tumen sent envoys to offer condolences and presented two hundred horses.
In January 440 AD, the Emperor of Wei, Tuoba Tao, sent troops to attack the Rouran and achieved a significant victory north of Huaihuang City. The Rouran Khan, Anagui, took his own life, and his son Anluochen fled to the enemy state of Qi, resulting in Anagui's uncle, Deng Shuzi, being named Khan. Tuoba Tao then proclaimed himself "Yili Khan," which is equivalent to the ancient title of Chanyu. He also bestowed upon his wife the title "Kehedun," similar to the ancient Enshi. Following Tuoba Tao's passing, his son Tuoba Keluo ascended to the throne.
Tuoba Keluo proclaimed himself "Yixiji Khan." He also triumphed over Deng Shuzi in the northern region of Woye Mountain. In March 442 AD, Tuoba Keluo sent fifty thousand horses to the court as a tribute. After Tuoba Keluo's death, his brother Tuoba Sijin ascended the throne, taking the title "Muhan Khan."
Tuoba Sijin, who was also called Yandu, had a peculiar appearance, with a face more than a foot wide, a bright red complexion, and eyes like glass. He had a violent temperament and was aggressive, enjoying fighting. He led troops to attack Deng Shuzi and defeated him. The remaining soldiers of Deng Shuzi who had been defeated also surrendered. Tuoba Sijin then defeated Nada to the west, overcame Qidan to the east, and conquered Qigu to the north, striking fear into many nations beyond the Great Wall. His domain stretched from the Liaodong Sea in the east to the West Sea in the west, spanning about ten thousand square miles; from just north of the desert in the south to the North Sea in the north, approximately five to six thousand miles, all of which fell under his rule.
Their customs involved wearing their hair loose, with their garments opening to the left (left lapel), living in dome-shaped felt tents, and moving with the seasons and grazing, relying on herding and hunting for their livelihood. They looked down on the elderly, revered the young, lacked shame, and had little regard for propriety, similar to the ancient Huns in their ways.
When their khan took the throne, his close attendants and ministers would carry him on a felt mat, rotating him in nine circles with the sun; at each circle, the ministers would bow. After bowing, they would help him mount his horse, tightening a silk cord around his neck until he nearly suffocated, then they would loosen it and eagerly ask him, “How many years can you be khan?” The khan, terrified and dazed at that moment, struggled to provide an accurate number. The ministers would then use the number he provided to gauge the length of his reign.
Their senior officials include Ye Hu, Ci She, Te Qin, Si Li Fa, and Tu Tun Fa, totaling twenty-eight levels, all of which are hereditary. Their weapons include bows and arrows, signal arrows, armor, long spears, swords, and their decorations reflect a Hu style. The flag is decorated with a golden wolf head. The guards are referred to as "Fu Li," which means "wolf" in the language of the Xia Dynasty, likely a nod to their ancestors being wolves, which suggests they never forget their true nature. When conscripting soldiers and collecting livestock taxes, they carve notches in wooden sticks to keep track, then seal them with a gold arrowhead, using wax as a form of proof.
Their laws are as follows: rebellion, murder, adultery with someone else's wife, and stealing horses are all punishable by death; adultery with someone else's daughter incurs a heavy fine, and the offender's daughter must be married to the victim; injuring someone requires compensation based on the severity of the injury; stealing horses and other items incurs a fine of ten times the value. Regarding the deceased, the body is kept in the tent, and descendants and relatives must slaughter sheep and horses and place them in front of the tent as offerings. They then ride in circles around the tent seven times, reach the entrance of the tent, cut their faces with a knife, crying and shedding blood, repeating this seven times before the ritual is deemed complete.
