The book says, "the barbarians are cunning and crafty"; the poem says, "the Xiongnu are fierce and bright." The Xiongnu have long posed a threat to China; this is well known. Starting from the Qin and Han dynasties, the Xiongnu have continuously harassed the borders. Although Emperor Wu of Han used military force externally, pacifying the Eastern Yue and Korea to the east and suppressing the Ershi and Dawan to the west, he even opened up trade routes to Qiong and Yelang; however, these places are all in remote areas, having little impact on the security of the Central Plains. The Xiongnu, being closest to the Central Plains, invade from the south, necessitating battles on all three sides. Thus, the Han Dynasty repeatedly dispatched renowned generals like Wei Qing and Huo Qubing northward to pursue the Chanyu deep into enemy territory, seizing their fertile land. Eventually, the Xiongnu barely managed to retain their territory, paying tribute as vassals, while their national strength continued to decline.
During the Jian'an period, the Southern Chanyu of Huchuquan visited the emperor and then stayed in the palace, leaving the management of the Xiongnu to the Righteous King. The Xiongnu became more respectful towards the Han Dynasty than ever before, much improved from earlier times. However, the Wuhuan and Xianbei gradually grew stronger due to the chaos in the late Han Dynasty; the court was too preoccupied to attend to the borders. As a result, the Wuhuan and Xianbei occupied the southern desert region, burning, killing, and looting indiscriminately, which caused ongoing trouble for the northern border. Later, Yuan Shao took control of Hebei and subdued the Wuhuan people across three counties, appointing their leader as king and integrating their elite cavalry. Afterwards, Shang Shu and Xi fled to Tadun. Tadun was quite powerful; the elders along the border compared him to Modun Chanyu. He boldly took in fugitives and proclaimed himself king among various barbarian tribes.
Cao Cao secretly mobilized troops and carried out a northern campaign, catching Tadun off guard. In a single battle, Tadun was defeated, and the northern ethnic minorities became fearful. Cao Cao's reputation spread throughout the northern borderlands. He then persuaded the Wuhuan people to submit to the court and join in the fight against the enemy, allowing the people along the border to finally enjoy peace. Later, the Xianbei leader Kebineng unified the various Xianbei tribes, reclaimed the land previously occupied by the Xiongnu, and established Xianbei territory from Yunzhong and Wuyuan in the east to the Liao River. They repeatedly invaded the border regions, inflicting suffering on Youzhou and Bingzhou. Tian Yu withstood the siege of Macheng, while Bi Gui suffered a defeat north of Xing. During the Qinglong era, Emperor Ming of Wei followed Wang Xiong's advice and sent assassins to kill Kebineng. After Kebineng's death, the various Xianbei tribes fell into disarray, fighting amongst themselves. The stronger tribes retreated to distant lands, while the weaker ones surrendered to the court. As a result, the border regions became more stable, with fewer conflicts in the southern desert regions. Although occasional bandits still roamed, they no longer collaborated on a large scale as before.
The Wuhuan and Xianbei were anciently known as the Donghu. Their customs and past events are recorded in the historical records of the Han Dynasty. Therefore, I will only discuss events that occurred since the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty to supplement the records of the changes among the minority ethnic groups.
In the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Qiu Li of the Wuhuan in Liaoxi led over 5,000 tribes, while Nanlou, the leader of the Wuhuan in Shanggu, led over 9,000 tribes. Both of these guys called themselves kings, with quite an air of arrogance! In Liaodong, there was also a Wuhuan leader named Supuyan, with over 1,000 tribes, who called himself Qiaowang; and in Right Beiping, the Wuhuan leader Wuyan had over 800 tribes, calling himself Hanluwang. Each of these Wuhuan leaders was cunning, courageous, and intimidating.
Later, the Prefect of Zhongshan, Zhang Chun, rebelled and fled to Qiu Li Ju, proclaiming himself the "Prince of Mitian Anding" and self-styled as the Marshal of the Wuman of Sanjun. He led his troops in widespread burning, killing, and looting, resulting in countless disasters across the four states of Qingzhou, Xuzhou, Youzhou, and Jizhou, with numerous casualties. When Emperor Ling of Han was dying, the imperial court appointed Liu Yu as the Governor of Youzhou, recruiting troops to take down Zhang Chun, thus restoring order in the north.
Some time later, Qiu Li Ju died. His son Lou Ban was too young, but his cousin Tadun was a shrewd character, both brave and strategic, so he took over as the leader, overseeing the three Wuman kings, who all obeyed him. At that time, Yuan Shao and Gongsun Zan were fighting endlessly, so Tadun sent a messenger to Yuan Shao proposing an alliance to help defeat Gongsun Zan, promising benefits in return. Yuan Shao surprisingly agreed and allied with Tadun to take down Gongsun Zan. Yuan Shao even went so far as to issue a false imperial decree, appointing Tadun, Qiao Wang, and Han Lu Wang as officials, each with a seal of the Chanyu, demonstrating his overreach!
Lou Ban had great power, and Qiao Wang and his men supported Lou Ban to become the Chanyu, with Tadun as the king. However, Tadun was quite crafty. Yan Rou from Guangyang had been involved with the Wuman and Xianbei tribes since his youth, earning their trust. He manipulated the Xianbei into killing Wuman Colonel Xing Ju and then took his position. The court promptly rewarded and reassured him to pacify the north. Later, Yuan Shang was defeated and fled to Tadun, hoping to scheme for control of Jizhou. Just as Cao Cao was consolidating power in Hebei, Yan Rou surrendered to Cao Cao along with the Xianbei and Wuman tribes. Cao Cao permitted him to retain his position as Colonel and even gave him Han Dynasty envoys to manage Guangning as before.
In the 11th year of Jian'an, Cao Cao personally went to Liucheng to attack Tadun. He took a back road, but before he'd traveled more than a hundred miles, Tadun caught wind of him. Yuan Shang and Tadun led their armies to confront Cao Cao in Fancheng, with a formidable army. Cao Cao climbed to a vantage point to survey the enemy's formation; he didn’t rush into an attack but carefully studied the enemy’s movements before launching his assault, defeating the enemy and leaving dead bodies strewn across the battlefield. Lou Ban, Wu Yan, and others quickly fled to Liaodong, where they were also killed and their heads sent back. The remaining Wuhuan tribes surrendered.
By the time Cao Cao resettled over ten thousand Wuhuan tribes from Youzhou and Bingzhou under Yan Rou's command to the Central Plains, he also led their leaders and people to battle together. From then on, the Wuhuan cavalry of these three counties became a legendary elite cavalry force.
After Budugen became the Xianbei leader, his followers gradually lost their former strength. His brother Fulohan also raised a tens of thousands strong army, proclaiming himself a lord. During the Jian'an era, Cao Cao brought peace to Youzhou, and Budugen and Kebinen followed the Wuhuan captain Yan Rou in surrendering. Later, the Wuhuan leader Nengchen Di from Daijun rebelled, seeking to align with Fulohan. Fulohan led tens of thousands of cavalry to meet them. When they reached the Sanggan River, Nengchen Di had second thoughts, worried that Fulohan's leadership was too lax and fearing the plan might fall through, so he called for Kebinen. Kebinen quickly showed up with tens of thousands of cavalry, ready to join forces.
