Emperor Wu of Han was the son of Emperor Jing of Han, and his mother was Empress Dowager Wang. In the fourth year of Emperor Jing's reign, he was made King of Jiaodong. In the seventh year, Crown Prince Li was deposed, and the King of Jiaodong was installed as the new Crown Prince. Emperor Jing died in the sixteenth year of his reign, and the Crown Prince succeeded to the throne, becoming the later Emperor Wu of Han. Upon ascending the throne, Emperor Wu placed special emphasis on religious rituals.
The Han Dynasty had been established for over sixty years, with peace throughout the land. Many officials and nobles eagerly awaited the Fengshan Ceremony to reform the system. At that time, Emperor Wu greatly admired Confucianism, recruited talents widely, and knowledgeable men like Zhao Wan and Wang Zang held high office. They wanted to emulate ancient practices by building a Mingtang in the southern part of the city to summon the princes. However, matters regarding the imperial progresses, the Fengshan Ceremony, calendar reform, and changes to court dress had not been accomplished yet. Dowager Dou, who believed in Huang-Lao teachings and disliked Confucianism, dug up dirt on Zhao Wan and Wang Zang, uncovering evidence of their corruption. She summoned them for questioning, and as a result, they both committed suicide, and their plans were scrapped.
Six years later, Dowager Dou died. The following year, Emperor Wu summoned a group of Confucian scholars, including Gongsun Hong. A year later, Emperor Wu went to Yongzhou for the first time and performed sacrifices to the gods of the land at Wuzhi outside the capital. Later on, he held these sacrifices approximately every three years. At that time, he sought out divine spirits and housed them in the Si Shi Temple in Shanglin Park. This spirit, a woman from Changling whose son had died, had appeared several times. People built a shrine where she resided, and many worshipped there. Even Pingyuan Jun worshipped there, and his descendants subsequently rose to prominence. After Emperor Wu ascended the throne, he paid even more attention to this shrine, sending people to worship regularly. Though he'd heard of her, he'd never met her.
Once upon a time, there was this guy named Li Shaojun, who brought his magic health potions to see the emperor, who valued him greatly. This Li Shaojun was originally the Marquis of Shenze's right-hand man, specializing in these secret elixirs. No one knew his age or birthplace, but he always claimed to be seventy years old, could control anything, and live forever. He traveled everywhere, using these formulas to wander through different countries, without even a wife or kids by his side.
When people heard that he could control all things and live forever, they all sent him gifts—everything under the sun. Everyone thought that he could live so prosperously without doing anything, and not knowing his background made them believe in his abilities even more, with everyone vying for his attention. Li Shaojun, this kid, was a master of the occult and a real smooth talker, knowing how to work a room. Once, he was drinking with the Marquis of Wuan, and there was an old man in his nineties at the banquet. Li Shaojun actually claimed that he had played archery with the old man's great-grandfather in a certain place, and the old man had even been to that place with his great-grandfather when he was young! Everyone's jaws dropped.
Another time, Li Shaojun went to the palace to meet the emperor, and there was an old bronze thingamajig there, so the emperor asked Li Shaojun about it. Li Shaojun said, "This was placed in the cypress chamber in the tenth year of Duke Huan of Qi." Later, when they checked the inscriptions on it, it turned out to be an item from the time of Duke Huan of Qi! The palace went nuts, thinking that Li Shaojun was some kind of immortal, a centuries-old monster!
Li Shaojun told the emperor, "Offering sacrifices to the Kitchen God lets you talk to spirits. Communicating with spirits can turn cinnabar into gold. Golden cutlery'll make you live longer. Living longer means you'll meet the immortals on Penglai Island. And *then* you become immortal after the big ceremony. This is how the Yellow Emperor did it. When I traveled on the sea before, I met An Qisheng. Dude gave me a jujube the size of a watermelon! An Qisheng is an immortal living on Penglai Island. He can appear if he wants people to see him, and disappear if he doesn't want to be seen." After hearing this, the emperor personally began to worship the Kitchen God and sent sorcerers to search for Penglai Island, An Qisheng, and other immortals, and started to try to refine gold using cinnabar.
Then, after a while, Li Shaojun kicked the bucket. The Emperor figured he'd become a god, so he let Huang Chuishi Kuan Shu inherit his skills. But they never found Penglai Island or An Qisheng. Instead, all the coastal shamans in Yanqi started copying Li Shaojun, making up crazy stories.
There was a man from Bozhou named Bo Youji. He sent a letter to the Emperor, suggesting the construction of a Taiyi Temple in the southeast suburbs of Chang'an. He said, "Taiyi's the big god, and the Five Emperors are his helpers. Back in the day, the Emperor would throw a huge seven-day party for Taiyi in the southeast suburbs, with eight gates to the underworld opened up on the altar." So the Emperor told the head priest to build the Taiyi Temple and do the sacrifices like Bo Youji said.
Later, someone sent a note suggesting, "In ancient times, the emperor only used the big sacrifice for the three important deities (Tianyi, Diyi, and Taiyi) once every three years." The emperor agreed and allowed the chief priest to conduct the sacrifice at the Taiyi altar according to this person's suggestion. Later, another person wrote a letter saying, "In ancient times, during the spring and autumn sacrifices, the Yellow Emperor was sacrificed with an owl and a broken mirror; the Mingyang was sacrificed with a sheep; the Horse God was sacrificed with a green stallion; Taiyi, Gaoshan Mountain Lord, and the Earth God were sacrificed with cattle; Wuyi Lord was sacrificed with a dried fish; and the Yin and Yang envoys were sacrificed with a cow." The emperor then told the priests to conduct the sacrifices according to this suggestion, but next to the Taiyi altar.
