The Xiongnu, whose ancestors were descendants of the Xia Dynasty, were a people known as the Chunwei. Before the Tang and Yu periods, tribes such as the Shanrong, Xianyun, and Hunzhou lived in the northern wilderness, following their livestock in migration. Their herds mainly consisted of horses, cattle, and sheep, but they also kept more unusual animals such as various types of pack animals. They were nomadic, following the water and pasturelands, without fixed settlements or agriculture, though they did claim territories. They had no written language, relying on word of mouth to conduct business. Children could ride sheep and shoot birds and mice with bows and arrows; as they grew older, they could hunt foxes and rabbits for food. Every man was a skilled archer and cavalryman. They were nomadic pastoralists, supplementing their diet with hunting; when threatened, they readily turned to raiding—it was simply their way of life. They'd attack if there was something to gain, and retreat if not—running away wasn't shameful to them. Profit was all that mattered; they had no qualms about ignoring any rules of decency. From king to commoner, their diet was meat, their clothes were animal hides, and felt was their bedding. The strong and healthy got the best cuts of meat; the elderly got what was left. They valued strength above all else, showing little regard for the old or infirm. When a father died, his son would marry his stepmother; when a brother died, the older brother would marry the younger brother's wife, reflecting their cultural norms. They had no concept of family names, nor did they observe many of the taboos we take for granted.
The Xiongnu lived like this: they were nomadic, moving from place to place and lived by their bows and horses. Brave and skilled in battle, they lacked the civilized ways of the Central Plains. This was closely related to their survival environment and way of life; they had to remain vigilant at all times, ready for combat or escape. Their customs, such as marrying a father's widow or a brother's widow, might seem shocking to us today, but they reflect the unique social structure and values of their era. They had no written language, relying instead on oral tradition, which limited their development but also shaped their unique culture. They were a fierce and powerful people, their history legendary. Their philosophy, encapsulated in the saying "Advance when advantageous, retreat when not, never be ashamed to flee," reveals the essence of their survival strategy.
In summary, this passage describes the ancient way of life, social customs, and values of the Xiongnu people, showcasing the way of life and cultural characteristics of a nomadic tribe. Their lifestyle differed greatly from the Central Plains agricultural civilization, leading to long-term conflicts and confrontations between the two sides. Through these detailed descriptions, we can gain a deeper understanding of this nation that once played an important role in history. Their stories also provide valuable material for the study of ancient history.
When the Xia Dynasty fell apart, Gong Liu, an ancestor of the Zhou people, lost his job and hightailed it to the Western Rong region, settling down in Bin. After more than three hundred years, the Rong and Di tribes attacked King Nanfu of Zhou, who fled to the foot of Qishan. All the people of Bin followed him there, establishing the Zhou Dynasty. Over a hundred years later, Duke Chang of Zhou attacked the Quan Yi tribe. A decade later, King Wu defeated King Zhou of Shang, established the capital in Luoyi, resided in Fenghao, drove the Rong and Di tribes north of the Jing River and Luo River, made them pay tribute regularly, and called them the "borderlands."
More than two hundred years later, the Zhou Dynasty weakened. King Mu went to take on the Quanrong and brought back four white wolves and four white deer. Since then, the outlying territories no longer paid tribute. Therefore, the Zhou Dynasty established strict laws.
Over two hundred years later, King You of Zhou clashed with the Marquis of Shen due to his favoritism towards Bao Si. The angry Marquis of Shen allied with the Quanrong and attacked King You of Zhou, killing him at the foot of Li Mountain and occupying the Jiao and Hu regions of the Zhou Dynasty. They settled in the region between the Jing and Wei Rivers, oppressing the heartland. Duke Xiang of Qin saved the Zhou Dynasty, and King Ping of Zhou left Fenghao and moved east to Luo Yi. At this time, Duke Xiang of Qin defeated the Rong and Di tribes and was granted vassal status.
Sixty-five years later, the Mountain Rong crossed Yan to attack Qi. Duke Li of Qi fought against them outside the borders of Qi. Forty-four years later, the Mountain Rong attacked Yan. Yan sought help from Qi, and Duke Huan of Qi went north to confront the Mountain Rong, who fled.
Twenty years later, the Di people reached Luo Yi and attacked King Xiang of Zhou. King Xiang fled to Fan Yi of Zheng. Initially, he wanted to attack Zheng, so he married a woman from the Di tribe as his queen and launched an assault on Zheng with the Di army. Later, he deposed the queen, who held a grudge. Queen Hui, King Xiang's stepmother, had a son named Zidai, who aspired to be king. Thus, Queen Hui, the queen, and Zidai colluded to open the city gates for the Di tribe to enter, allowing them to attack Luo Yi, defeat King Xiang of Zhou, and crown Zidai as emperor.