Select a day, burn the horse and the deceased's personal belongings along with the body, collect the remaining ashes, and bury them when the time comes. For those who die in spring or summer, bury them when the grass and trees turn yellow; for those who die in autumn or winter, bury them when the flowers and plants flourish. On the day of burial, relatives hold a ceremony, and they must perform horse racing and cut their faces as they did when the person just died. After the burial, a monument is erected in the cemetery as a marker. The number of monuments is determined by the number of people the deceased killed during their lifetime, and the heads of the sacrificial sheep and horses are hung on the monument. On that day, men and women dress in their best clothes and gather at the cemetery. If a man is interested in a woman, he sends someone to propose, and her parents usually do not refuse. If the father, brothers, uncles, or other male relatives die, the sons, nephews, and others must marry their stepmothers, paternal aunts, and sisters-in-law, but individuals of higher status are not permitted to marry those of lower status.
Although they often migrate and have no fixed residence, they each have their own territory. The Khan resides in Djun Mountain, with his tent facing east to show respect for the direction where the sun rises. Every year, the Khan leads his ministers to pay homage at the caves where their ancestors resided. In mid-May, they also gather by the water to worship the gods. Five hundred miles west of Djun Mountain stands a towering mountain devoid of grass and trees, called Bodingenli in the Xia language, meaning "the god of the earth." Their writing is similar to that of the Hu people, but they do not use a calendar, relying solely on the growth of plants to keep track of the days.
As the power of the Sijin tribe grew, they sent envoys to request the court's permission to dispatch Deng Shuzi and others. Emperor Gaozu granted permission. So they arrested over three thousand people from Deng Shuzi downwards, handed them over to the Sijin envoys, and killed them all outside the Qing Gate. Three years later, the Sijin tribe launched an attack on Tuyuhun and emerged victorious. This event is documented in the "Tuyuhun Biography." In the second year of Emperor Ming of Northern Zhou, the Sijin tribe sent envoys bearing various tributes. By the first year of Baoding, they had sent envoys three times to present tribute.
At that time, Si Jin frequently engaged in battles with Northern Qi, and his war chariots were constantly on the move, so he was always in contact with Northern Zhou, in hopes of finding external support. During Emperor Gong of Wei's reign, Si Jin promised to marry his daughter to Emperor Taizu of Northern Zhou, but before the wedding could be finalized, Emperor Taizu passed away. Then, Si Jin agreed to marry another daughter to Emperor Gaozu of Northern Zhou, but before the marriage could take place, Northern Qi also sent people to propose. Noticing the generous betrothal gifts from Northern Qi, Si Jin sought to back out. At this time, the court dispatched the governor of Liangzhou, Yang Jian, along with others, including Wang Qing, to establish rapport with Si Jin. After Wang Qing and the others arrived, they reasoned with Si Jin about the importance of trust. Si Jin then dismissed the envoys from Northern Qi and finalized the marriage agreement with Northern Zhou. He also requested Northern Zhou to mobilize the entire nation to launch a joint attack on Northern Qi. This event is documented in the biographies of Yang Jian and his associates.
Three years later, the court ordered Duke Yang Zhong of Sui State to lead an army of ten thousand to attack Northern Qi together with the Turks. Yang Zhong's army crossed the Taihang Mountains, and Qifu Jin led one hundred thousand cavalry to join them. In January of the second year, they attacked the Emperor of Northern Qi in Jinyang but failed to take the city. Qifu Jin then unleashed his troops to plunder before retreating. Yang Zhong said to Emperor Gaozu, "Although the Turkic forces are formidable, their titles and rewards are insufficient, they have many leaders, and they lack laws to govern them, making them difficult to manage. The reason why everyone thinks they are powerful is that previous envoys exaggerated their strength, wanting the court to give more rewards so they could benefit. The court believed their lies, and the soldiers feared them. In reality, while the Turks may seem fierce and brutal, they are actually quite manageable. In my opinion, all previous envoys deserve execution!" Emperor Gaozu did not listen to him. That year, Qifu Jin sent envoys to pay tribute and once again requested to attack Northern Qi together. The court ordered Yang Zhong to lead his troops from Woye, while Duke Yuwen Hu of Jin led his troops to support Luoyang. Due to Yuwen Hu's failed campaign, Qifu Jin withdrew his troops. Five years later, the court sent Duke Chun of Chen, Grand Minister Yuwen Gui, Duke Dou Yi of Shenwu, and Duke Yang Jian of Nan'an to welcome the Turkic princess. In the second year of Tianhe, Qifu Jin sent envoys to pay tribute again. Duke Chun of Chen and others arrived in the Turkic territory, where Qifu Jin colluded with Northern Qi. Just as a storm was approaching, they agreed to let Duke Chun of Chen and others return. This event is documented in the "Biography of the Empress." Four years later, Qifu Jin sent envoys to present horses as tribute.