A white deer appeared in the emperor's garden, so the emperor used its skin to make sacrificial clothing, believing it to be an auspicious sign, and then minted white gold to reward his subjects. The following year, during the sacrifice outside the city, the emperor came across a unicorn, resembling a deer called a *pao*. The official in charge of the sacrifice said, "Your Majesty, by performing the outdoor sacrifice devoutly, the heavens have bestowed upon you a unicorn, which is a qilin!" The unicorn was then offered to the five altars to the earth gods, and an additional cow was sacrificed alongside the original sacrificial cow. The emperor also rewarded the lords with white gold, seeing it as a sign of auspiciousness between heaven and earth.
The King of Jibei thought the emperor was about to perform the grand ceremony on Mount Tai, so he submitted a memorial offering Mount Tai and some surrounding counties. The emperor accepted his tribute and compensated him with other counties. The King of Changshan committed a crime and was demoted, so the emperor appointed his brother as the ruler of Zhending, allowing him to take over his brother's religious duties while establishing the Changshan region as a county. As a result, all five sacred mountains (Mount Tai in the east, Mount Hua in the west, Mount Heng in the south, Mount Heng in the north, and Mount Song in the center) were now in territories controlled by the emperor.
In the second year, an old man from the Qi country claimed to have some supernatural skills and tried to impress the emperor. At that time, the emperor was madly in love with Lady Wang, but unfortunately, she died. This old man conjured up Lady Wang and the Kitchen God in the middle of the night! The emperor saw it with his own eyes from behind the curtain. The emperor was over the moon and immediately appointed him as General Wen Cheng, rewarded him generously, and rolled out the red carpet for him. General Wen Cheng said, "Your Majesty, if you want to talk to the gods, this place needs a makeover. It's not fit for immortals!" So he painted a cloud car and only drove it on auspicious days, claiming it could ward off evil. He also built the Ganquan Palace, with rooms for the immortals, painted with gods such as Heaven, Earth, and Taiyi, and set up sacrificial items in hopes of summoning the immortals. But over a year passed, and his magic wasn't working anymore; the immortals still did not come. Later, he actually fed a cow with silk books, pretending not to know, claiming there were treasures inside the cow's stomach. As a result, the cow was killed, and a silk book was found, with some seriously creepy writing that frightened the emperor. Later, someone recognized that the writing was fake, and it was revealed that General Wen Cheng had forged it himself. The emperor was furious and had him whacked, and they hushed it all up.
After that, the emperor started building projects like Bailiangtai, Tongzhu, and Chenglu Xianrenzhang. The second year after General Wencheng's death, the emperor fell seriously ill and sought various shamans near Dinghu, but none could cure him. A man named You Shuifa said, "There is a wizard in Shangjun who can cure this kind of ghost-possession illness." The emperor summoned him and set up an altar for him in Ganquan Palace. When the emperor was sick, he sent someone to ask the God Lord, who said, "The emperor need not worry about the illness. When the illness improves a bit, come to Ganquan Palace to see me." As a result, the emperor's illness did improve, so he went to Ganquan Palace and his illness was completely cured. The emperor granted amnesty to the world and specifically established Shou Palace to worship the God Lord.
The most revered God Lord was Taiyi, along with Dajin, Siming, and other attendant deities, who were all worshipped together. You can't see these God Lords; you can only hear their voices, just like talking to people. Sometimes they come and go, and when they arrive, a gust of wind would announce their presence. The God Lords dwell behind the palace screens, speaking during the day but usually at night. The emperor had to perform a ritual cleansing before entering. The emperor invited the wizard to be the host, responsible for the God Lord's needs. Whatever the God Lord wanted was conveyed through the wizard. The emperor also built Shou Palace and Beigong, planted feathered banners, set up sacrificial items, and worshipped the God Lord with elaborate ceremonies. Whatever the God Lord said, the emperor had people record it and named it "Huafa." The pronouncements, though mundane, held a special fascination for the emperor. This remained a closely guarded secret.
Three years later, someone told the emperor that he should propose using "Yuan" for the era names instead of using numbers like one and two. "One Yuan" was called "Jianyuan," "Two Yuan" was called "Yuanguang" because of the appearance of a comet, and "Three Yuan" was called "Yuanshou" because a unicorn was discovered in the royal hunting grounds.
The second winter came, and the emperor went to Yong to offer sacrifices to the heavens. Someone suggested, "Now that the emperor is personally offering sacrifices to the heavens, that wouldn't do since the earth god hasn't been honored." Then the officials in charge of the sacrifices, along with the historian Sima Qian and the temple official Kuanshu, discussed, "For the sacrifices to heaven and earth, they must prepare animals like oxen, and things like silk cocoons and chestnuts. Since the emperor wants to personally offer sacrifices to the earth, they should build a round altar in the middle of the swamp for the earth's sacrifices, a total of five altars, each using a yellow ox as an offering. After the sacrifices are completed, bury the offerings, and everyone should wear yellow." So the emperor went east and established the Earth God Temple on Rui Mountain in Fenyin, just as discussed with Kuanshu. The emperor personally attended the ceremony, and it was just as grand a ceremony as the one for Heaven. After the sacrifices, the emperor went to Xingyang and then returned to the palace. Passing through Luoyang, the emperor issued a decree, saying, "The Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties are far from us and difficult to trace back. So he gave thirty miles of land to a Zhou descendant, making him the new Zhouzinan and putting him in charge of the ancestor worship." That year, he also toured the counties and got as far as Mount Tai.