As a result, Ke Bi Neng killed Fu Luo Han during the meeting, and Fu Luo Han's son Xie Gui Ni and his subordinates all surrendered to Ke Bi Neng. Ke Bi Neng treated Xie Gui Ni with special favor because he killed Xie Gui Ni's father. Consequently, Bu Du Gen grew to hate Ke Bi Neng. After Wei Emperor Cao Pi ascended the throne, Tian Yu served as the Chief of the Wuhuan, responsible for managing the Wuhuan and Xianbei tribes, stationed in Changping. Bu Du Gen sent people to offer horses as tribute, and Emperor Cao Pi granted him the title of king. Later, Bu Du Gen and Ke Bi Neng attacked each other multiple times, with Bu Du Gen's forces dwindling. With more than 10,000 followers, he fled to Taiyuan and Yanmen Commandery to hide.
Bu Du Gen sent a messenger to Xie Gui Ni, saying, "Your father was killed by Ke Bi Neng. Instead of seeking revenge, you have sided with the enemy. Though he seems to treat you well now, it's just a trap to kill you! Why not come back to me? We are close relatives; how can you be like an enemy?" Xie Gui Ni then returned to Bu Du Gen with his tribe, and Ke Bi Neng did not catch up. In the fifth year of Huangchu, Bu Du Gen personally went to the capital to offer tribute and received lavish rewards. From then on, he wholeheartedly defended the border and ceased his rebellious activities. Meanwhile, Ke Bi Neng's power continued to grow. After Wei Emperor Cao Rui ascended the throne, he wanted to pacify the minority ethnic groups on the border and reduce warfare, merely keeping them in check.
In the first year of Qinglong, Ke Bi Neng tricked Bu Du Gen into swearing brotherhood, forming a close bond. As a result, Bu Du Gen, Xie Gui Ni, and his subordinates all sided with Ke Bi Neng. Ke Bi Neng led his troops to attack Bingzhou, killing and plundering the people. Wei Emperor Cao Rui sent General Qin Lang to suppress him. Xie Gui Ni turned against Ke Bi Neng, surrendering to the court and was granted the title of King of Guiyi, receiving many rewards and allowed to continue living in Bingzhou. Ultimately, Bu Du Gen met his end at the hands of Ke Bi Neng.
Ke Bi Neng was originally the leader of a small Xianbei tribe. Because he was brave in battle, fair in his judgments, and not motivated by greed, everyone elected him as their leader. His tribe was located near the border, and after Yuan Shao took control of Hebei, many Han people fled to his tribe. He even taught them how to make weapons and armor, as well as how to read Chinese characters. Therefore, he modeled his management after Han practices, including hunting and setting up flags like the Han people, and using drumbeats to command movements.
During the Jian'an era, he paid tribute to the court through Yan Rou. When Cao Cao launched his western campaign to conquer Guanzhong, Tian Yin rebelled in Hejian, and Ke Bi Neng led more than three thousand cavalry to defeat Tian Yin together with Yan Rou. Later, when the Wuhuan rebels in Daijun rose up, Ke Bi Neng also participated in this rebellion, resulting in losses for the court. Cao Cao sent Zang Zhang, the Marquis of Yanling, to lead the elite cavalry north to defeat the rebels. Ke Bi Neng fled back to the border and later paid tribute to the court again.
In the early Yankang years, Ke Bi Neng sent envoys to present horses, and Emperor Wen of Wei granted him the title of King of Fuyi. In the second year of Huangchu, Ke Bi Neng sent back more than five hundred households of Wei people living among the Xianbei to live in Daijun. The following year, Ke Bi Neng led tribal leaders and more than three thousand cavalry, along with over seventy thousand cattle and horses, to the market for trade, and also arranged for more than one thousand households of Wei people to settle in Shanggu.
Later, he clashed with the eastern Xianbei leaders Suli and Budugen, and they attacked each other. Tian Yu intervened to prevent further bloodshed. Five years later, Ke Bi Neng attacked Suli again, and Tian Yu led light cavalry to raid Ke Bi Neng's rear. Ke Bi Neng sent a young general, Suonu, to resist Tian Yu, but Tian Yu pursued and defeated Suonu, leading Ke Bi Neng to resent Tian Yu.
Ke Bi Neng wrote a letter to General Xian Yu Fu, saying, "We foreigners do not understand Chinese characters, which is why Colonel Yan Rou recommended me to the Emperor. I have a feud with Su Li, whom I have previously attacked, and Colonel Tian has helped Su Li. When I sent troops to battle, I heard that Colonel Tian was coming, so I immediately pulled back my troops. Bu Du Gen often loots and even killed my brother, but he falsely accused me of looting. Even though we foreigners may not understand etiquette, my brothers and descendants have all received rewards from the Emperor. Just as cattle and horses know to choose good water and grass, so do we humans! The General should explain the truth to the Emperor on my behalf!" Xian Yu Fu handed the letter to Emperor Wei Wen, and Emperor Wen sent Tian Yu to recruit and appease Ke Bi Neng. Ke Bi Neng's power became stronger and stronger, with over 100,000 cavalry under his command. Every time he looted, he distributed the wealth evenly, never hoarding it, so his subordinates were fiercely loyal to him. Other tribal leaders also feared him, but he could not compare to Tan Shi Huai. In the year 228 AD, the court sent an envoy named Xia She to the Yu Zhu Jian tribe, but he was killed by them. That autumn, the Governor of Yu Province led troops against Yu Zhu Jian and achieved a significant victory. When the army returned to Ma City, Bi Neng besieged the Governor of Yu Province with thirty thousand cavalry for seven days. Yan Zhi, the Governor of Shanggu, who was Yan Rou's brother, enjoyed the trust of the Xianbei people. He went to negotiate with Bi Neng and lifted the siege. Later, the Governor of Youzhou, Wang Xiong, and some Colonels used goodwill and trust to win over Bi Neng, who then visited the border multiple times to pay tribute.
By the year 229 AD, Bian Neng managed to deceive Budegen, causing Budegen to rebel in Bingzhou and even become in-laws with him, leading ten thousand cavalry to meet Budegen north of Xingshan. The Bingzhou Governor, Bi Gui, sent Generals Su Shang and Dong Bi to confront Bian Neng. Bian Neng sent his son to fight against Su Shang and the others, resulting in a battle at Loufan that led to the deaths of Su Shang and Dong Bi. In the year 231 AD, Wang Xiong sent the valiant warrior Han Long to assassinate Bian Neng, and then appointed Bian Neng's brother as the new leader.
The Xianbei leaders Suli, Mijia, and Jueji were situated far away in Liaoxi, Youbai Ping, and beyond Yuyang Pass. Initially, they posed little threat, but they had many followers compared to Bian Neng. During the Jian'an period, due to Yan Rou's tribute and trade relations with the court, Cao Cao treated them exceptionally well and granted them royal titles. After Jueji's death, his son Shamahan was named the King of Han. During the Yankang period, they once again sent horses as tribute. Emperor Wen bestowed the titles of Kings of Guiyi upon Suli and Mijia. Suli frequently clashed with Bian Neng. In the year 228 AD, Suli died, and his son was young, so his brother Cheng Lüguo temporarily managed his tribe.
It is written in this book that our country, from the east to the sea, and from the west to the shifting sands. The system of the nine tribal federations is well documented in this text. However, in the desolate regions beyond, and even further afield, those are places beyond our reach, let alone knowing the customs and habits of those places. From Emperor Shun to the Zhou Dynasty, there were exchanges with the Rong and Di tribes in the west and the Yi and Di tribes in the east, which only occurred very rarely, illustrating just how distant those places were from us back then.