After Qijin's death, his brother Tebo Khan took the throne. Since the time of Qijin, Turkic power grew stronger and constantly sought to dominate the Central Plains dynasty. In order to maintain peace, the court sent them 100,000 bolts of silk and brocade each year. The Turkic people in the capital received favorable treatment, often numbering in the thousands, dressing in fine clothes and eating good meat. Northern Qi also feared Turkic invasions and sent everything from their treasury to appease them. Tebo grew even more arrogant, telling his subordinates, "As long as I have two dutiful sons in the south, I have nothing to fear!" In the second year of the Kaihuang era, he sent people to deliver horses to the court.
Later, Northern Qi fell, and Gao Shaoyi, the governor of Dingzhou and Prince of Fanyang, fled from Mayi to the Turkic. Tebo appointed Gao Shaoyi as King of Qi, gathered troops, claiming to seek vengeance for Northern Qi. In April of the first year of the Kaihuang era, Tebo invaded Youzhou, killing and pillaging the populace. Liu Xiong, the Sui dynasty's great general, led troops to resist but was ultimately defeated and killed. Emperor Wen of Sui personally commanded the army, preparing for a northern expedition, but the emperor died, forcing the troops to withdraw. That winter, Tebo invaded the border again, besieging Jiuquan and pillaging before departing. In the first year of the Kaihuang era, he once more requested a marriage alliance. Emperor Wen of Sui granted the daughter of Prince Zhao the title "Princess of a Thousand Golds" to wed him and sent someone to escort Gao Shaoyi back to Chang'an. However, Tebo was defiant, continuing his invasions of Bingzhou. In the second year of the Kaihuang era, he finally sent tribute and received the princess, but Gao Shaoyi had still not been returned. Emperor Wen of Sui then sent He Ruoyi to persuade him, which finally resulted in Gao Shaoyi's return.
Tuyuhun was originally the step-brother of Murong Kai from the Xianbei in Liaodong. At first, the horses of Tuyuhun clashed with those of Murong Kai, which led him to send someone to apologize to Tuyuhun. Tuyuhun, angered, left with his tribe, where he eventually became the leader in Fuhan. By the time of his grandson Ye Yan, he developed a keen interest in reading and learning. Because it was customary to adopt the name of the royal ancestor as a surname in ancient times, he took "Tuyuhun" as his surname. The Tuyuhun lineage lasted for fourteen generations until Fulian Chou's death, and he officially began to call himself Khan. Their capital city, Fuxi City, is located fifteen miles west of Qinghai. Despite having city walls, they chose not to live in the city but instead remained in tents, following the water and grass for grazing. Their territory spanned three thousand miles east to west and over a thousand miles north to south. The titles of official positions were quite elaborate, including titles like prince, minister, and secretary, along with roles such as doctor and general. Kalu sported a topknot, decorated with a cap and bead jewelry, while seated on a golden chair adorned with lion motifs. His wife, whom he referred to as "Kezun," wore a brocade skirt and a flowing satin robe, her hair was braided and cascaded down her back, topped with golden flowers.