The Di people then settled in Luhun, east of the state of Wei, plundering the heartland and inflicting brutal oppression. The various states of the Central Plains hated them, so poets wrote verses praising the achievements of defeating the Di, such as "The Di's Defiance," "Thinly attacking the Xianyun, to the great plains," and "The carriages come and go, the city of the northern frontier." These events marked a period of significant instability and decline for the Zhou dynasty, paving the way for further upheaval.
King Xiang of Zhou stayed outside for four years and sent envoys to seek help from Jin. Duke Wen of Jin had just ascended the throne and wanted to achieve hegemony, so he attacked the Rong and Di tribes, killed Zidai, welcomed King Xiang of Zhou back to the country, and stayed in Luoyi.
At that time, the states of Qin and Jin were the two most powerful states. Duke Wen of Jin defeated the Rong and Di tribes, occupying the land west of the Yellow River and around Luoyang, which he referred to as the Chidi (Red Di) and Baidi (White Di) tribes. Duke Mu of Qin received assistance from Yu, and the Qin controlled numerous tribes, including the Mianzhu, Gunrong, and Zhai to the west of the Long Mountains. Further north, beyond Qishan, Liangshan, the Jinghe, and Qi rivers, the Yiqu, Dali, Wushi, and Quyan tribes also fell under Qin rule. In the north of Jin, there were the Linhu and Loufan tribes; in the north of Yan, there were the Donghu and Shanrong tribes. These hundreds of tribes, each with its own leader, were fiercely independent, and though they sometimes gathered, no single power could unite them.
In short, Qin and Jin were the strongest states at the time. Duke Wen of Jin defeated the Rong and Di tribes, expanding his territory to the west of the Yellow River, while Duke Mu of Qin also subdued many Rong and Di tribes to the west with the help of Yu. There were also many Rong and Di tribes to the north of Jin and Yan; although they were numerous, they ruled independently without a unified leadership.
Over a hundred years later, Duke Dao of Jin sent Wei Jiang to befriend the Rong and Di, and the Rong and Di even sent tribute to Jin. Over another hundred years later, Zhao Xiangzi defeated Bingzhou and Daizhou, and his conquests reached the lands of the Hu and Mao. Later, Zhao, Han, and Wei destroyed Zhibo and divided the land of Jin, with Zhao obtaining the territory north of Daijun and Juzhu, while Wei controlled the area west of the Yellow River and Shangjun, bringing them into direct contact with the Rong and Di.
Afterward, the Yiqu built defensive cities, but the Qin State slowly gobbled up their land. During the reign of King Hui of Qin, they took out twenty-five Yiqu cities in one go. King Hui of Qin also defeated the Wei State, which ceded the Xiriver and Shangjun to Qin. During the reign of King Zhao of Qin, the Yiqu king had two sons with Empress Dowager Xuan. Empress Dowager Xuan had the Yiqu king bumped off in Ganquan, then sent troops to eliminate the remaining Yiqu people. This gave Qin Longxi, Beidi, and Shangjun, plus they built a Great Wall to defend against the Xiongnu.
At the same time, King Wuling of Zhao reformed customs, picked up Hu clothing and archery skills, and defeated the Linhu and Loufan. Zhao also built the Great Wall, extending from Daijun to Yinshan, then to Gaoque, and established Yunzhongjun, Yanmenjun, and Daijun. Later, Yan had a powerful general named Qin Kai, who was held hostage by the Hu but won them over. When Qin Kai returned to his country, he ambushed the Donghu and chased them off for thousands of miles. Later, Jing Ke, who assassinated the King of Qin, was the grandson of Qin Kai. Yan also built the Great Wall, from Zhaoyang to Xiangping, establishing Shanggujun, Yuyangjun, Right Beipingjun, Liaoxijun, and Liaodongjun to defend against the Hu people.
At that time, only six of the Warring States were left, and these three countries all bordered the Xiongnu. Later, under Zhao general Li Mu, the Xiongnu dared not invade Zhao's borders. Later, Qin conquered the six states, and Emperor Qin Shi Huang sent Meng Tian to lead a hundred thousand troops north to attack the Xiongnu, taking back the Henan region. Qin used the Yellow River as a boundary, built forty-four cities, stationed troops, and built a straight road from Jiuyuan to Yunyang. Using the natural landscape, they built a massive road network from Lintao to Liaodong, thousands of miles long. They also crossed the Yellow River and occupied the area north of Yangshan.
At that time, the Donghu and Yuezhi were both powerful. The Xiongnu Chanyu was called Touman, and when Touman couldn't beat the Qin, he led his people to migrate north. Over a decade later, Meng Tian died, the nobles started rebelling against the Qin, the country fell into chaos, and the border troops deserted. This gave the Xiongnu a break, and they slowly crossed the Yellow River and reached the Central Plains near the old Great Wall.