During the Han Dynasty, Emperor Wu of Han sent Zhang Qian to the Western Regions as an envoy. He journeyed all the way to the source of the Yellow River, visited many countries, and established the Protectorate of the Western Regions (西域都护府) to manage the area. This led to a detailed understanding of the situation in the Western Regions, which is why the historical records are so detailed. During the Wei Dynasty, although not all countries in the Western Regions were able to pay tribute, major states like Kucha, Yutian, Kangju, Wusun, Shule, Yuezhi, Shanshan, and Cheshi sent tributes annually, similar to the time of the Han Dynasty. However, Gongsun Yuan and his ancestors for three generations governed Liaodong, and the emperor appointed him as a minister of the border region, responsible for overseas affairs, which disrupted the connection between the Eastern Yi and the Central Plains dynasty, preventing the Eastern Yi states from maintaining contact with us.
In the Jingchu era, Emperor Ming of Wei launched a large-scale military campaign, defeated Gongsun Yuan, secretly sent troops across the sea, and recaptured the two counties of Lelang and Daifang. From then on, the coastal areas became peaceful, and the Eastern Yi submitted. Later, when Goguryeo rebelled, troops were sent to suppress the rebellion, pursuing them far beyond Wuhuan, Gudu, Woju, and even into Sushen territory, all the way to the seashore. The elders there said that some unusual-looking people had recently shown up, so we explored those countries, learned about their customs, and meticulously recorded the names of all the countries, big and small.
Although it may seem like a barbaric land, they also pay attention to sacrificial rituals. If there are problems with our Central Plains rituals, we could ask those so-called barbarians, and they might actually know better! Therefore, I have compiled information on these countries, detailing their similarities and differences, and included insights that were missing from earlier historical records.
The country of Fuyu is located north of the Great Wall, over a thousand li from Xuantu Commandery. It borders Goguryeo to the south, Yilou to the east, Xianbei to the west, and the Ruo River to the north. The country covers an area of about two thousand square li. The population consists entirely of locals. There are palaces, warehouses, and prisons. The terrain is mountainous and rich in water, relatively flatter and more open than in other Eastern tribes. The land is suitable for growing grains but does not produce fruits. The Fuyu people are robust and courageous, known for their honesty and kindness, and are not known for robbery or looting. The country has a king, and officials are named after domestic animals, such as Horse Chief, Cow Chief, Pig Chief, Dog Chief, as well as ambassadors and envoys. Each village has wealthy landlords, who have made their subjects into slaves. These "chiefs" each govern different areas, with some overseeing thousands of households and others just a few hundred. They eat and drink using ritual vessels, and observe various formalities such as greeting guests, toasting, and washing cups, emphasizing courtesy and respect. Every year in the first month, a grand ceremony is held to honor the heavens, where the entire country gathers for several days of feasting, entertainment, singing, dancing, and celebration, known as "Welcoming the Drum." During this period, the country suspends punishments and releases prisoners.
In Fuyu, people like to wear white clothes, typically consisting of loose white robes, trousers, and leather shoes. When going abroad, they wear garments made of silk, brocade, and woolen fabrics. Those of high status would wear coats made of fox fur, macaque fur, and mink fur, with hats adorned with gold and silver embellishments. When the Fuyu people talk to others, interpreters kneel on the ground, hands supporting the ground, whispering discreetly. Their laws are very strict, where murder is punishable by death, with family members also being subjected to servitude. Theft is punished by a fine equivalent to twelve times the value of the stolen goods. Adultery and jealousy among women can also lead to the death penalty. They harbor a particular disdain for jealousy, and the bodies of executed women found guilty of jealousy are discarded on the southern mountain of the capital city to decay. If the woman's family wants the body back, they must provide cattle in exchange for its return. The Fuyu people have customs of a brother marrying his deceased brother's wife, mirroring the customs of the Xiongnu. They excel in livestock husbandry, renowned for their fine horses, red jade, mink fur, and exquisite pearls, some as large as jujube fruits. Their weapons include bows and arrows, knives, and spears, with every household equipped with armor and weapons. Fuyu elders recount tales of ancient fallen kingdoms to their descendants. The walls and fences they build are all circular, giving them a prison-like appearance. Day and night, young and old in Fuyu sing together continuously. In times of military action, offerings are made to the heavens, and the hooves of the sacrificed cattle are examined for omens—a split hoof signifies bad luck, while an intact hoof signifies good luck. In the event of encountering enemies, landowners personally lead their troops into battle, while the common folk are tasked with transporting provisions. After death, the Fuyu people use ice to preserve the bodies during summer. They practice mass burials, sometimes involving hundreds of individuals interred together. They bury the deceased in coffins, without using a coffin.
The Fuyu Kingdom was originally part of the Xuantu Commandery. In the late Han Dynasty, Gongsun Du dominated the Liaodong region, striking fear into the surrounding tribes. The Fuyu King Weichou Tai chose to submit to Liaodong. During this time, both the Goguryeo and Xianbei tribes were quite strong. Gongsun Du felt that Fuyu was in a dangerous position between two strong enemies, so he arranged a marriage between his daughter and Weichou Tai. Following Weichou Tai's death, his son Jian Weiju ascended to the throne. Jian Weiju had no legitimate heirs, only an illegitimate son named Mayu. After Jian Weiju's death, the ministers collectively crowned Mayu king.
Niu Jia's nephew, who was also Jian Weiju's cousin, named Weiju, served as the ambassador of the Fuyu Kingdom. He was generous, charitable, and beloved by the people, sending envoys to the capital each year to present tribute. During the Zhengshi period, Guanqiu Jian, the Inspector of Youzhou, launched a campaign against Goguryeo and sent the Xuantu Commandery Prefect Wang Qi to Fuyu. Weiju personally led the ministers to greet them outside the city, supplying a substantial amount of military provisions. However, his uncle Niu Jia had different intentions. Weiju later killed Niu Jia and his son, seized their property, and dispatched it to the authorities.
In the past, the customs of the Fuyu Kingdom were as follows: if they faced droughts or floods that led to crop failures, they would blame the king. Some suggested replacing the king, while others advocated for simply killing him. After Mayu's death, his six-year-old son, Yilu, was crowned king. During the Han Dynasty, the funeral of the Fuyu king required jade boxes, which were typically stored in Xuanwu County until needed for the king's funeral. After Gongsun Yuan was killed, a pair of jade boxes remained in Xuanwu County's warehouse. Now, in the warehouse of the Fuyu Kingdom, there are still jade bi, gui, and zan that have been passed down through generations, cherished as treasures. The elders say these were rewards given by the Han Dynasty. Their seals are engraved with "Seal of the Huai King," and there is a city called Huai City in the country. It seems that the Fuyu Kingdom was originally the land of the Huai Mo, and the Fuyu king referred to himself as a "dead man," probably for a reason.
Goguryeo lies far to the east of Liaodong, approximately a thousand miles away. It borders Korea and the Huai Mo to the south, Woju to the east, and Fuyu to the north. Their capital is at the foot of Wandu Mountain, covering an area of about two thousand square miles and a population of thirty thousand households. The area is full of mountains and deep valleys, with very few plains or swamps. The common people live along the valleys and drink water from the mountains. With no good farmland, even if they toil in the fields, they struggle to make ends meet. Their custom is to eat frugally, yet they enjoy constructing beautiful homes, with large buildings beside their homes for worshiping spirits, Lingxing, and Sheji gods. The people of Goguryeo are known for their fierce and impatient nature, often resorting to robbery.