Their customs and habits are similar to those in the Central Plains. Men wear clothing that is similar, and many of them wear a type of hat called "mijia" or cloth hats. Women wear strings of beads, tying their hair up; the more beads they wear, the wealthier they appear. Their weapons include bows, knives, armor, and spears. The country does not have fixed taxes; when they need money, they collect taxes from the rich and merchants. For their punishments, those who commit murder or steal horses are executed, while other offenses are fined, with the severity of the punishment determined by the gravity of the offense. When executing a sentence, the offender's head is covered with a felt cloth, and they are then struck with stones from a height. After the death of a father or older brother, the wife must serve the stepmother and sister-in-law, a custom similar to that of the Turks. Speaking of marriage, if the poor can't afford a wedding, they might just steal the girl and elope. The dead are buried, and after the funeral, the mourning clothes are to be taken off. The people are very greedy and cruel, prone to killing. They enjoy hunting and eating meat and cheese. They also know how to farm, but in their northern regions, the climate is cold, so they can only grow turnips and barley. Therefore, in their country, there are a lot more poor folks than rich ones.
The circumference of Qinghai Lake is over a thousand miles, and there are some small hills around the lake. Every winter, after the lake freezes, they let some good mares roam on these small hills, and the next winter, they bring the mares back. These mares are pregnant, and the foals they give birth to are called "dragon offspring," all of which are top-notch horses, and this is how the Qinghai horse came to be, passed down through generations. There are yaks produced there, and among the birds, there are many parrots.
During the reign of the Northern Wei Dynasty, that troublemaker Kua Lü sent people to deliver tribute such as horses, sheep, and cattle. Yet he was still restless, constantly sending people to raid the borders, causing immense hardship for the common folks living near the borders.
In the second year of Emperor Wei's reign, our Emperor Taizu personally led troops to Guzang, which frightened Kualu so much that he hurriedly sent tribute. In the same year, Kualu formed an alliance with the Qi clan (referring to the Tuyuhun Qi clan). The governor of Liangzhou, Shi Ning, secretly noted Kualu's return, so he ambushed him with light cavalry at Chiquan in the western part of the province, capturing Kualu's charioteer, Qifu Chuban, General Zhai Panmi, along with 240 merchants and Hu people, seizing six hundred mules and camels, as well as countless silks and various treasures. In the second year of Emperor Wei's rule, Shi Ning again fought against Kualu alongside the Turkic Khagan Muhan, inflicting a crushing defeat on Kualu and capturing his wife, children, and elderly relatives, obtaining many treasures and livestock. All of this is recorded in the "Biography of Shi Ning."
By the early years of the Northern Zhou's Wucheng period, Kualu returned to trouble Liangzhou again, and the governor of Liangzhou, Yun Bao, was killed in action. The court dispatched Helan Xiang and Yuwen Gui to lead troops against him. Kualu sent his subordinates, Wang Guangding and Wang Zhongliu, to resist, but they were defeated by Helan Xiang and his forces, forcing Wang Guangding and his men to flee. Our army then captured Kualu's cities of Taoyang and Honghe, and established the prefecture of Taozhou. During the Baoding period of the Northern Zhou, Kualu sent people to deliver tribute three times.
In the early years of the Northern Zhou's Tianhe period, Kualu's Wang Longhe, Mo Chang, surrendered along with his followers, and his territory became Fuzhou. Two years later, in May, Kualu sent people to deliver tribute again.
By the fifth year of the Northern Zhou's Jiande period, Kualu's realm was in turmoil. Emperor Gaozu ordered the Crown Prince to lead troops to campaign against him. The army crossed Qinghai and arrived at Fushi City. Kualu, terrified, fled, and our army captured his remaining forces and returned. The following year, Kualu sent people to deliver tribute again. By the early years of the Northern Zhou's Xuanzheng period, Kualu's Zhao Wang, Ta Lou Tun, surrendered. Since then, Kualu never sent tribute again after that.