The Xiongnu Chanyu had a son and heir named Modun. Later, the Chanyu favored a concubine who bore him a son. The Chanyu wanted to depose Modun and make his son the heir, so he sent Modun to the Yuezhi as a hostage.
When Modun was in the Yuezhi as a hostage, his father Touman suddenly attacked the Yuezhi. The Yuezhi people wanted to kill Modun, but Modun stole a good horse, rode it, and escaped back to the Xiongnu. Touman thought his son was gutsy, so he equipped him with ten thousand cavalry.
Modun devised a special whistling arrow to train his cavalry in archery. He ordered, "Anyone who misses, dies!" He then led his troops on a hunt, and if the whistling arrow hit the prey, anyone who didn't shoot immediately lost their head.
Later, Modun shot his own prized steed with the whistling arrow. Some soldiers hesitated to shoot, and Modun immediately killed those who were hesitant. Eventually, Modun shot his favorite wife with the whistling arrow. Some soldiers were afraid and didn't shoot, so Modun killed them too.
After a while, Modun went hunting and shot his father Chanyu Touman's good horse with the whistling arrow. This time, all the soldiers followed suit and shot. Modun realized his men were completely under his thumb.
Later, Modu followed his father, Touman Chanyu, on a hunting expedition. He used a special arrow with a whistle attached to shoot at his father, and his men followed suit, firing similar arrows, killing Chanyu Touman. Modu then killed his stepmother, younger brother, and all those who did not obey him. Finally, Modu himself became Chanyu.
After Modu became Chanyu, the Donghu were very powerful. Upon hearing that Modu had killed his father and taken power, they sent envoys to see Modu, hoping to obtain a legendary steed left behind by Chanyu Touman. Modu asked his ministers for their opinions, and they all said, "The legendary steed is a priceless possession of the Xiongnu and cannot be given to them!" However, Modu said, "We can't afford to offend our neighbors over a horse." So he gave the legendary steed to the Donghu.
Not long after, the Donghu felt that Modu feared them, and they sent envoys again, this time wanting to get Chanyu's queen. His advisors again cautioned against this, and they angrily said, "The Donghu have gotten awfully bold, demanding our queen! We should fight them!" But Modu said, "Can't let a woman cause a war with our neighbors." So, he gave his favorite queen to the Donghu.
The Donghu king became even more arrogant and began to invade the Xiongnu from the west. Between the Xiongnu and the Donghu, there was a vast uninhabited wilderness stretching for thousands of miles. Both sides only occupied the border areas, forming a standoff. The Donghu sent envoys to Modu again, saying, "That empty land between us—too far for the Xiongnu to even bother with—we want it." Modu asked his ministers for their opinions, and some said, "Some said we could give it to them, others said no." Modu was furious this time; he roared, "Land's the backbone of our nation! We ain't giving it away!" Those ministers who advocated for giving away the land were all killed by him. Modu immediately mounted his horse, ordered a massacre of the stragglers, and then led his troops east to attack the Donghu.
In the beginning, the Donghu underestimated Modu and did not take proper precautions. When Modu's army arrived, a decisive battle ensued, resulting in a thorough defeat for the Donghu king, who was stripped of his people and livestock. After defeating the Donghu, Modu went on to defeat the Yuezhi to the west and conquer Loufan and the Baiyang King to the south. He also won back the territory lost to General Meng Tian of the Qin Dynasty, extending his reach to the former southern border of the Han Dynasty, reaching as far as Chaona and Fushi, while harassing the Yan and Dai states. At that time, the Han Dynasty army and Xiang Yu were in conflict. The Central Plains region was exhausted from war, allowing Modu to strengthen his forces and amass more than 300,000 elite soldiers.
From the time of Chanyu Chunwei to Chanyu Touman, spanning over a thousand years, the Xiongnu waxed and waned, frequently fracturing and obscuring their lineage. However, during the reign of Chanyu Modu, the Xiongnu reached their peak, conquering all nomadic tribes in the north and becoming hostile towards the Han Dynasty. It was during this time that the genealogy and official titles of the Xiongnu were fully recorded.
The Xiongnu Chanyu commanded a vast bureaucracy, including paired left and right officials such as the Wise Kings, Gu Li Kings, Grand Generals, Grand Colonels, Grand Stewards, and Bone Stewards. Talented individuals were known as "Tuqi," and the crown prince typically held the title of Left Tuqi King. From the Wise Kings down to the Grand Stewards, some had a few thousand cavalry under them, while others commanded up to ten thousand cavalry. In total, there were twenty-four such officials, known as the "Ten Thousand Cavalry." These ministers held hereditary positions, and the Huyan, Lan, and Xubu clans represented the pinnacle of Xiongnu nobility.