The country has a king, and officials hold positions such as Xiangjia, Duolu, Peizi, Guchujia, Zhubu, Youtaicheng, Shizhe, and Zaoyi Xianren, with clear distinctions in the hierarchy of official positions. In the past, the Dongyi people claimed to be a branch of the Fuyu people, and their language and many customs were similar to those of the Fuyu, but they differed in personality and attire. Goguryeo originally had five tribes: the Juannu tribe, the Juenu tribe, the Shunnu tribe, the Guannu tribe, and the Guilou tribe. At the beginning, the Juannu tribe was the ruling tribe, but later their power gradually weakened, and now the Guilou tribe holds the kingship. During the Han Dynasty, they received musicians and instruments to perform, and they often traveled to Xuantu County to receive the imperial rewards of court attire and hats. The king of Goguryeo managed the list of these rewards. Later, they grew increasingly proud and no longer went to Xuantu County. They built a small city on the eastern border, where they stored the court attire and hats, returning each year to collect them. The nomadic Hu people still call this city "Zegouxu." "Zegouxu" is a Goguryeo word meaning city. They appointed officials such that if there was a Duolu, there would be no Peizi, and vice versa. The king's relatives and senior officials are all referred to as Guchujia. The Juannu tribe was the original royal tribe, and although they no longer hold the title of king, their leaders can still be called Guchujia and can establish ancestral temples to worship the spirits and gods. The Juenu tribe has intermarried with the royal family for generations, and their leaders are also called Guchujia.
Other high-ranking officials also have their own envoys and attendants, and their names must be reported to the king, just like the servants of the nobles. They sit together, but cannot sit at the same level as the king's envoys and attendants. The wealthy households in Goguryeo do not farm, and there are tens of thousands of mouths to feed, so the common people have to bring rice, grain, fish, and salt from afar to sustain them. The people of Goguryeo enjoy singing and dancing, both in the city and the countryside, where men, women, and children gather together to sing and dance at night. They do not have large warehouses; each household has a small storage area known as "Fu Jing." The people of Goguryeo value cleanliness and enjoy brewing wine. Their way of bowing is to kneel and bow, with one knee on the ground, which differs from the Buyeo people, who tend to hurry when they walk. In October, there is a grand national gathering called "Dongmeng" to pay homage to the heavens. During the gathering, everyone wears embroidered garments and adorns themselves with gold and silver jewelry. High-ranking officials and clerks wear hats that fit snugly without excess material; low-ranking officials wear folded hats shaped like a cap.
To the east of the Goguryeo kingdom, there is a large cave called Sui Cave. During the national gathering in October, they welcome the Suishen back to the east of the country, offer sacrifices to it at the cave, and place a wooden model of the cave on the altar. They do not have prisons; if someone commits a crime, the officials discuss and then kill them, confiscating the criminal's wife and children, making them slaves. The marriage customs among the Goguryeo people are as follows: after agreeing to the marriage, the woman builds a small house behind her family's main house, referred to as the "husband's house." At night, the groom kneels at the entrance of the woman's family home, pleading to be allowed to stay there. After doing this several times, the woman's parents allow him to move into the small house. Money is placed nearby, and the bride returns to her husband's family only after the child grows up. Their customs are quite liberal. After marriage, they begin preparing clothing for funerals. They have lavish funerals, using all their gold and silver treasures on the deceased, constructing stone burial mounds and planting pine and cypress trees. Their horses are rather small but well-suited for climbing mountains. The Goguryeo people are strong and skilled in battle, with both Woju and Donghu submitting to them. There is also a nation called Xiaoshuimo. When Goguryeo was founded, they lived by a large river. To the north of Xi'an Ping County, there is a small river flowing south into the sea. A branch of Goguryeo lived by the small river and founded a nation there, which is why it is called Xiaoshuimo. They produce very good bows, referred to as "Mo bows."
Wang Mang initially sent troops from Goguryeo to attack the Xiongnu, but those soldiers refused to go. Wang Mang forced them to go, but they all ran away and became bandits outside the Great Wall. The Governor of Liaoxi, Tian Tan, went to pursue them but was killed. Various states and counties blamed the Goguryeo Marquis Xiu. Yan You submitted a memorial saying, "Those Goguryeo people committed crimes; the blame should not be placed on Xiu's head. We should appease them. Now, giving them such a big accusation, I'm afraid it will lead to a rebellion." Wang Mang ignored this and ordered Yan You to attack them. Yan You lured Xiu, then killed him and sent his head to Chang'an. Wang Mang was very happy, shared the news throughout the empire, and even renamed Goguryeo to Xiajuli. At that time, Goguryeo was still a marquisate. In the eighth year of Emperor Guangwu of Han, the King of Goguryeo sent envoys to pay tribute to the Han court, and only then did they begin to be called kings.
During the reigns of Emperor Shang and Emperor An, the Goguryeo palace attacked Liaodong several times and even submitted to Xuantu County. The Governors of Liaodong, Cai Feng, and Xuantu, Yao Guang, believed that the palace of Goguryeo was a disaster for the two counties, so they led troops to attack it. The Goguryeo palace feigned surrender in a bid for peace, but the armies of the two counties did not advance. The palace secretly sent troops to attack Xuantu, burned the city, broke into Liaosui, and killed officials and civilians. Later, the palace went to attack Liaodong again. Cai Feng misjudged the enemy, led troops to pursue, and as a result, the entire force was wiped out. After the death of the Goguryeo palace, his son Bogu succeeded to the throne.
During the reigns of Emperors Shundi and Huandi, Bogu launched another attack on Liaodong, looting Xin'an and Juxiang while also attacking Xianping. On the way, he killed the magistrate of Daifang County and kidnapped the wife of the Lelang commandant. In the second year of Emperor Ling's Jianning era, Geng Lin, the commandant of Xuantu, went to attack him, slaying hundreds of his foes. Bogu surrendered and submitted to Liaodong. During the Xi Ping period, Bogu sought to submit to Xuantu once more. Gongsun Du held significant power in the East Sea region. Bogu sent Dajia Youju, the registrar Ran, and others to help Gongsun Du fight the Fushan bandits, which led to their defeat.
Bogu passed away, leaving two sons, the elder son named Baqi and the younger son named Yiyimo. Baqi felt aggrieved, believing he should have been king, only to be usurped by his younger brother. So he led his generals, including Juannu Jia, and over thirty thousand households to surrender to Gongsun Kang, and then settled in Feiliushui. The surrendered Hu people subsequently turned against Yiyimo, who subsequently reestablished a new realm, where they remain today. Baqi later went to Liaodong, leaving one son behind in the Juri Kingdom. Today, Guchu Jia Bo is a descendant of his. Later, Baqi attacked Xuantu County, but Xuantu County and Liaodong County united to attack him, leading to his ultimate defeat.
Yi Yimo had no sons, so he had relationships with women from the Guannu tribe and had a son named Weigong. After Yi Yimo's death, Weigong was made king, and the current Juri Palace was established by him. His great-grandfather was also named Gong; he was born with his eyes wide open, able to see things. The people of his kingdom despised him, and as he grew up, he proved to be both cruel and tyrannical, frequently engaging in looting and leaving the kingdom in shambles. The current king was similarly born with his eyes wide open. The Juri people referred to those who resembled him as "Wei," and because he resembled his ancestors, he was called Weigong. Weigong was exceptionally strong and skilled in horseback riding, archery, and hunting. In the second year of Jingchu, General Sima Xuanwang led an army against Gongsun Yuan, and Weigong dispatched Chief Officer Dajia to lead several thousand men in support. In the third year of Zhengshi, Weigong launched an attack on Xi'anping, and in the fifth year of Zhengshi, he was defeated by Guanqiu Jian, the governor of Youzhou. These events are documented in the "Biography of Guanqiu Jian."