Ah, Gaochang, that was once the site of the palace of the Chēshī Kingdom. It is over four thousand nine hundred li east of Chang'an! During the Han Dynasty, the governor of the Western Regions and the Wujixiaowei oversaw this area. By the Jin Dynasty, it was established as Gaochang County. Later, figures like Zhang Gui, Lü Guang, and Juqu Mengxun controlled the Hexi Corridor and sent officials to govern Gaochang. Later, Kan Shuang and Juqu Wuhui also declared themselves governors. After Juqu Wuhui's death, the Tuyuhun killed his brother Anzhou and appointed Kan Bozhou as the king of Gaochang. This marks the beginning of kings in Gaochang. Kan Bozhou's nephew, Shougui, later became king but was overthrown by the Gaocha. Then, Zhang Mengming and Ma Ru became kings in succession, but both were killed by their own people. Finally, Qu Jia was elected king by all. Qu Jia, styled Lingfeng, hailed from Yuzhong in Jincheng and was originally the Right Chancellor of Confucian studies. He ascended to the throne during the late Taihe period of the Wei Dynasty. Upon Qu Jia's death, his son Qu Jian succeeded him.
There is a country in the Western Regions that is three hundred miles long from east to west and five hundred miles wide from north to south, with a total of sixteen cities within its borders. The highest official in the country is the Lingyin, whose position is equivalent to that of a prime minister in the Central Plains; then there are two princes, both of whom are sons of the king, one called Prince Jiaohe and the other Prince Tiandi; below them are the left and right guards, and eight long historians, each in charge of different departments: the Ministry of Personnel, the Ministry of Rites, the Ministry of Treasury, the Ministry of Granaries, the Ministry of Guests, the Ministry of Civil Affairs, and the Ministry of War; there are also generals like Jianwu, Weiyuan, Lingjiang, Dianzhong, and Fubo; eight deputy historians assist the long historians, known as Sima; in addition, there are officials including Shilang, Xiaolang, Zhubu, and Congshi, who have clearly defined ranks and responsibilities; finally, there’s a department dedicated to guidance and reception. Major state affairs are decided by the king, while minor matters are handled by the crown prince and the two princes based on the situation. Once official business is done, the documents are immediately destroyed, and apart from formal records, no documents are kept for long. Although officials have ranks, there aren’t any dedicated offices; every morning, everyone meets at the gate to discuss and handle government affairs together. Each city has a household department, a water department, and a land department, with a Sima and a Shilang assigned to supervise and manage, referred to as the city order.
The locals wear Hu clothing, with men in traditional styles and women dressing in styles similar to those in the Central Plains. Their weapons include bows and arrows, swords and shields, armor, and spears. They use both Chinese characters and Hu script for writing. They also have books such as the "Book of Songs," "Analects," and "Classic of Filial Piety," and they have academic officials teaching students, although classes are conducted in Hu language. For taxes, they collect silver based on land, and those without land pay with hemp cloth instead. Their laws, customs, marriage practices, and funeral customs are generally similar to those of the Central Plains, with only slight differences. This area is abundant in stones and gravel, has a warm climate, supports two harvests a year, supports sericulture and produces a variety of fruits. There's a type of grass called Yangci that produces honey.
Since the Jiaxi era, this country has been paying tribute to the Wei Kingdom. In the fourteenth year of the Datong period, the Emperor of Wei issued an edict to confer the title of king upon their prince Xuanxi. In the second year of the Gongdi period, their lands were passed down to Gongmao. In the first year of the Wucheng period, their king dispatched envoys to offer local specialties. During the Baoding period, they once again sent envoys to pay tribute.
From Dunhuang to this country, the road is full of deserts and Gobi, and the distance is hard to determine accurately. One can only gauge it by the bones of the dead and livestock and the feces encountered along the way, as well as numerous strange apparitions. Therefore, most merchants take the Yiwu route.