The kings and generals on the left side live in the east, all the way to the east of Shanggu, bordering the Xiongnu and Joseon; the kings and generals on the right side live in the west, all the way to the west of Shangjun, bordering the Yuezhi, Di, and Qiang; while the Chanyu's court is near Daijun and Yunchuan. They each have their own territories and migrate following the water and grass. Among them, the Left Worthy King, Right Worthy King, Left Valley King, and Right Valley King have the greatest power, with the Left and Right Bone Marquis assisting them in governing. These twenty-four officials each have their own commanders, captains, and lieutenants, as well as various other minor officials.
Every year in the first month, these officials must gather at the Chanyu's court for a little get-together and sacrifice; in May, a big celebration is held in Longcheng to worship ancestors, heaven, earth, and spirits; in autumn, once the horses have fattened up, they must gather at Dailin to count people and animals. Their laws are very strict, with the death penalty for drawing a sword and confiscation of all family property for theft; minor offenses are punished with flogging, while major offenses result in death. Cases are wrapped up fast, usually within ten days, and there were only a handful of prisoners in the whole land. The Chanyu emerges from his tent every morning to pay respects to the rising sun and worships the moon every night. When he sits, he always faces north, with the senior seat on his left, and the sun rises around where the sun rose. After the Xiongnu people die, they are buried in coffins with gold, silver, clothing, and fur, but they didn't bother with fancy tombs or mourning clothes; for his favorite concubines, the number of people who are buried with them can be in the hundreds or thousands.
Before the Xiongnu went to war, they observed the stars. They attacked under the full moon and retreated under the waning. A pot of wine was the reward for killing an enemy, and the spoils of war belonged to the one who captured them, while captives became their slaves. Therefore, Xiongnu soldiers fought for their own interests and were skilled in luring the enemy. They fell upon the enemy like a flock of birds, but once they were defeated, they scattered and fled. Looters on the battlefield also claimed the dead men's belongings.
Later, the Xiongnu conquered the Hunyu, Qusha, Dingling, Gekun, Xinli, and various other tribes. So the Xiongnu nobles all bowed down to Modun, thinking him a brilliant leader.
Shortly after the founding of the Han Dynasty, Han Xin was moved to the Dai region, and the capital was established in Mǎyì. As a result, the Xiongnu besieged Mǎyì, and Han Xin surrendered to them. With Han Xin as their inside man, the Xiongnu led their troops southward, crossed the Jùzhù Mountains, attacked Tàiyuán, and advanced all the way to the outskirts of Jìnyáng. Emperor Gāozǔ personally led the Han army to fight the Xiongnu. During the harsh winter with heavy snowfall, as many as seven or eight out of ten soldiers lost their fingers to frostbite, resulting in a tragic situation! At this time, Chanyu Modu pretended to be defeated and fled, deliberately luring the Han army. The Han army pursued Modu vigorously, but Modu had hidden his elite soldiers and deliberately showed a weak side. The entire Han army, including 320,000 infantry, pursued the Xiongnu in a massive show of force. Liu Bang first arrived in Píngchéng, but before the infantry had fully arrived, Modu led forty thousand elite cavalry to surround Liu Bang at Báidēng for a full seven days, with the Han army cut off from supplies both inside and out. The Xiongnu cavalry was a breathtaking sight: white horses to the west, azure steeds to the east, black steeds to the north, and tawny horses to the south! Having no other choice, Liu Bang secretly sent many gifts to Modu's wife, Yàshì. Yàshì advised Modu, "We don't need to be enemies. Even if you occupy Han territory, the Chanyu may not be able to hold it for long. Furthermore, Heaven favors the Han king, so you should see the situation clearly!" Modu had originally agreed with the subordinates of Han Xin, Wáng Huáng and Zhào Lì, to cooperate from both inside and outside, but they did not show up. Modu suspected they were colluding with the Han Dynasty, and with Yàshì's persuasion, he eased the siege. At this point, Liu Bang ordered the soldiers to draw their bows taut, with the arrowheads facing outward, and charged straight out from the gap in the encirclement, finally reuniting with the main force. Realizing he was outmatched, Modu withdrew his troops. The Han army also retreated and sent Liu Jing to negotiate a peace with the Xiongnu.
Later, Han Xin became a general of the Xiongnu. He, along with Zhao Li, Wang Huang, and others, repeatedly violated agreements, frequently raided Dai and Yunzhong counties. Not long after, Chen Xi rebelled again and conspired with Han Xin to attack Dai. The Han Dynasty sent Fan Kuai to crush the rebellion and recovered Dai, Yanmen, Yunzhong, and other counties, but did not pursue further beyond the borders. At that time, the Xiongnu saw the strength of the Han army and sent people to surrender. Therefore, Modun often came to Dai to harass and plunder. The Han Dynasty was very troubled by this, so Liu Bang sent Liu Jing to arrange a marriage alliance with a princess for the Chanyu and annually sent a large amount of silk, cloth, wine, rice, and various foods to the Xiongnu, with specified quantities. Both sides agreed to be brotherly states, maintaining peace through marriage. Modun then toned it down a little. Later, King Lu Wan rebelled, leading thousands of people to join the Xiongnu and frequently harass the area east of Shanggu, causing great distress to the Han Dynasty.