Dong Wo Ju, situated just east of the Gaema Mountains of Goguryeo, is right by the sea. The area is narrow in the northeast and extends about a thousand kilometers from the northeast to the southwest. It borders the Yilou and Fuyu people to the north and the Mohe people to the south. There are approximately five thousand households, with no single king governing them; each village has its own leader. The language spoken is similar to that of Goguryeo, with occasional minor differences. In the early Han Dynasty, following the fall of the Yan Kingdom, Wei Man ascended to the throne in Korea, and Dong Wo Ju was under his rule. In the second year of Emperor Wu of Han, Wei Man's grandson You Qu was killed after the defeat of Korea, and the Korean territory was divided into four commanderies, and Dong Wo Ju was designated as Xuanfu Commandery. Later, it fell to the Mohe people, and Xuanfu Commandery was moved to the northwest of Goguryeo. The Xuanfu Prefecture referred to today was the same location at that time. Dong Wo Ju came under the jurisdiction of Lelang Commandery once more. Due to its sparse population, the Han Dynasty established an Eastern Commandery to the east of Dandandaling, specifically overseeing seven counties, including Dong Wo Ju. In the sixth year of Jianwu of the Han Dynasty, the border commanderies were streamlined, and the Eastern Commandery was dissolved. Afterwards, the leaders of each county were made marquises, and Dandandaling, Huali, and Dong Wo Ju became marquisates. The various tribes clashed with one another, but only the Marquis of Huali kept officials like the magistrate and registrar, all of whom were Mohe. The leaders of the villages in Dong Wo Ju all called themselves the Three Elders, a vestige of the earlier county system. Being a small state nestled between larger nations, Dong Wo Ju submitted to Goguryeo. Goguryeo appointed officials to oversee Dong Wo Ju, collecting taxes including cloth, fish, salt, and various seafood, which had to be transported over long distances. Goguryeo also abducted beautiful women from Dong Wo Ju to be their concubines, treating them as slaves.
Woju is a place with fertile land, backed by mountains and facing the sea, making it very suitable for crop cultivation, with a well-developed agricultural sector. The people of Woju are straightforward, brave, and warlike, with few domesticated animals, preferring to fight with long spears. Their diet, clothing, etiquette, and customs are similar to those of Goguryeo. After they die, they use large wooden coffins, over ten meters long, with a door at one end. When someone dies, they are initially buried in a simple manner, and once the flesh has rotted, the bones are collected and placed in the coffin. Families are buried together in one coffin, with lifelike wooden carvings on the coffin, matching the number of deceased individuals. They also place clay pots in the coffin, filled with rice, and tie woven ropes to the coffin.
Guanqiu Jian led his troops in an attack against Goguryeo, and the king of Goguryeo was so scared that he fled to Woju. Guanqiu Jian continued to pursue, capturing and killing over three thousand enemies and taking many prisoners, with the Goguryeo king fleeing to North Woju. North Woju, also known as Zhigoulou, is over eight hundred li from South Woju, with similar customs to Yilou. The people of Yilou like to raid by boat, and the people of North Woju are afraid of them, hiding in caves in the summer and only coming out in the village when the river freezes in winter.
Wang Qi sent troops to pursue the Goguryeo king, conducting a thorough sweep of Goguryeo's eastern border. They asked some local elders, "Are there still people east of the sea?" The elders said that their people used to go out to sea to fish, but were blown by the wind for many days and ended up on an island where the islanders spoke a language that they could not understand. The people on the island have a peculiar custom of casting young girls into the sea each July.
The elders also said that there is a country in the sea where only women reside, and there are no men.
Some people say that there was once a person wearing simple clothes who drifted out of the sea. The clothes were like the clothes we usually wear, but the sleeves were particularly long, measuring three zhang long! They also found a broken ship that drifted to the shore, and there was even a face on the neck of a person on the ship! They rescued this person, but were unable to communicate with him, and he died without having eaten. This all took place in the sea east of Woju.
Yilou lies over a thousand miles northeast of Fuyu, adjacent to the sea, bordering Nanwoju to the south and Beiwuju to the north. As for how far it is to the north, no one knows. The place has many mountains and dangerous roads. The people of Yilou look similar to the people of Fuyu, but their language is different from both the people of Fuyu and Joli. They grow grains, raise cattle and horses, and can weave linen. The people of Yilou are all very brave. They do not have a single leader; each village has its own leader. They live in the mountains and often reside in caves. The caves are dug very deep, requiring climbing several layers of ladders to go down, and the larger the cave, the better. The climate there is cold, even colder than Fuyu. They like to raise pigs, eat pork, and wear pigskin. In winter, they apply a thick layer of pig fat to their bodies for warmth. In summer, they go shirtless, covering only their front and back with a piece of cloth. They do not pay much attention to hygiene, with toilets located in the center of the village, and all the houses are surrounded by them. Their bows measure four feet in length and have a draw weight comparable to that of a crossbow. The arrows are made of mulberry wood, measuring one foot eight inches, with arrowheads made of bluestone. They are the descendants of the ancient Sushen state. Their archery is especially accurate, always hitting the eyes of the target. The arrowheads are also coated with poison, ensuring certain death for those hit. Yilou produces red jade and fine mink fur. The "Yilou mink" mentioned now refers to the mink fur from there. Since the Han Dynasty, Yilou has been subordinate to Fuyu, but the taxes collected by Fuyu from them were too heavy, so they rebelled during the Huangchu period. Fuyu attacked them several times; although the people of Yilou were few, they relied on the mountains and were feared by neighboring countries for their bows and arrows, and ultimately could not be conquered. The people of Yilou often go by boat to raid, causing significant trouble for neighboring countries. The various tribes of Dongyi use ceremonial vessels for their meals, but the Yilou people do not follow this custom, and their practices are the most unrefined.
Speaking of it, the Wae people are adjacent to the Jinhan Confederacy in the south and border Goguryeo and Wozhu in the north. They stretch all the way to the sea in the east, and now the eastern part of Korea is their territory. There are a total of 20,000 households in their tribe. When Jizi arrived in Korea, he established eight rules to educate them, and as a result, no one locked their doors and there were no thefts. After more than forty generations, the Korean lord arrogantly proclaimed himself king. Later, Chen Sheng and Wu Guang led a rebellion against the Qin dynasty, and tens of thousands of commoners from Yan, Qi, and Zhao sought refuge in Korea. A man from Yan named Wei Man, who wore long braids and dressed in foreign attire, became their king. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty conquered Korea and divided its territory into four commanderies. Since then, the Xiongnu and Han people gradually diverged. The Wae people did not have a major leader, and since the Han Dynasty, their officials included marquises, village lords, and three elders, governing the common people below. The elders among them assert that they share a lineage with Goguryeo. The people of the Wae tribe are simple and honest, with few desires. They have a sense of shame and do not take things lightly. Their language and customs are similar to Goguryeo, but their clothing is different. Both men and women wear garments with rounded collars, and men have silver ornaments several inches wide on their clothes. The region west of Dandandashan is part of Lelang Commandery, and the seven counties east of Dandandashan were governed by a commandant, and the people in these areas are all from the Wae people. Later, the position of commandant was abolished, and their leaders were enfeoffed as marquises. Those not identified as the Wae people are actually their descendants. In the late Han Dynasty, they fell under Goguryeo's rule once more.