Shanshan is the ancient Loulan country. It is a journey of five thousand miles east from Chang'an. Its city walls are only one mile long. The area is abundant in sand and alkali, but woefully deficient in water and pasture. To the northwest lies a vast desert stretching for several hundred miles, with hot winds in the summer, posing significant challenges for travelers. When the hot winds approach, only old camels can sense it in advance; they gather together and bury their mouths and noses in the sand. People gauge the situation based on the camels' reactions and quickly cover their noses and mouths with felt. The wind blows swiftly and fiercely, and it passes in an instant. Failing to take proper precautions can be fatal. In the eighth year of the Datong period, the king of Shanshan, Shanmi, brought everyone to submit to the court.
Yanchi is located seventy miles south of Baishan. It is five thousand eight hundred miles east from Chang'an to reach there. Their king, whose surname is Long, is a descendant of Longxi, who was defeated by Zhang Gui of Liangzhou. Each city has a perimeter of two miles. The country comprises nine cities in total. The nation is small, its people are poor, and there are few rules or regulations. The army uses weapons such as bows and arrows, knives, armor, and spears. Their marriage customs resemble those of the Central Plains. When someone dies, they are cremated before being buried, and mourning attire must be worn for seven days before it can be removed. Men cut their hair and fashion it into ornaments. Their script resembles that of Brahmanism. They worship celestial deities and practice Buddhism, particularly observing February 8th and April 8th. On these days, the entire nation observes fasting and practices according to Buddhist customs. The climate is relatively cold, but the land is fertile, producing abundant crops such as rice, millet, beans, and wheat. They raise livestock including camels, horses, cattle, and sheep. They raise silkworms, not for weaving silk, but to produce cotton batting. They enjoy guava wine and have a strong appreciation for music. Traveling more than ten miles south brings you to the seaside, abundant with fish, salt, and bulrushes. In the fourth year of Baoding, their king sent envoys bearing tribute of several fine horses.
The Kingdom of Kucha is located one hundred seventy miles south of the White Mountain and is a whopping six thousand seven hundred miles from Chang'an! Their king's surname is Bai, and he is a descendant of Bai Zhen, who was established by Lü Guang of the Later Liang dynasty. The capital city is only about five or six miles across. Their laws say that murder is punishable by death, and for robbery, they chop off one arm and then one foot. Taxes are collected based on land area; those without land pay in cash. Their marriage and funeral customs, along with their specialties, are pretty similar to those in Yanchi, except that the climate is slightly cooler. They also produce fine felt, deer skins, carpets, a product called "naosha," as well as salt green, arsenic yellow, and rice powder, along with good horses and livestock known as "fengniu." To the east of the Kingdom of Kucha is a place called Shutai, where General Li Guangli of the Han Dynasty once led a massacre. Three hundred miles south of the capital flows a large river called Jishu River, which is the Yellow River. In the first year of the Baoding era, their king even sent envoys to offer tribute.
The Kingdom of Yutian is located over two hundred li north of the Congling Mountains and seven thousand seven hundred li from Chang'an. Their capital city is about eight or nine li long on each side. The country has five large cities and dozens of smaller ones. Their laws state that murder is a capital offense, while other crimes are punished according to their severity. From the outside, their customs and specialties are quite similar to those of Kucha. However, they are particularly devoted to Buddhism, boasting numerous temples, pagodas, monks, and nuns. The king is especially pious; every day of fasting, he personally cleans and prepares vegetarian meals. Fifty li south of the city is the Zanmusi Temple, which was built for their king by the Arhat monk Biluzhan and houses a stupa. There are also traces of the Pratyekabuddha having sat on a stone, with two footprints still visible! To the west of Gaochang, most people from those countries have deep-set eyes and high noses, but the people of Yutian don't look like the Hu people; instead, they resemble us Chinese. Twenty li east of the city flows a large river called Shuba Water, which also happens to be the Yellow River. Fifteen li west of the city, there is another large river called Dali Water, which flows north like Shuba Water and eventually merges into Jishu Water (the Yellow River). In the third year of the Jiande period, their king also sent envoys to pay tribute, offering fine horses.