When Emperor Gaozu died and Emperor Xiaohui and Empress Dowager Lu were in power, the Han Dynasty had just been established, so the Xiongnu were very arrogant. The Chanyu Modun wrote a letter to Empress Dowager Lu filled with bluster. Empress Dowager Lu wanted to send troops to attack the Xiongnu, but the ministers said, "Even Emperor Gaozu was so powerful; he was once besieged by the Xiongnu in Pingcheng!" Hearing this, Empress Dowager Lu gave up the idea and continued the peace with the Xiongnu.
When Emperor Xiaowen ascended the throne, he continued to implement a policy of peace. In May of the third year, the Xiongnu Right King entered Henan, invaded Shang county, killed people, and looted property. Emperor Xiaowen ordered Prime Minister Guan Ying to lead 85,000 troops to attack the Right King. The Right King fled back beyond the border, and Emperor Xiaowen went to Taiyuan. At this time, the King of Jibei rebelled, so Emperor Xiaowen hurried back to the capital and recalled the troops sent to attack the Xiongnu.
In the second year, the Chanyu of the Xiongnu wrote a letter to the Han Dynasty, saying: "The great Chanyu of the Xiongnu chosen by the heavens respectfully greets Your Majesty the Emperor. Previously, Your Majesty said you wanted to form a marriage alliance, and we agreed, intending for the two nations to be friendly. However, the border officials of the Han Dynasty harassed our Right Worthy King. Before he could request Your Majesty's instructions, he took the advice of Hou Nan Shi and others and clashed with the Han officials, breaking the agreement between the two countries and undermining our brotherly bond. Your Majesty then sent envoys to blame us, and we sent envoys in response, but the Han envoys did not come. Because of this, the Han Dynasty refused to reconcile with us, and neighboring countries were unwilling to be close to us. To punish the Right Worthy King, we sent him to attack the Yuezhi. We were victorious, thanks to heaven's blessing and the bravery of our soldiers and the strength of our horses. We defeated the Yuezhi, killing or capturing them all. Loulan, Wusun, Hujie, and twenty-six surrounding countries have all submitted to the Xiongnu. Every archer is now one of us. The northern region has been pacified, and we hope to cease hostilities. We want to allow our soldiers to rest, care for our horses, forget past grievances, and restore previous agreements. We wish for the border people to live in peace and prosperity, for the young to grow up, and for the elderly to enjoy their later years, living in peace and happiness for generations to come. However, we do not yet know Your Majesty's intentions, so we have sent Lang Zhong Xi Yuqian with this letter to request your response, and have presented a camel, two war horses, and four horse-drawn carriages. If Your Majesty does not want the Xiongnu near the border, then please order the people to live far away from the border. When the envoy arrives, please send him back." This letter was delivered to Xinwang (a place name) in mid-June. After receiving the letter, the Han Dynasty began to discuss whether it was more appropriate to fight or reconcile. The ministers all said: "With the Chanyu victorious over the Yuezhi, war is out of the question. Besides, the land of the Xiongnu is barren, unfit for habitation. Reconciliation is the most appropriate." The Han Dynasty agreed to the reconciliation.
In 176 BC, the Han Dynasty wrote to the Xiongnu saying: "The Emperor sends greetings to the great Chanyu of the Xiongnu. How have you been? We have sent Langzhong Xiyuqian to reply to you. The letter says: 'The Right Worthy King did not listen to advice and believed the schemes of Hou Nan Shi and his associates, violating the alliance between our two countries and damaging our brotherly bond. As a result, the Han Dynasty is displeased, and neighboring countries have grown distant. Now, because the Right Worthy King made a mistake, we have punished him by sending him to the west to fight the Yuezhi and fully conquer them. Let us hope for an end to hostilities, so we can properly train our troops, forget the past, recommit to our previous alliance, and allow the people along the border to live and work in peace. May the young grow up strong, the elderly enjoy their later years, and generations live in peace and happiness.' I really appreciate this letter—smart move! That’s real ancient wisdom! The Han Dynasty and the Xiongnu agreed to be brotherly nations, so the gifts sent to the Chanyu were quite generous. It has always been the Xiongnu who have violated the alliance and damaged the brotherly friendship. However, the matter of the Right Worthy King has already been forgiven, so the Chanyu should not dwell on it. If the Chanyu agrees with the meaning of this letter, then clearly instruct all officials not to violate the alliance any longer and to keep their promises, just like in the Chanyu's letter. The messenger said that the Chanyu personally led the army in battle and worked very hard. We sent a variety of gifts, including one embroidered padded robe, one embroidered padded long shirt, one brocade padded robe, an additional item, a gold-decorated belt, a gold ornament, ten pieces of embroidered fabric, thirty pieces of brocade, and forty pieces each of red fine cloth and green silk. Please ensure the Chanyu receives these gifts through Zhong Daifu Yi and Yezhe Ling." After some time, Modu Chanyu died, and his son Jizhou succeeded to the throne, known as the Old Chanyu (meaning 'senior Chanyu').