During springtime, Yuecheng reported Luandai. Luandai was from Jiaodong and had studied with General Wencheng, later working under the King of Jiaodong. Yuecheng's sister was Kang's queen, but she didn't have any sons. After King Kang passed away, the sons of other concubines inherited the throne. Queen Dowager Kang wasn't exactly a saint; she didn't get along well with the new king and almost faced punishment for breaking the law. Hearing that General Wencheng had died, she wanted to please the emperor, so she sent Luandai through Yuecheng to request an audience, hoping to show off some alchemical arts. The emperor had previously killed General Wencheng but later regretted it, feeling he hadn't fully demonstrated his abilities. The emperor was stoked to meet Luandai. Luandai was tall, handsome, a smooth talker, and dared to boast; the emperor trusted him completely. Luandai said, "I've been to the sea many times and met immortals like Anqisheng and Xianmenggao. They thought my status was lowly and didn’t believe me. They also felt that King Kang was just a mere prince, not worthy of being taught their alchemical arts. I’ve advised King Kang many times, but he didn’t take my suggestions. My teacher once said, 'Gold can be refined, the Yellow River can be tamed, the elixir of immortality can be obtained, and immortals can be found.' I'm worried that, like General Wencheng, if the alchemists all keep quiet, who would dare to discuss alchemical arts!" The emperor replied, "General Wencheng died because he ate horse liver. If you can truly cultivate those arts, what have I got to lose?" Luandai said, "My teacher doesn’t actively seek others; they come seeking him. Your Majesty, if you really want to find them, you should send top-notch messengers, preferably those who are related to them. Treat them like VIPs, don’t disrespect them, and let them wear their lucky charms; only then can they communicate with the divine beings. Whether the divine beings will agree depends on whether they respect the messengers; only then can they be summoned." So the emperor tried a little experiment with two flags, and—bam!—they crashed together all on their own!
Legend has it that at that time, the court was worried about the breach of the Yellow River, and there was not enough gold to repair it. So the emperor appointed Da as the Five Blessings General. About a month later, Da received four gold seals: the Celestial General, the Earthly General, the Grand Passage General, and the Heaven's Mandate General. The emperor also issued a decree to the censor, saying, "In the past, Da Yu dredged the Nine Rivers and excavated the Four Dukes (ancient branches of waterways). Recently, the Yellow River flooded fields, and fixing the river was a never-ending headache. I have been the emperor for 28 years. If Heaven wants to send me a capable person, that would be Da! It's like the *I Ching* says, 'The dragon soars in the heavens,' 'The wild goose alights on the land' – that's him, I tell you! Let's appoint Da as the Marquis of Harmonious Prosperity and give him a fief of two thousand households!" The emperor also rewarded him with a marquisate mansion, a thousand servants, various vehicles, tents, and utensils, making his wealth abundant at once.
He married the emperor's daughter, Princess Wei Chang, with a dowry of ten thousand catties of gold, and renamed the princess's fief as "Princess Dangli." The emperor often personally visited the Five Blessings General, sending envoys to continuously inquire about his needs, and officials along the route had to roll out the red carpet for him. From the prime minister down to the ministers, they all went to his house to feast and give gifts to him. Later, the emperor carved a jade seal called "General of Heavenly Dao" and sent envoys wearing feathered robes to stand on white thatch in the middle of the night. The Five Blessings General also wore a feathered robe and stood on white thatch to receive the jade seal, indicating that he was not a subject. Wearing the "Heavenly Dao" seal meant praying to the gods in the sky on behalf of the emperor.
So the Five Blessings General often worshipped at home at night, hoping to invite the gods down to earth. No gods appeared, but he seemed to command the spirits that did. Later, he prepared his luggage, headed east to the sea, claiming he was going to find his teacher. Within months, his six seals made him a legend, inspiring imitators across the land – from the seas to Yan and Qi – all boasting of their mastery of forbidden arts and their path to immortality.
In mid-June, there was a shaman named Wu Jin in Fenyin, who discovered a hook-shaped object in the ground while performing rituals near the Earth God Temple of King Wei. She dug it up and found that it was actually a large tripod! Unlike any ordinary tripod, this one was completely plain, lacking any patterns or inscriptions—a most curious find. She quickly reported it to the authorities. The local officials reported it to the Governor of Hedong, who in turn informed the court.
The emperor sent people to investigate and confirmed that Wu Jin did not fake the discovery of the large tripod. Following ritual protocol, they escorted the tripod to the Ganquan Palace. The emperor personally accompanied the tripod on its journey to be offered to the ancestors. Upon reaching Zhongshan, a remarkable change occurred: the weather turned mild, and a vast, umbrella-shaped yellow cloud appeared overhead. Then, a muntjac appeared; the emperor himself shot it, offering it as a sacrifice to the auspicious cloud.
Upon arriving in Chang'an, court officials urged that this precious tripod be enshrined and well preserved. However, the emperor said, "The Yellow River's recent flooding, coupled with years of poor harvests, led me to worship the Earth God and pray for her blessings for a bountiful harvest for the people. We haven't yet received news of a good harvest this year, so why has this tripod appeared?" The ministers replied, "Legend has it a great emperor once cast a divine tripod, symbolizing unity, the ultimate destiny of all creation. The Yellow Emperor also cast three precious tripods, representing heaven, earth, and humanity. Yu the Great, using metals from the Nine Provinces, cast nine great tripods used in sacrifices to Heaven and the spirits. These tripods only appear under wise rule, passed down through the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. During the decline of the Zhou dynasty, the state altar of the Song was destroyed, and these tripods disappeared. As the scriptures say, 'From the hall to the foundation, from sheep to ox; tripods and earthenware, calmly considered, their benefits assessed.' This tripod, now unearthed in the Ganquan Palace, gleams with clear dragon patterns, promising boundless good fortune. Furthermore, auspicious yellow and white clouds descended upon Zhongshan, resembling divine beasts; hunters with their bows and arrows and game converged at the altar—all portents of a bountiful harvest following the sacrifice. Only a Heaven-ordained emperor can grasp its meaning and its significance. This tripod should be enshrined in front of the ancestors' spirits and kept in the imperial palace, so that it can align with celestial phenomena." The emperor ordered, "So be it."