The Kingdom of Guada is part of the descendants of the Great Yuezhi, located to the west of the Kingdom of Yutian, over ten thousand li from Chang'an! Their king resides in the city of Badiyan, which is where the royal palace is. The city is not small, covering an area of more than ten li in circumference. Their laws and customs are similar to those of the Turks. A unique aspect of their culture is that several brothers may share a wife. If there are no brothers, the wife wears a single-horned hat; if there are brothers, the number of horns on the hat increases with the number of brothers. Their people are fierce and warlike, and the twenty or so countries, including Yutian and Anxi, have to follow their lead. In the twelfth year of the Datu era, they sent envoys to pay tribute with various goods. In the second year of Emperor Wei's reign and the second year of Emperor Ming's reign, they also came to pay tribute. Later, they were defeated by the Turks, their tribes scattered, and tribute ceased.
The Sogdian state, located to the west of the Congling Mountains, is said to be the ancient Yancai state, also referred to as Wenna Sha. Their capital is built next to a large lake, in the northwest direction of the Kangju state. In the fourth year of the Baoding era, their king sent envoys to pay tribute with goods from east and west.
The Parthian state, also to the west of the Congling Mountains, has its capital called Weisoucheng. It borders Kangju to the north and Persia to the west, and is 17,750 li from Chang'an. In the second year of Tianhe, their king also sent envoys to pay tribute.
The Persian state, also a descendant of the Great Yuezhi, has its capital called Sulicheng, formerly known as the Tiaozhi state. It is 15,300 li away from Chang'an. The city spans over ten li, with a population of over one hundred thousand households. The king belongs to the Persis family. The king sits on a chair shaped like a golden ram, wears an ornate golden crown, dons a brocade robe, and drapes himself in a woven shawl, all adorned with pearls and gemstones, splendid and magnificent! Their customs are as follows: men have short hair, wear white hats, and dress in open-fronted shirts with slits on both sides, while also draping scarves and shawls, embroidered with patterns along the edges; women wear long shirts and large shawls, arrange their hair in a bun at the front and allow it to flow freely down their backs, and adorn themselves with gold and silver jewelry and colorful beads, which are also strung together and hung on their shoulders.
It is said that this king has more than ten palaces in his country, similar to the retreats of our Chinese emperors. Every year in April, he spends some time in these palaces and returns to the main palace in October.
After the king ascended the throne, he secretly chose his most virtuous son, wrote down his name, sealed it, and hid it in the treasury, with no one else, including his other sons and ministers, knowing. After the king died, everyone opened the letter to check, and the one named in the letter inherited the throne and became king, while the remaining sons were sent to the borders to hold official positions, and from then on, the brothers could no longer meet. The common people call the king "Yizang," the queen "Fangbushui," and the king's sons "Shaye."
There are several high officials in the country: Mo Hutang handles domestic litigation; Ni Huhan is in charge of the national treasury and border passes; Di Beibo oversees documentation and various administrative matters; E Luohadi manages the king's domestic affairs; and Sa Bobu manages the national army. These high officials have many subordinate officials under them, each responsible for their own affairs. Their weapons include armor, long spears, round swords, crossbows, and bows and arrows, and during battles, they ride elephants that can carry up to a hundred people.
Their laws are as follows: those who commit serious crimes are hung on a pole and shot with arrows; those who commit moderate crimes are imprisoned and released only after the new king ascends the throne; those who commit minor crimes have their noses cut off, toes chopped off, heads shaved, half of their beards cut off, or are made to wear wooden neck collars as a form of humiliation; those who commit robbery face life imprisonment; men who engage in adultery with high-ranking officials are exiled, while women face mutilation, losing both their noses and ears. Taxes are assessed based on land area.