Chanyu Ji Zhou, who had recently ascended the throne, was sent a princess from the royal family to be his wife by Emperor Xiao Wen of Han, accompanied by Zhongxing of the Yan. Zhongxing did not want to go, but the Han court compelled him. He stated, "If I go, it will bring trouble to the Han dynasty." When Zhongxing arrived among the Xiongnu, he surrendered to the Chanyu, who greatly favored him.
Initially, the Xiongnu liked the silk fabrics, cotton, and food from the Han dynasty. Zhongxing told the Chanyu, "Even with their large population, the Xiongnu couldn't match a single Han county. However, the reason the Xiongnu are powerful is that they are self-sufficient in their clothing and food, not relying on the Han dynasty. Now that the Chanyu has changed his customs and likes things from the Han dynasty, these items at most only make up one-tenth of the total Xiongnu resources. He proposed letting the Xiongnu wear out the Han silk running through the rough terrain, proving its inferiority to Xiongnu furs; and discarding Han food to highlight the superiority of Xiongnu cheese." So Zhongxing instructed the people around the Chanyu to use this to gauge the Xiongnu's strength.
The Han letter, written on a 13-inch bamboo slip, simply read, "The Emperor respectfully inquires about the well-being of the great Chanyu of the Xiongnu," and the gifts and words conveyed the same meaning. Zhongxing had the Chanyu reply to the Han dynasty on a bamboo slip one foot and two inches long, with a large and grand seal and seal mud, and the letter was written in a proud and arrogant manner, stating, "The heaven-ordained and earth-born Great Chanyu of the Xiongnu respectfully inquires about the well-being of the Han Emperor," with the gifts and words conveying the same message.
A Han envoy once said, "The Xiongnu look down on the elderly." Zhongxing countered, "But in the Han army, aren't soldiers heading to battle receiving the best food and clothing from their parents?" The Han envoy replied, "Yes." Zhongxing continued, "The Xiongnu mainly rely on fighting for a living. Elderly and weak people cannot fight, so they give the best food to the strong to protect themselves, ensuring both fathers and sons can live long. So how can anyone say the Xiongnu disrespect their elders?"
The Han envoy said again, "The Xiongnu sleep in the same tent with their fathers and sons. When a father dies, the son marries his stepmother; when a brother dies, they all marry the deceased's wife. They have no hats or fancy ceremonies." Zhongxing explained, "The Xiongnu live off their livestock – eating their meat, drinking their milk, and wearing their hides. The animals graze freely, and the Xiongnu move with them. Therefore, when needed, everyone can ride and shoot, living leisurely during peacetime. Their constraints are few and easily implemented. The relationship between ruler and subjects is simple, governing the entire country like one person. Marrying their wives when fathers, sons, or brothers die prevents the family from falling apart. So although the Xiongnu are chaotic, they can certainly maintain their clan bloodline.
In China, we don't marry our relatives' widows, but if relatives become estranged, they may end up killing each other or even changing surnames, all because of this reason. Moreover, elaborate ceremonies only lead to mutual resentment, and the higher the houses are built, the less energy people have. Those who toil hard to farm and weave for sustenance, and build walls to defend themselves, will not fight in times of emergency and are tired from work during peacetime. So, you city dwellers in your fancy houses, what do you know about real survival?"
Since then, whenever envoys from the Han Dynasty wanted to debate with the Xiongnu, Zhongxing Shu always said, "Hey, Han envoys, less talk. Just make sure we send enough good stuff—silk, fabrics, and food. What's the point of arguing? If you're not prepared, expect the Xiongnu to raid after harvest." He taught the Chanyu every day to see the pros and cons clearly.
In the fourteenth year of Emperor Wen of Han, the Xiongnu Chanyu led 140,000 cavalry to invade Chaona and Xiaoguan, killed the Beidi Commandant, and took away a large number of people and livestock, advancing all the way to Pengyang. They even sent out a special force to burn the imperial palace at Hui, and Xiongnu reconnaissance cavalry reached Yong County and Ganquan. Emperor Wen appointed Zhoushe as a general, mobilized one thousand chariots and one hundred thousand cavalry to station near Chang'an to guard against the Xiongnu invasion. At the same time, he appointed Lu Qing as the General of Shangjun, Wei Xiu as the General of Beidi, Zhou Zao as the General of Longxi, Zhang Xiangru as the Grand General, Dong Chi as the Front General, and mobilized a large number of chariots and cavalry to attack the Xiongnu. The Chanyu stayed in Han territory for over a month before leaving. The Han army chased them to the border but came back empty-handed. The Xiongnu raids grew bolder each year, slaughtering people and livestock. Yunzhong and Liaodong were hit hardest, with Daijun alone losing over ten thousand. The Han were in a bind, so they sent envoys to the Xiongnu. The Chanyu sent envoys back, thanked them, and brought up the marriage again.