Those searching for Penglai, though claiming it's nearby, remain unsuccessful. Why? Perhaps they lack the perception to sense the island's qi. The emperor thus tasked observers with detecting the island's qi, a quest to locate Penglai's spiritual essence.
In autumn, the emperor went to Yongdi to offer sacrifices and took a trip to the outskirts. Some people said, "The Five Emperors were sent by Heaven to assist the Supreme Deity, so we should offer sacrifices to the Supreme Deity, and the emperor should personally preside over the sacrifice in the countryside." The emperor hesitated and couldn't make up his mind.
Gongsun Qing of Qi said, "This year we found the treasure tripod, and on the first day of the winter month of Xinsi (the eleventh month of the Chinese lunar calendar), it happens to be the winter solstice, just like in the time of the Yellow Emperor!" Gongsun Qing took out a sealed letter and said, "When the Yellow Emperor obtained the treasure tripod in Wanxu, he went to ask Guoyu District (a region known for its spiritual significance). Guoyu District replied, 'Emperor, when you obtain the treasure tripod and divine inspiration, it will be the first day of the Jiyu year (a year in the sexagenary cycle), also the winter solstice. This is the cycle of the heavens, ending and beginning anew.' So the Yellow Emperor, using the sun's position, calculated the calendar, and every twenty years he encountered the winter solstice that also fell on the new moon, a total of twenty calculations over three hundred and eighty years. The Yellow Emperor eventually ascended to immortality." Gongsun Qing wanted to present the contents of this letter to the emperor, but his subordinates thought the letter was unreliable and suspected it was fake, so they rejected him, saying, "The tripod thing's settled. What's the point?" Gongsun Qing then got a favored eunuch to pass it on to the emperor.
The emperor was very happy and summoned Gong Sunqing to ask him. Gong Sunqing replied, "I received this letter from Shen Gong, who has already kicked the bucket." The emperor asked, "Who is Shen Gong?" Gong Sunqing said, "Shen Gong is from the state of Qi and had dealings with An Qisheng. He received some teachings from the Yellow Emperor, which were not recorded in writing, only this letter about the sacred cauldron. The letter went on to say, 'During the Han Dynasty, it coincided with the era of the Yellow Emperor. The sage of the Han Dynasty is the grandson and great-grandson of Gaozu. When the sacred cauldron appears, it can communicate with the gods and perform the investiture ceremony. In history, seventy-two emperors performed the investiture ceremony, only the Yellow Emperor successfully ascended Mount Tai for the ceremony.'
Shen Gong said, 'The emperor of the Han Dynasty should also go to Mount Tai for the investiture ceremony, and by doing so, can become an immortal. During the time of the Yellow Emperor, there were countless vassals, and there were seven thousand vassal states protected by the gods. There are eight famous mountains in the world, three of which are in the peripheral regions and five in China. Among these, Mount Hua, Mount Shou, Mount Taishi, Mount Tai, and Mount Donglai are where the Yellow Emperor often played and communed with the gods. The Yellow Emperor fought battles and pursued immortality. He was worried that the people would not follow the right path, so he punished those who showed disrespect to the spirits. After more than a hundred years, he was able to communicate with the gods.
The Yellow Emperor worshipped the God in Yongdi for three months. Guiyu, known as Dahong, was buried in Yongdi; hence, Hongzhong is his tomb. Later, the Yellow Emperor held a spiritual assembly in Mingting. Mingting refers to Ganquan. Hanmen refers to Gu Kou. The Yellow Emperor collected copper at Mount Shou and cast the sacred cauldron at the foot of Mount Jing. A dragon descended, its beard brushing the ground, to greet the Yellow Emperor. He mounted the dragon, followed by over seventy officials and concubines. The dragon soared into the heavens. The remaining officials who did not get on grabbed onto the dragon's beard, which broke off, and the Yellow Emperor's bow fell down. The people looked up as the Yellow Emperor ascended into the sky, cheering with his bow and the dragon's beard. Thus, the place became known as Dinghu, and the bow, the Wuhao Bow.
'
The Emperor said, "Geez! If I could be like the Yellow Emperor, I'd think abandoning my wife and kids is easier than kicking a pebble!" He then appointed Gong Sunqing as an officiating priest and sent him to Mount Taishi in the east to offer sacrifices to the gods.
The Emperor traveled to the outskirts of Yongzhou, then to Longxi, climbed up Mount Kongtong in the west, and finally arrived at Ganquan. He ordered the officiating priests to prepare the altar for the sacrifice to the supreme god Taiyi. This Taiyi altar was much larger than the others, measuring about three gai (approximately 0.5 acres) in size. The altars for the Five Emperors surrounded the Taiyi altar, each placed according to their respective directions, with the altar for the Yellow Emperor in the southwest, and eight paths to the spirit world opened. The sacrificial gifts for Taiyi were similar to those used in the Yongzhou rituals, with the addition of some sweet wine, dates, dried meat, and a slaughtered cow as the sacrificial animal. On the altars for the Five Emperors, only offerings, sweet wine, and tribute items were presented. On the square land below the altars, there were shrines for other gods and attendants, as well as one for the North Star deity. After the sacrifices were completed, the remaining offerings were burned. A white cow was flanked by a deer and a pig, with water flowing beside them. A cow was used for the sacrifice to the sun, while a sheep and a pig were used for the moon. The chief official sacrificing to Taiyi wore a purple embroidered robe. For the Five Emperors, the officials wore robes matching the respective emperor: red for the sun, white for the moon.