The Wēi people value mountains and rivers very much. Each mountain and river has its own territory and are not to be trespassed. Those sharing the same surname are prohibited from marrying. They observe many taboos - when someone falls ill or dies, they will abandon their old home and construct a new one. They grow hemp for making cloth and raise silkworms to produce silk. They possess knowledge of astronomy and can forecast whether the upcoming year will yield a bountiful harvest or a meager one. They do not regard jade and gemstones as treasures. Every October, they offer sacrifices to the heavens, drinking and dancing day and night, referred to as "dancing with the heavens." They also venerate the tiger as a divine being. In case of conflicts between villages, they impose penalties on one another and compensate for losses in terms of lives and livestock, a practice referred to as "sharing the disaster." Murder is met with the penalty of death, and theft is rare. They wield spears measuring three zhang in length, occasionally carried by multiple individuals together for battle. The Tan bow, originating from Lelang, is crafted in their territory. Their waters yield striped fish skin, their land is abundant in civets, and they also raise a horse known as Guoxia Ma, which was once offered as tribute during the reign of Emperor Huan of Han.
In the year 246 AD, the Prefect of Lelang County, Liu Mao, together with the Prefect of Daifang County, Gong Zun, led the people of the Donghui area who had surrendered to Julih to attack Julih. Consequently, Duke Nanai, overseeing the area, surrendered.
In the year 248 AD, Duke Nanai traveled to the capital to pay his respects to the emperor and present tributes from both the east and west. The emperor issued a decree, appointing Duke Nanai as the King of Wēi. He lived among the common people and had to visit the county throughout the year. If Lelang County and Daifang County needed help in warfare or tax collection, Duke Nanai's people were sent to assist, receiving the same treatment as ordinary citizens.
The Han region is situated to the south of Daifang Commandery, bordered by the sea to the east and west, and borders Woguo to the south, covering an area of approximately four thousand li. The Han region is divided into three groups: Ma Han, Chen Han, and Bian Han. Chen Han is the ancient Chen Kingdom. Ma Han is located to the west. The inhabitants are local natives skilled in agriculture, sericulture, weaving, and making cotton garments. Each tribe has its own leader, where leaders of larger tribes refer to themselves as Chen Zhi, while those of smaller tribes are called Yi Jie. They are scattered across the mountains and rivers, lacking city walls.
Specifically, the Han region comprises countries such as Yuanxiang, Moushui, Sangwai, Xiaoshisu, Dashisu, Youxiumouzhuo, Chenfugugu, Boji, Sulubusi, Rihua, Gudanzhe, Guli, Nulan, Yuezhi, Zilimoulu, Suweiqian, Guyuan, Molu, Beili, Zhanlibi, Chenxin, Zhiqin, Goulou, Beimi, Jianxi Beili, Gupu, Zhili, Ranlu, Erlin, Sulu, Nei Beili, Ganxi, Wanlu, Bi Beili, Jiusiwudan, Yili, Bumi, Zhiban, Gousu, Jielu, Moulu Beili, Chensutu, Molu, Gula, Linsuban, Chenyunxin, Rulai Beili, Chushan Tu Beili, Yinan, Gouxie, Buyun, Busi Fuyexie, Yuanchi, Qianma, and Chuli, totaling over fifty countries. Larger countries contain tens of thousands of households, while smaller ones have several thousand, amounting to over one hundred thousand households in total. The king of Chen Han lives in Yuezhi Country. These Chen Zhi sometimes adopt peculiar names, such as Youhu Chenyunqianzhibaoanxiecuigouchenlilinabuliexiejuxieqinlian, among others. Their official titles include Weishuaishan, Yijun, Guiyi Hou, Zhonglangjiang, Duwei, and Bochang.
This kid, Hou Zhun, declared himself king, but he was defeated by Wei Man, a fugitive from the Yan Kingdom. He fled to the coast with his palace maids and then sought refuge in the Han Kingdom, where he declared himself the King of Han. Eventually, he left no successors, and his clan was exterminated, yet the people of Han still honor his memory. During the Han Dynasty, the Han Kingdom fell under the jurisdiction of the Lelang Commandery, and they had to go for worship every year.
In the late reign of Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling, the powers of the Han and Wa kingdoms grew stronger, and the county government struggled to maintain control over them, prompting the common people to flee to the Han Kingdom. In the Jian'an era, Gongsun Kang designated the wasteland south of the county and established the Daifang Commandery. He sent Gongsun Mo, Zhang Chang, and others to recruit the refugees and then led troops to attack the Han and Wa kingdoms. Consequently, the refugees who had fled to the Han Kingdom gradually returned, and from then on, both Wo and Han kingdoms were under the jurisdiction of Daifang Commandery. During the Jingchu period, Emperor Ming secretly sent Daifang Prefect Liu Xin and Lelang Prefect Xianyu Si to cross the sea to pacify these two commanderies. Capable nobles of the Han Kingdom were appointed as village lords and given seals; those of lesser status were designated as village chiefs. The people of the Han Kingdom enjoyed wearing hats and fine clothes. When the lower-class people went to worship in the county, the county supplied them with hats and clothing. At that time, there were over a thousand people adorned with seals, hats, and clothing!
The Department of Affairs, Wu Lin, believed that the Lelang Commandery originally governed the Han Kingdom, so he unilaterally assigned the eight states of Chenhan to the Lelang Commandery. Throughout this process, the official records contained inconsistent translations, which infuriated Minister Zhi, prompting him to launch an attack on the Qili Camp of Daifang Commandery. At that time, Daifang Prefect Gong Zun and Lelang Prefect Liu Mao led troops to attack him, and Gong Zun was killed in battle. Ultimately, the two commanderies succeeded in annihilating the Han Kingdom.
The customs in their place are quite lax. Although there is a leader in the city, people from various villages live intermixed and are beyond control. They do not kneel in worship. The houses they live in are all grass huts and mud rooms, resembling tombs, with the door on top. Families of all ages live in close quarters, with men, women, and children mixed together. They bury people in large wooden boxes instead of coffins, and they use cows and horses for funerals. They hold jade in high regard, using it to decorate clothes or wear it around their necks and ears. They pay little attention to gold, silver, or fine fabrics. Their people are brave, with wild, unkempt hair reminiscent of soldiers, wearing cloth robes and leather shoes.
When their country needs to build city walls, young and strong men have holes carved into their backs, with thick ropes threaded through and then struck with long wooden sticks. They work all day, shouting and not feeling any pain, both as encouragement and to showcase their strength. After planting in May, they gather to sing, dance, and drink, celebrating around the clock. Their dance involves dozens of people moving in rhythm, their bodies swaying and their hands and feet moving in sync like a musical performance. After finishing farm work in October, they celebrate in the same way. They have a strong belief in ghosts and spirits, with each city appointing someone to worship the heavenly god, referred to as the Heavenly Lord. In other villages called Su Tu, they erect large wooden poles with bells and drums to worship ghosts and spirits. Those who flee there never return, as they take pleasure in being bandits. Su Tu resembles a pagoda in some ways, but their good and bad deeds differ from those traditionally associated with pagodas.
Those countries near the northern counties still know some etiquette customs, while those further away seem to huddle together like prisoners and slaves. There aren't any precious treasures. The plants and animals are similar to those in China. They produce a type of large chestnut that is about the size of a pear. They also have a type of chicken with tails that can exceed five feet in length. The men there often have tattoos.