In the second year of Emperor Xiaowen of Han's reign, he sent envoys to the Xiongnu with a letter that said: "The Emperor greets the Great Chanyu of the Xiongnu and wishes you well. We have received the two horses sent by your envoys, Han Liao and Dang Hu Qie Ju Diao Qu Nan, and we are very grateful. Our late Emperor decreed that the tribes north of the Great Wall should obey the Chanyu's orders, while the people south of the Great Wall fall under our Emperor's jurisdiction. Let everyone farm, weave, and hunt in peace, ensuring food and clothing, family unity, harmonious rule, and an end to bloodshed. It has come to my attention that some unscrupulous individuals covet the benefits of invasion, betraying trust, forgetting the interests of the people, and damaging the friendly relations between our two countries, which has happened before. As the old saying goes, 'Two countries have reconciled, both rulers are very happy, cease war, recuperate, raise good warhorses, and generation after generation enjoy peace and happiness, completely renewed.' I greatly appreciate this sentiment. Wise rulers always strive for progress and reform, allowing the elderly to enjoy their later years and letting the youth grow up healthy, preserving their lives and enjoying old age. Both the Chanyu and I should follow this path, obey the will of heaven, cherish the people, and pass down this practice for generations to ensure a peaceful world that benefits everyone. The Han and Xiongnu, neighbors yet enemies, are located in the north, where the cold weather brings about early violence. Therefore, we send officials to the Chanyu every year with food, wine, gold and silver treasures, silk, cotton, and other items. Now that the world is peaceful and the people are living happily, we, the Chanyu and I, share responsibility for their well-being. Reflecting on past events, those trivial matters and the mistakes made by advisors are not enough to destroy our brotherly relationship. I have heard that heaven is impartial and the earth does not favor one side. Both the Chanyu and I should forget the unpleasant past, walk the right path together, abandon past mistakes, seek lasting peace, and let the people of both countries be like one family. As all creatures, from fish to birds, instinctively seek advantage and avoid harm, this is the law of nature. Therefore, more and more people are submitting; this is the will of heaven. We should all forget the past: I have released fleeing Xiongnu people, and the Chanyu should also release Zhangni and others. I have heard that ancient emperors always kept their word and never broke their promises. The Chanyu should remember this: after the peace treaty, the Han Dynasty will not strike first. I urge you, Chanyu, to give this matter your careful consideration."
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The Chanyu agreed to the request for a marriage alliance, so the emperor ordered the censor to say, "Word came from the Xiongnu Chanyu that the marriage alliance has been confirmed. Those who run off won't make us bigger or richer. No Xiongnu raids, no Han incursions. Anyone who breaks this deal is dead. This is the only way to maintain friendly relations for a long time and avoid future troubles. It is beneficial for both sides. I have agreed. Let everyone know." Four years later, old Chanyu Jizhou died, and his son Junchen took over as Chanyu. After Junchen became Chanyu, Emperor Xiaowen of the Han dynasty made peace with the Xiongnu again, and Zhongxing stayed on at court.
After four years, Chanyu tore up the peace agreement again and led a large army to invade the Shangjun and Yuncheng commands, sending thirty thousand cavalry on each raid, killing many people and looting a lot of goods before leaving. This really worried the Han, so they sent three generals to station troops in Beidi, Juzhu, and Feihu Pass, guarding the borders against Xiongnu incursions. Not only that, near Chang'an, troops under three generals were stationed at Xili, Jimen north of the Wei River, and Bashang to guard against the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu cavalry reached the border of Daijun and Juzhu, and beacon fires blazed all the way to Ganquan and Chang'an. After several months, the Han army finally arrived at the border, and the Xiongnu withdrew to the distant border fortress. Over a year later, Emperor Xiaowen died, and Emperor Xiaojing succeeded to the throne. Then, shockingly, King Zhao secretly contacted the Xiongnu, and the Wu-Chu rebellion broke out, with King Zhao even wanting to attack the Han Dynasty's border together with the Xiongnu. As a result, the Han army pacified the state of Zhao, and the Xiongnu did not dare to act rashly. Since then, Emperor Xiaojing resumed peace talks with the Xiongnu, opened border trade, gave them a lot of wealth, and even gave them a princess in marriage, all in accordance with the previous agreement. During Emperor Xiaojing's reign, although the Xiongnu occasionally raided the border on a small scale, there was no large-scale invasion. Now that you're emperor, your wise policy of appeasing the Xiongnu, treating them well, and opening trade continues to bear fruit. From the Chanyu down to the common folk, the Xiongnu are close to the Han Dynasty, frequently coming and going at the foot of the Great Wall.