On the winter solstice, the first day of the eleventh month of the Xin-si year, at dawn, the emperor began to worship the Taiyi god in the suburbs. Every morning he worshipped the sun, and every evening he worshipped the moon, bowing; but when worshipping the Taiyi god, he followed the customs of Yongzhou. The ceremony included the following praise: "In the beginning, the heavens bestowed power upon the emperor with sacred cauldrons and divine decrees, and this cycle repeats itself, with the emperor respectfully bowing to the heavens." The emperor wore a yellow tunic during the ceremony. The altar was filled with fire, and cooking implements were set up beside the altar. Officials reported a radiant glow emanating from the altar. The court officials said, "During the emperor's worship of the Taiyi god at Yunyang, outside the capital, officials offered jade offerings and sacrificial beasts for the ceremony. That evening, a beautiful glow appeared, and the next day, a column of yellow vapor soared into the heavens." The Grand Historian and the temple officials said, "This is a sign of divine blessing, a good omen from heaven. A Taiyi altar should be built here to show the will of heaven. The chief priest was ordered to conduct ceremonies between autumn and winter. Every three years, the emperor must personally worship the Taiyi god outside the capital."
In the autumn of that year, the emperor prayed to the Taiyi god before attacking Nanyue. He drew the sun, moon, Big Dipper, and a rising dragon on a stalk of mugwort to symbolize the three stars in the sky, creating a flag for the Taiyi god called the "Spirit Flag." When praying for war, the Grand Historian would indicate the direction of the country to be attacked. General Wuli refused to sail and instead went to Mount Tai to worship. The emperor secretly sent someone to investigate, but nothing was found. General Wuli lied that he had seen his teacher, and his scheme failed, resulting in a string of disasters. The emperor, enraged, ordered General Wuli's execution.
That winter, Gongsun Qing was performing a ritual for the gods in Henan and saw the footprints of immortals on the walls of Goushi City. He even spotted a bird, like a pheasant, flitting about the city walls. The emperor personally went to Goushi City to see those traces. He asked Gongsun Qing, "Were you hoping to achieve immortality like Wen Cheng and Wuli?" Gongsun Qing replied, "It's not the immortals who seek out rulers, but the rulers who seek the immortals. To achieve immortality and enlightenment is not something that can be accomplished quickly, and the spirits will not easily descend. Talk of immortality might sound far-fetched; it takes time to accumulate, and many years to achieve something." So each county began to repair roads, renovate palaces, famous mountains, and temples, awaiting the emperor's arrival.
That year, the Southern Yue Kingdom was destroyed. The emperor had a favorite courtier named Li Yannian, who was skilled in music, and the emperor liked him very much. The emperor asked his ministers to discuss, saying, "We have music at folk festivals and religious ceremonies, but not at the state sacrifices. Doesn't that seem odd?" The ministers replied, "Ancient sacrifices always included music, so why not these?" Someone added, "Legend says Emperor Tai had court musicians play a fifty-stringed se, but the music was so mournful he banned it, though the ban didn't last, and the instrument was eventually reduced to twenty-five strings." After the pacification of Southern Yue, when the emperor worshipped Taiyi and Hou Tu, he began to use music and dance, and even added singing girls. The twenty-five-stringed se and konghou became popular from then on.
The following winter, the emperor said, "In ancient times, the army was trained first before offering sacrifices." So the emperor led his army north to Shuofang with over ten thousand troops, and when he returned, he worshipped at the tomb of the Yellow Emperor on Qiaoshan and reviewed the army. The emperor asked, "I hear the Yellow Emperor didn't die. What's the deal with this tomb then?" Someone replied, "The Yellow Emperor ascended to heaven, so they just buried his robes and crown here." The emperor then went to Ganquan, preparing to worship on Mount Tai, and first worshipped Taiyi at the foot of Mount Tai.
After I obtained the treasured tripod, I discussed the matter of the Investiture Ceremony with the ministers and Confucian scholars. The ceremony of Investiture is very rare, and no one knows the specific process. So everyone searched through the classics such as "Shangshu," "Zhouguan," and "Wangzhi" to find records about Investiture, sacrifices, and bull shooting. There was a man from the Qi State named Ding Gong, who was already over ninety years old. He said, "The meaning of 'Investiture' is a reputation that is recognized by Heaven and Earth, and the spirits, and is immortal. Even Emperor Qin Shi Huang failed to hold the Investiture Ceremony successfully. Your Majesty, if you must hold it, then just go slow and steady. As long as there are no disasters, you will be able to successfully complete the Investiture." After hearing this, the Emperor ordered the Confucian scholars to practice the bull shooting ceremony and began to draft the etiquette of the Investiture. Several years passed, and it seemed that the Investiture Ceremony was about to be held.