West of Mahan, there's a large island inhabited by the Zhouhu people. They are relatively short, speak a language different from that of the Mahan people, shave their heads, wear only leather clothes like the Xianbei people, and enjoy raising cattle and pigs. They only wear upper garments and no lower garments, which makes them look almost naked. They travel by boat to and from Mahan for trade.
Chenhan is to the east of Mahan. The elders there have passed down through generations that they are people who escaped the Qin Dynasty's forced labor and came to Korea. Mahan gave them a piece of land to the east. They have fortified walls and enclosures. Their language is different from that of Mahan; they call their country "bang," a bow is called "hu," bandits are called "kou," and drinking alcohol is called "hangshang." They refer to each other as "tu," somewhat reminiscent of the Qin people, but not the same as the names and things of Yan and Qi. They call the people of Lelang "Acans"; the easterners call us "A," claiming that the Lelang people are their remnants. Some still refer to themselves as "Qinhan." Originally, there were six countries, which gradually split into twelve over time.
Bianchen also has twelve countries, as well as many small villages, each with its own leader. The larger ones are called "Chieftain," followed by smaller nations such as: Yidi, Busi, Bianchen Milimi Dongguo, Bianchen Jietu Guo, Qin Qi Guo, Nan Milimi Dongguo, Bianchen Gu Zi Milimi Dongguo, Bianchen Gu Chun Shi Guo, Ran Xi Guo, Bianchen Ban Lu Guo, Bianchen Le Nu Guo, Jun Mi Guo, Bianchen Mi Wu Xie Ma Guo, Ru Zhan Guo, Bianchen Gan Lu Guo, Hu Lu Guo, Zhou Xian Guo, Bianchen Gou Xie Guo, Bianchen Zou Cao Ma Guo, Bianchen An Xie Guo, Bianchen Du Lu Guo, Si Lu Guo, You You Guo. Bianchen and Chen Han together add up to a total of twenty-four countries, with the larger countries having four to five thousand households, and the smaller ones having six to seven hundred households, totaling forty-five thousand households. All twelve of these nations fall under the rule of the Chen King. The Chen King typically relies on Han people for assistance, a practice that has been passed down through generations. The Chen King himself is not referred to as a king.
The land there is fertile, suitable for growing grains and rice. They are skilled in sericulture and weaving, and can use cattle and horses to pull carts. Their marriage customs are different for men and women. They use large bird feathers for funerals, symbolizing their hope for the deceased's ascension. This country is known for its iron production, attracting buyers from the Han, Hui, and Wo peoples. They use iron for trade, much like we use money in China, and also to supply the two counties of the Han Dynasty. They enjoy singing, dancing, and drinking, and they play a musical instrument called a "se," which produces melodies when played. Upon birth, a stone is placed on a child's head to shape it flat. Today, all Chen Han people have flat heads. Both men and women, like the Wo people, have tattoos on their bodies. They are skilled in infantry warfare, armed with weapons akin to those of the Han people. Their custom is that when people meet on the road, they will stop and make way for each other.
The people of Bianchen and Chen Han live together, with cities and city walls as well. This resembles the coexistence of urban and rural populations today, complete with city walls and similar structures.
Their clothing, housing, and way of life are quite similar to that of the Chenhan people. Their language and customs are also quite similar, but the methods of worship differ, with kitchen stoves placed on the west side of the house. One of these countries is called the Dulu Kingdom, which borders the Wo Kingdom. Each of these twelve countries has its own leader, and the people are generally quite tall. Their clothing is clean and well-kept, and they have long hair. They also weave wide and fine cloth. However, their customs are strict, and their laws are particularly severe. The Wo Kingdom lies in the vast sea to the southeast of our region, and the islands are part of their country. There used to be over a hundred countries, some of which even came to pay tribute during the Han Dynasty, but now we can only reach out to thirty of them. From our county to the Wo Kingdom, following the coastline by sea, passing through Korea, sometimes heading south and sometimes east, reaching the northern border of the Wo Kingdom - the Goguryeo Kingdom, is over 7,000 li away. After crossing the sea, it’s just over 1,000 li to reach the Tsushima Kingdom. The highest official in Tsushima is known as Beigou, with a deputy named Beinumuli. They live on isolated islands, spanning roughly 400 li, featuring rugged terrain, numerous mountains, dense forests, and paths resembling those made by wild chickens and rabbits. The population is probably over a thousand households, lacking fertile farmland; they rely on seafood for sustenance and sail to various places to purchase food from the north and south.
After crossing yet another sea, which is over a thousand miles away, you will find a sea called Hanhai, which leads to a large country. The highest official there goes by the name Beigou, and the deputy is called Beinumuli. This country spans approximately three hundred miles, completely covered in bamboo and lush forests, and is home to around three thousand households. Although there are some fields, the crops produced are still insufficient for their needs, so they have to purchase food from various regions to the north and south.
After crossing another sea, which is over a thousand miles, you will reach the country of Molu, with over four thousand households situated near the mountains and the coast. The trees there grow especially lush, so dense that you can’t see the person ahead of you while walking. They especially love fishing for fish and abalones, diving underwater regardless of the depth.
Traveling southeast by land from Molu, you will reach the country of Yidu, where the highest official is known as Erzhi, and the deputies are called Xiemu and Bingqu. There are probably over a thousand households here, with a lineage of kings ruling through the generations, all governed by the Queen's realm. Our county's envoys often stop here on their way to the Wo country.
One hundred miles southeast from Yidu is the country of Nu, where the highest official is known as Simagu, and the deputy is called Beinumuli, with an estimated twenty thousand households. Another one hundred miles east is the country of Bumi, where the highest official is known as Duomo, and the deputy is called Beinumuli, with probably over a thousand households.
To the south lies the country of Touma, which takes about twenty days to reach by boat. The highest official there is called Mimi, and the deputy is called Miminari, with an estimated fifty thousand households. Further south lies Xiemayi, the Queen's capital, which requires ten days by boat and a month by land. The officials here include Yizhima, followed by Mimasheng, Mimahuazhi, and Nujiaji, with an estimated seventy thousand households.
From the Queen's Kingdom to the north, the populations and distances of those countries can still be roughly noted. Next come the countries of Smagu, Yibaizhi, Yixie, Douzhi, Minu, Haogudu, Buhugu, Jienu, Dui Su, Sunu, Huyi, Huanusu, Guiguo, Weiwu, Guinu, Xiemagu, Gongcheng, Baligu, Zhiwei, Wunu, and Nu, all of which are within the jurisdiction of the Queen.
To the south of the Queen's Kingdom, there is a country called Gounu, where men serve as kings and the highest official is known as Goguzhibigou. They do not belong to the Queen's jurisdiction. From our county to the Queen's Kingdom, it is a total of more than 12,000 li to travel.
Every man, regardless of size, has tattoos on his face and body. From ancient times to the present, when they come to China, they refer to themselves as "doctors." The son of Shaokang from the Xia Dynasty was assigned to Kuaiji after cutting his hair and tattooing his body to evade the threat of dragons. Now the people of the Wo country like to dive to fish and pick up shells; tattoos were originally used to scare away large fish and water birds, but eventually became decorative. The tattoo patterns vary across different countries, some on the left, some on the right, some large, some small, and the status can also be seen. According to the distance, the Wo country should be east of Kuaiji and Dongye.