The locals worship the God of Fire. When getting married, they do not emphasize matching social status, and among all the tribes, their customs are considered the most crude and unsightly. The king takes in beautiful girls over the age of ten, and if someone achieves merit, the king rewards them with the girls. Most dead bodies are discarded in the wilderness, and funeral rites are held a month later. Outside the city lives a group of people who only handle funerals, known as the "Impure People." If they enter the city, they must ring bells to announce their presence. They celebrate the New Year in June and place special importance on the dates of July 7 and December 1, during which both commoners and high-ranking officials invite each other to gatherings, singing, dancing, and reveling in joy. Every year on the twentieth day of the first lunar month, everyone also pays tribute to their ancestors.
The weather is extremely hot, so we store ice at home. That area is mostly sand and desert, so water needs to be brought in for irrigation. The crops and livestock are similar to those in the Central Plains, but they do not grow rice or wheat. That place produces good horses and camels; wealthy families can raise thousands of camels. They also produce white elephants, lions, large bird eggs, pearls, lapis lazuli, and topaz, as well as coral, amber, glass, agate, crystal, sapphire, gold, silver, brass, diamonds, fire opals, steel, copper, tin, cinnabar, mercury, satin, brocade, white silk, silk gauze, felt, woolen cloth, deer skin, including aloeswood, saffron, musk, sandalwood, and other spices, as well as pepper and cloves, honey, jujube, myrobalan and emblic, alum, realgar, and other things. In the second year of Emperor Wei Fei’s reign, their king sent envoys to offer these rare treasures as tribute.
The historical texts say: The troubles that the barbarians have brought to the Central Plain have persisted for a long time, and the northern nomadic tribes are especially fierce. In the past, Yan You and Ban Gu both believed that the Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasties had not found the best strategies to deal with them. Although those wise officials put forth many sound ideas, the historians still had doubts. The invasions of the Central Plain by these barbarians have never ceased from ancient times to the present; their barbarism and the transformation into civilization have not changed because they are different ethnic groups. Therefore, they abandon morality, discard benevolence and righteousness, and the trend of invasion and expansion becomes more and more prevalent year by year; from Jingyang to the northern regions, the flames of war from their invasions grow ever more intense. From the Jin dynasty onward, through the era of water transportation, conflicts between the Rongdi and Huaxia have been incessant, and customs and habits have blended with each other. The Central Plain has long seen through the true nature of the barbarians; the barbarians are also well aware of the Central Plain's gains and losses. If we neither sign treaties with them nor take the initiative to attack, relying only on passive defense, then the enemy will have the strength to spare, and we will not enjoy peaceful days, our soldiers will be worn out, and the border regions will remain troubled. How can we achieve peace in the world and ensure that the people live and work in peace and contentment? Therefore, although those brilliant suggestions from the ministers and the loyal persuasion from the generals were put forward at that time, they were not adopted by later generations.
Thus, the "I Ching" says, "Act upon seeing the signs," and the "I Ching Commentary" states, "Move according to the time." You see, timing is crucial for success or failure; the signs determine fortune or misfortune. Moreover, our Huaxia dynasty experiences rise and fall in a continuous cycle; the strengths and weaknesses of the Rongdi territories change without certainty. If we can adapt our conciliatory policies or military strategies based on real circumstances, adjust strategies according to timing, and observe changes in the situation to determine our policies, then we can achieve guaranteed success in all endeavors. It would not be difficult for those barbarian peoples to transform, and the northern deserts would become peaceful and stable. What distinctions in strength would remain among the Zhou, Qin, Han, and Wei dynasties?
You see, the situation is ever-changing, just like the weather. One moment, the skies are clear and bright; the next, dark clouds roll in. We must learn to adapt to the situation and not be rigid in our ways. If we can achieve this, even the so-called barbarians at the borders could thrive like us. This isn't just wishful thinking. Just think, which powerful dynasty in history succeeded without adapting to circumstances and employing various strategies? Therefore, as long as we seize opportunities and pay attention to the subtle signs, we can resolve crises and achieve great things. The distinctions between the strong and weak in the Zhou, Qin, Han, and Wei dynasties arose in much the same way.