The Emperor heard that Gongsun Qing and those practitioners of esoteric arts said that the emperors above the Yellow Emperor had all held Investiture Ceremonies, and various strange phenomena and miracles had appeared. So the Emperor wanted to emulate the Yellow Emperor, trying to establish contact with immortals and the immortals of Penglai, hoping to be as noble as the Nine Emperors, while also drawing on Confucian thought to enrich the Investiture Ceremony. However, those Confucian scholars were unable to provide a clear explanation of the specific matters of the Investiture, and they were confined to the ancient texts of poetry and classics, not daring to exercise their own judgment. The Emperor showed the scholars the sacrificial objects he'd prepared, and some of them said, "This isn't like the ancient versions!" Xu Yan said, "The Taichang Temple's scholars weren't as good at this as the people of Lu." Zhou Ba even drew a picture of the Investiture ceremony, which made the Emperor very angry. He scolded Xu Yan and Zhou Ba, and fired every last one of them.
In March, the emperor went on an eastern tour to Goushi and held a sacrificial ceremony at the Taishi Peak of Mount Song in Zhongyue. The officials with him heard what sounded like shouts of "Long live the Emperor!" from below. They asked the emperor, but he did not respond; they asked the officials below, but they also remained silent. So the emperor set aside land for 300 households near Taishi Peak as a sacrificial settlement, which he named Chonggao. Later, the emperor went to Mount Tai, where the trees were still bare, and had a stone tablet erected on the top of Mount Tai.
The emperor continued his eastern tour to the sea, holding a ceremony to worship the eight gods. The people of Qi sent in tens of thousands of supposedly magical remedies and rituals, but none worked. So the emperor increased the number of ships and sent thousands of people to search for the immortals of Penglai and the sacred mountain. Gongsun Qing, carrying a staff, led the search for legendary mountains. When he arrived at Donglai, he said he saw a person at night, dozens of feet tall, but when he approached, the person disappeared, leaving behind very large footprints, like some giant animal's. Some officials said they saw an old man walking a dog, saying, "I want to meet a great person," and then he suddenly vanished. The giant footprints weren't enough to convince him, but when the officials told him about the old man, he decided it must have been an immortal. The emperor stayed at sea for a long time, riding around with the alchemists, and sent many envoys to search for immortals, with their number reaching over a thousand.
In April, the emperor arrived at Fenggao County. The ministers and alchemists had all sorts of ideas about the Enthronement Ceremony, but the emperor thought they were all pie-in-the-sky and impossible to carry out.
The emperor arrived at Liangfu Mountain and made offerings to the local land god. On the day of Yimao, the emperor ordered the court officials and Confucian scholars to wear leather caps and silk headbands, and to conduct a ritual of shooting cattle. A square area, two zhang to a side, was sealed off on the east side of Mount Tai; it was nine feet high, and buried underneath was a jade tablet inscribed with secret prophecies. After the ritual, the emperor, accompanied only by court officials and his chariot retinue, proceeded to Mount Tai, where another sealing ceremony was held. All of these activities were kept secret.
The next day, the emperor descended from the shady path. On the day of Bingchen, a ceremony related to the Mandate of Heaven was held on the northeast side of Mount Tai, similar to the ritual of worshiping the god of the earth. The emperor personally participated, wearing yellow sacrificial robes, and played various musical instruments. A three-room structure, built in the Jianghuai style with a thatched roof, was used as the place of worship, and the sealed area was mixed with five-colored soil. Offerings of rare and exotic birds and beasts, as well as white wild chickens, were presented, but no animals such as rhinoceroses or elephants were used. All participants in the ceremony related to the Mandate of Heaven had to wait until the ritual on Mount Tai was completed before leaving. That night, a luminous glow was observed, and the following day, white clouds were seen rising from the mound.
After the Fengshan ceremony, the emperor returned to the Mingtang, and his court showered him with birthday wishes. The emperor then ordered the imperial censor to convey the edict: "I'm just a humble guy carrying this huge responsibility, with trepidation in my heart, fearing my own incompetence. My virtue is shallow, and I am not proficient in rites and music. When sacrificing to the supreme deity, auspicious signs appeared, like a miracle. I was both frightened and afraid, wanting to stop but not daring to, so I ascended Mount Tai, and later conducted the abdication ceremony at Liangfu Mountain. To reform myself and start fresh with the scholars, I'm letting those four counties off the hook for taxes this year, and I'm pardoning all criminals throughout the realm, just like last time. Anything older than two years, forget about it." The emperor issued another edict: "Back in the day, Emperors would tour the kingdom every five years, hold sacrifices at Mount Tai, and the vassals would come to pay homage and stay. I'm ordering all the vassal states to build their own places at the foot of Mount Tai." After the Fengshan ceremony at Mount Tai, everything was peachy keen. However, some alchemists said they found Penglai and other immortal mountains. The emperor was stoked, thinking he might meet some immortals, so he headed to the coast to find Penglai. As a result, his travel buddy suddenly croaked. But the emperor pressed on, walking north along the coast to Jieshi, checking out western Liaodong and the northern border all the way to Jiuyuan, only returning to Ganquan in May. They found a treasure cauldron, called it the Yuan Ding, and that's how the Yuanfeng era began.
In autumn, the Eastern Well star group appeared with a broom star. Over ten days later, the San Neng star group also appeared with a broom star. Wang Shuo, in charge of observing celestial phenomena, said, "I observed that when this star appeared, it was huge, like a gourd, and then disappeared in a moment." Officials all said, "Your Majesty's performing the Fengshan sacrifice for the Han, and Heaven is rewarding Your Majesty's grace!"
The following winter, the Emperor sacrificed to the Five Emperors outside the city, and then went to sacrifice to the Taiyi God. The praise during the sacrifice said, "The Virtue Star shone brightly, a sign of good things to come. The Longevity Star reappeared, shining brightly. The star of good fortune appeared, and the Emperor respectfully performed the sacrifice."