Their customs are not seen as licentious. Men have their hair loose and wrapped in cotton. The clothes are horizontal, with just the ends tied together and hardly any seams. Women have their hair loose, also wrapped in cloth, and their clothes resemble quilts, worn through the middle and wrapping around both head and body. They cultivate rice and hemp, raise silkworms, and weave fabric, producing fine hemp cloth and silk. They do not have cows, horses, tigers, leopards, sheep, or magpies. In battle, they use spears, shields, and wooden bows. The wooden bow has a short lower end and a long upper end; the arrows are made of bamboo, some with iron arrowheads and some with bone arrowheads. These weapons differ from those found in Dan'er and Zhuyai.
The climate in Wokou is warm, and they eat raw greens in both winter and summer, walking barefoot. They have houses where parents and siblings sleep in different rooms. They use cinnabar to paint their bodies, similar to how we Chinese use powder. They eat and drink using bamboo cups and eat with their hands. When someone dies, they have coffins but no grave markers, burying the deceased in mounds of earth. During the mourning period, they observe mourning for more than ten days, during which they do not eat meat; the mourners weep, while others sing, dance, and drink. After the burial, the entire family bathes in the water together, as if washing with clean water.
When they cross the sea to China, they always send a person who hasn't combed their hair, does not remove lice, wears dirty clothes, does not eat meat, and stays away from women, similar to mourning practices, referring to this person as a "holder of misfortune." If the person arrives safely, everyone will care about his life and belongings; if the person falls ill or encounters danger on the way, they might consider harming him, saying he is not cautious as the "holder of misfortune." Wokou produces pearls and green jade. Their mountains yield cinnabar, and their trees include varieties such as Nanmu, Zhushu, Yuzhang, Yueli, Toujiang, Wu Hao, and Fengxiang, as well as bamboo, Xiaozhu, Ganzhu, and peach branches. They also have ginger, oranges, pepper, and lotus roots, although they do not know the taste of these foods. They also have species like macaques and black pheasants.
Their custom is that no matter what they do or where they go, they must burn bones for divination to predict fortune or misfortune. They first tell what they want to divine, and the phrasing used in their divination is akin to that of turtle shell divination. They observe the shapes of the fire cracks to judge good or bad luck. When they gather, there is no distinction between fathers and sons or between men and women, and they all have a strong fondness for drinking. When they encounter dignitaries, they merely clap their hands in lieu of bowing. They have long lifespans, some living to be a hundred years old, others living to be eighty or ninety years old. Their custom is that important figures in the country have four or five wives, while ordinary families have two or three wives. Women are not promiscuous or jealous. Theft and quarrels are rare. For minor offenses, their family may be penalized, and their entire clan may face extermination for more serious offenses. There exists a hierarchical ranking among clans and social statuses, and they all obey each other. They collect taxes and have government offices, and every country has markets where goods are bought and sold, supervised by officials from the Great Wa Country. North of the Queen's country, a high official is specially appointed to inspect each country, and all nations regard him with fear. He is stationed in the country of Ito, holding a position similar to a governor. The Queen sends envoys to the capital, Daifang County, and other Korean counties, while the county officials send envoys to the Wa Country, all passing through Linjin for inspection and delivering documents and gifts to the Queen without error. When commoners encounter high-ranking officials on the road, they will often retreat into the bushes. When reporting things, some squat, while others kneel with their hands on the ground to show respect. In response, they say "Yi" as a sign of agreement.
Once upon a time, in Japan, all the kings were men. After a king had ruled for seventy or eighty years, Japan descended into chaos, and people fought among themselves for many years. Eventually, they united to choose a woman as their queen, and her name was Himiko. She practiced shamanism, was adept at captivating people's hearts, and though she was not young, she remained unmarried, with her younger brother assisting her in governing the country. Since becoming queen, few had ever seen her. She was attended by over a thousand maids, with only one man tasked with delivering her meals, conveying orders, and coming in and out of the palace. The palace where she resided was surrounded by high walls, with armed guards stationed there year-round.
Queen Himiko's realm lay thousands of miles across the sea to the east, and there was another land populated by the Japanese. Further south was a land of dwarfs, where the inhabitants were only three or four feet tall, over four thousand miles from the queen's realm. Further southeast lay the lands of the Naked and Black Teeth, which could take a year to reach by boat. Overall, Japan is situated on islands in the middle of the sea, some of which are connected and some not, with a total distance of over five thousand miles if one were to navigate around them.
In June of the year 239 AD, Queen Himiko sent officials to the province to request an audience with the emperor and present tribute. Governor Liu Xia sent officials to accompany them to the capital. In December of the same year, the imperial court issued a decree in reply to Queen Himiko, with the original text stated as follows:
"Imperial Edict to the King of Wa, Pimiko: Governor Dai Fang has sent envoys to deliver to you, Lord Nan Sheng Mi, four male and six female tribute bearers, and two pieces of cloth. Since you are located far away, you have sent envoys to offer tribute, showing your loyalty and filial piety, which I greatly appreciate. I hereby appoint you as the King of Wa and bestow upon you a golden seal and purple sash, to be presented by Governor Dai Fang. May you govern your people with benevolence and filial piety. Your envoys, Nan Sheng and Niu Li, have traveled far and worked diligently. Nan Sheng is appointed as the General of Goodness and Niu Li as the Captain of Goodness, with silver seals and blue ribbons, to be honored and sent back. I present to you five pieces of brocade, ten pieces of silk, fifty pieces of red cloth, and fifty pieces of blue cloth, in return for your tribute. Additionally, I grant you three pieces of indigo brocade, five pieces of fine cloth, fifty pieces of white silk, eight taels of gold, two five-foot swords, one hundred bronze mirrors, fifty jin of pearls, and fifty jin of cinnabar, all to be presented to Nan Sheng and Niu Li upon their return. Present these treasures to your people, so they may understand the nation's regard for you. Thus, I solemnly bestow these precious gifts upon you."
Four years later, in the year 244 AD, the King of Wa sent envoys Yi Shengqi, Yexie Gou, and eight others to present captives and special products from Wa, including brocade, crimson and blue silk fabrics, cotton clothing, silk cloth, redwood, an unidentified item (犭付), short bows, and arrows. Yexie Gou accepted the official seal of "Commander of the Loyal Troops" granted by the court. In 246 AD, the court decreed to grant a yellow flag to the Wa country's leader Nan Shengmi, to be handed over by the local governor. In 248 AD, Governor Wang Qi took office. The relationship between Queen Himiko of Wa and King Pimiko of Koguryo had always been strained. Himiko sent Wa Zaisi, Wuyue, and others to the county to report that both sides were on the brink of war. The county sent Deputy Cao Yuan Zhang Zheng with the emperor's decree and the yellow flag to officially recognize Nan Shengmi as king and convey this to both parties. Himiko died, and a large tomb was built for her, with over a hundred slaves interred alongside her. Afterwards, a male king was installed in Wa, resulting in internal strife and the deaths of thousands. Later, Himiko's descendant Yi Yu was made queen at the age of thirteen, which ultimately brought stability back to the country. Zhang Zheng and the others delivered the decree to Yi Yu, and she sent twenty Wa envoys, including Yexie Gou, to escort them back to the court. They presented thirty male and female captives, five thousand white pearls, two peacock-blue large pearls, and twenty pieces of brocade with different patterns to the court. Historical records provide accounts of the situations in Korea and Jiaozhi, while the "Records of Eastern Capital" detail the affairs of the Western Qiang region. During the Wei Dynasty, the Xiongnu had declined, and other tribes like the Wuhuan, Xianbei, and Dongyi emerged. The court dispatched envoys to engage with them and document events as they unfolded, which was quite significant!