In spring, Gong Sunqing said he saw immortals on Donglai Mountain, and even claimed he had "seen the Emperor." When the Emperor heard this, he happily ran to Goushi City and appointed Gong Sunqing as a mid-level official. He then went to Donglai, stayed a few days, but saw nothing except some enormous footprints. Afterwards, the Emperor sent out thousands of sorcerers to search for immortals, monsters, and to collect fairy herbs and spiritual medicine. That year, there was a drought. The Emperor personally went on an inspection tour, secretly visiting Wanlisha to pray and sacrificing at Mount Tai. Upon returning to Huzi, he personally checked the situation of the river breach, stayed for two days, and only left after the sacrifice. He then sent two ministers and soldiers to manage the breach, diverting the river into two tributaries, restoring the river to its state in Dayu's time.
At that time, Nanyue had already perished. The brave people of Nanyue explained, "We Nanyue people believe in ghosts and gods. During sacrifices, we can see ghosts and gods, and they're often very effective. In the past, King Dong Ou was very respectful of ghosts and gods, and lived to be a hundred and sixty years old. People in later generations do not respect ghosts and gods, so the country is in decline." Therefore, the Emperor ordered the sorcerers of Nanyue to establish a place of sacrifice for Nanyue, without using altars, to sacrifice to the Heavenly God and various ghosts and gods, using chicken divination to predict good and bad luck. The Emperor was convinced, and so, Nanyue's sacrifices and chicken divination became established practices.
Gongsun Qing said, "It's possible to see immortals, Your Majesty; you've just been too busy. Now that you can make time, just like in *Goushi City*, by offering dried meat and dates, the immortals should be able to come. Moreover, immortals are said to favor lofty dwellings." So the emperor ordered the construction of *Fei Lian Gui Guan* in *Chang'an* and *Yi Yan Shou Guan* in *Ganquan*, and tasked Gongsun Qing with preparing the sacrificial offerings and awaiting their arrival. He also built the *Tongtian Terrace*, setting up sacrificial items below the terrace to welcome the immortals. For this reason, the *Ganquan Palace* added a front hall and expanded the palace. In the summer, reishi mushrooms grew in the hall. As part of the preparations for summoning the immortals, the emperor built the *Tongtian Terrace*, and at that time auspicious clouds appeared. He issued a decree saying, "Nine stalks of reishi mushrooms have grown in the *Ganquan Palace*, therefore, let there be a general pardon, and all past transgressions are hereby forgiven."
In the second year, an army was dispatched against Korea. In the summer, a drought occurred. Gongsun Qing said, "In the time of the Yellow Emperor, a drought would occur after the Fengshan ceremony, and it is the same for three years of Qianfeng." The emperor then issued a decree saying, "Is this drought a consequence of the Qianfeng ceremonies? Let the entire empire venerate the Lingxing star."
In the third year, the emperor held the suburban sacrifice in *Yongdi*, opened the road back to the palace, and inspected various places. In the spring, he arrived at *Mingze* and returned from *Xihe*.
In the fourth year of winter, the emperor inspected *Nanjun*, arrived in *Jiangling*, and continued eastward. He climbed *Tianzhu Mountain* in *Lique*, named it *Nanyue*, sailed down the river from *Xunyang* to *Zongyang*, passed through *Pengli Marsh*, and sacrificed to famous mountains and rivers. Then he went north to *Langye*, all the way to the seaside. In mid-April, he arrived at *Fenggao* and performed the Fengshan ceremony, a ritual of great importance to the empire.
Initially, when the emperor conducted the sacrifice at Mount Tai, there was a place in the northeast corner of Mount Tai where the Mingtang used to be located. The land was too steep and cramped. The emperor wanted to build a Mingtang next to Fenggao, but did not know its design. A man from Jinan named Gong Yudai brought the plan of the Mingtang from the time of the Yellow Emperor. The design showed a four-sided, open-air palace, thatched and water-permeable, surrounded by a walled walkway with pavilions above. The entrance was from the southwest, called Kunlun, where the emperor would enter to offer sacrifices to the gods. So the emperor ordered the construction of the Mingtang next to Fenggao according to the plan brought by Gong Yudai. When the Fengshan ceremony took place in the fifth year, altars were set up on the Mingtang to worship Taiyi and the Five Emperors, with the altar of the founding emperor facing it. Sacrifices were made to Hou Tu in the lower room using twenty livestock. The emperor entered through the Kunlun path and began the sacrificial ceremony at the Mingtang according to the usual sacrificial rites. After the ceremony ended, they burned the offerings beneath the Mingtang. The emperor then ascended Mount Tai and built a hidden shrine at the summit. Sacrifices were made to the Five Emperors at the foot of Mount Tai, with each emperor having an altar placed according to their proper direction. The Yellow Emperor and the Red Emperor were together, with officials serving the sacrifices. The torches blazed on Mount Tai, visible even from the valley below.
Two years later, on the day of the winter solstice in the eleventh month (the eleventh month, Jiazi year, which was also New Year's Day), the emperor personally went to Mount Tai to worship the gods, holding sacrificial activities at the Mingtang, and each time the Fengshan ceremony was held grandly. During the sacrifices, it was praised: "Heaven bestows upon the emperor the divine strategy of Taiyuan, which repeats itself. The emperor paid his respects to Taiyi." The emperor also went to the seaside to investigate the coast and the alchemists searching for immortality, but with no results. However, he continued to send people in the hopes of finding immortals.
In the eleventh month of the Yiyu year (the eleventh month of the Yiyu year), the Bailiang Palace caught fire. On the first day of the twelfth month of the Jiawu year (the first day of the twelfth month of the Jiawu year), the emperor personally went to Gaoli to worship Hou Tu. When he reached the Bohai Sea, he planned to look for Penglai and the other mythical islands, hoping to find the immortals.
After the emperor returned to the palace, due to the fire at Bailiang Palace, he accepted the officials' congratulations at Ganquan Palace. Gongsun Qing said, "The Yellow Emperor sacrificed at the Qingling Terrace, burned for twelve days, and then established the Mingting. Mingting is Ganquan Palace." Many fortune tellers said that ancient emperors had once built their capital in Ganquan. Later, the emperor summoned the vassals to Ganquan Palace several times, and housing for the vassals was built there. Yongzhi said, "When there is a fire in the land, the rebuilt houses must be larger in order to suppress disaster." So the Jianzhang Palace was built, designed to be large enough to accommodate thousands of doors and tens of thousands of households. The height of the front hall exceeded that of the Wuyang Palace, with the Phoenix Tower to the east, over twenty zhang high; the Tangzhong to the west, dozens of li in circumference, with a tiger enclosure; a large pool was built to the north, with terraces of earth over twenty zhang high, called the Taiye Pool, which imitated the divine mountains of Penglai, Fangzhang, Yingzhou, and Huliang in the sea, as well as turtles and fish. To the south were the Jade Hall, the Bi Gate, and large bird statues. The Shenming Platform and Jingan Tower were also built, both over fifty zhang high, linked by causeways.
In the summer, the Han calendar was reformed, setting the first month as the beginning of the year, changing the color of the emperor's clothing to yellow, and changing the officials' seals to five-character seals. This year was known as the Taichu first year. In this year, there was also a western expedition against Dawan. This year suffered from severe locust plague. Lady Ding, Yu Chu of Luoyang, and others used divination to curse the Xiongnu and Dawan.
In the second year, a report from the relevant department stated that Yongzhou's sacrifices lacked livestock, offerings, and sufficient incense. Therefore, the emperor ordered the sacrificial officials to prepare livestock such as cattle and sheep and five-colored foods for the sacrifices, substituting wooden horses for live horses. Only live horses were used for sacrifices to the Five Emperors and for the imperial sacrifices, while wooden horses were used for sacrifices at famous mountains and rivers. Only when the emperor himself was present were live horses used. The other sacrificial rituals remained the same as before.
In the second year, the emperor went on an eastern tour to the seaside, wanting to look into immortal stuff, but with no results. Some diviners said, "During the time of the Yellow Emperor, five cities and twelve towers were built to welcome the gods, called 'Welcoming the Gods'." The emperor agreed to build according to what the diviners said, and also called it 'New Year's Festivities'. The emperor personally offered sacrifices to Heaven, wearing yellow clothes.
Gong Yudai said, "Although the Yellow Emperor had performed the Fengshan ceremony at Mount Tai, Fenghou, Feng Ju, and Qi Bo had suggested that the Yellow Emperor perform the Fengshan ceremony at East Mount Tai, including all earthly mountains in the ceremony, in order to achieve immortality." Having ordered the sacrificial preparations, he went to East Mount Tai, but it was too small for a proper Fengshan ceremony, so he had the officials perform the sacrifices, but skipped the Fengshan ritual. Later, the emperor instructed Yudai to be in charge of the sacrifices and await divine signs. In the summer, the emperor returned to Mount Tai and performed five years of sacrifices according to previous rituals, and added a sacrifice at Shilu. Shilu is located south of Mount Tai, and lots of diviners said it was where the immortals hung out, so the emperor personally performed sacrifices there.
Five years later, the emperor returned to Mount Tai to perform the Fengshan ceremony again, and sacrificed at Changshan on his way back.
Now the emperor sacrifices to Taiyi and Houtu. Every three years, he personally goes to the countryside to perform the sacrifice, instituting the Han Dynasty's Fengshan system, with a grand Fengshan ceremony held every five years. The sacrifices to Taiyi, Sanyi, Mingyang, Mahang, and Chixing are relatively informal and perfunctory, with sacrificial officials performing the rites according to the season. There are a total of six sacrificial locations, all overseen by the Taizhu. As for other deities, such as the Eight Gods, Mingnian, Fanshan, and other sacrificial locations, they'd offer sacrifices when passing through, but not bother once they'd moved on. The sacrifices established by the Fangshi are each responsible for their own, ending once the person dies, with no involvement from the sacrificial officials. Other sacrifices remain as before. The emperor will perform the Fengshan ceremony again twelve years later, visiting the Five Sacred Mountains and Four Rivers. Those alchemists searching for immortals and Penglai Island in the ocean all came up empty. Gongsun Qing's search for immortals, even claiming that grown men's footprints were proof of immortals, also proves ineffective. The emperor was getting sick and tired of the alchemists' outlandish claims, but still kept them, hoping to encounter real immortals. Since then, there have been more and more claims of being able to sacrifice to immortals, but everyone can see the results. According to Sima Qian, I followed the emperor in visiting sacred sites and performing sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, and participated in the Fengshan ceremony. I served the emperor in the Shou Palace for sacrifices, carefully listening to the alchemists and priests, then stepping back to organize the sacrificial practices of people worshipping ghosts and gods since ancient times, laying bare both the rituals and the beliefs behind them. Hopefully, anyone reading this will get a better understanding. As for the specific details of the sacrifices, such as the utensils, offerings, and rituals used in sacrifices, these are all recorded by specialized officials.