It is said that there was an envoy sent by the Han Dynasty to Mayi, named Nie Weng. This envoy betrayed the Han Dynasty by secretly providing the Xiongnu with supplies. He pretended to sell Mayi City to the Xiongnu Chanyu, hoping to lure the Chanyu into a trap. The Chanyu really believed it. Hearing of Mayi's wealth, he led 100,000 cavalry through Wuzhou Pass.
The Han Dynasty had long been prepared, with over three hundred thousand troops ambushed near Mayi. Grand Minister Han Anguo commanded the ambush, overseeing four generals, prepared to spring their trap. When the Chanyu entered the Han border and was within a hundred miles of Mayi, he saw livestock everywhere on the grassland but no one herding them, which he found very strange. So he attacked a pavilion. At this time, the officer at Yanmen Pass was patrolling and, seeing the Xiongnu, defended the pavilion valiantly. He recognized the Han army's ploy, and the Chanyu captured him, wanting to kill him. However, the officer revealed the location of the Han army's ambush to the Chanyu. Hearing this, the Chanyu exclaimed, "I had a bad feeling about this!" So he quickly led his troops to retreat. As he left, he even said, "I was able to capture this officer thanks to the protection of the heavens; it was the heavens that made me do this!" He even elevated the officer to the rank of "Heavenly King." The Han army had originally planned to strike when the Chanyu entered Mayi, but since the Chanyu did not come, the Han army's plan backfired.
General Wang Hui of the Han Dynasty led troops from Daijun to attack the logistics of the Xiongnu, but upon hearing that the Chanyu had returned with a large army, he chickened out. The Han Dynasty figured Wang Hui was dragging his feet, so they had him killed. Since then, the Xiongnu no longer negotiated with the Han Dynasty and frequently raided the Han border, looting as they went. Greedy as they were, the Xiongnu still loved trading with the Han, especially for their fancy stuff. The Han Dynasty continued to trade with them as a way to deal with them.
Five years after the Battle of Mayi, in the autumn, the Han Dynasty sent four generals, each leading ten thousand cavalry, to attack the Xiongnu's markets. General Wei Qing set out from Shanggu and arrived at Longcheng, capturing seven hundred Xiongnu. General Gongsun He left from Yuncheng but achieved nothing. General Gongsun Ao set out from Daijun but was defeated by the Xiongnu, losing more than seven thousand men. General Li Guang came from Yanmen and was also defeated by the Xiongnu, and even captured, before eventually getting away. The Han Dynasty captured Gongsun Ao and Li Guang, but they later bought their way back to civilian life.
That winter, the Xiongnu invaded the border repeatedly, with the Yuyang area suffering particularly badly. The Han Dynasty sent General Han Anguo to defend Yuyang against the Xiongnu. The following autumn, twenty thousand Xiongnu cavalry invaded the Han Dynasty, killing the Liaoxi governor and seizing over two thousand people. The Xiongnu also defeated the army of the Governor of Yuyang, killing over a thousand, and surrounded Han Anguo. At that time, Han Anguo was nearly out of cavalry, but fortunately, reinforcements from Yan arrived in time, which forced the Xiongnu to retreat. The Xiongnu then invaded Yanmen, killing and capturing over a thousand people. In response, the Han Dynasty sent General Wei Qing with thirty thousand cavalry from Yanmen, and General Li Xi from Daijun, launching a joint attack on the Xiongnu and capturing thousands.
In the following year, Wei Qing once again led his troops from Yunzhong, as far as Longxi, where in the Henan region they defeated the Xiongnu Loufan and Baiyang kings, capturing thousands of Xiongnu people and a massive number of cattle and sheep. The Han Dynasty then occupied the Henan region, built Shuofang City, repaired the Great Wall built by the Qin Dynasty's Meng Tian, and used the Yellow River as a natural defense. The Han Dynasty also abandoned Shepi County in Shanggu and the Zhaoyang region, giving these places to the Xiongnu. This was the second year of Emperor Wu's Yuan Shuo era.
Later that winter, the Xiongnu Chanyu died. The Chanyu's brother, King Zuo Gulixi Yizhixie, declared himself Chanyu, defeated the Chanyu's son, Yudan, and his army. Yudan fled to the Han Dynasty and surrendered, and the Han Dynasty made him the Marquis of She'an. He died months later.
After Yizhixie Shanyu ascended to the throne, that summer, tens of thousands of Xiongnu cavalry invaded the Han Dynasty, killing Daijun prefect Gongyou and capturing more than a thousand people. In the autumn, the Xiongnu were at it again, raiding Yanmen and slaughtering over a thousand people. The following year, the Xiongnu invaded Daijun, Dingxiang, and Shangjun once more, each time mobilizing thirty thousand cavalry, killing and seizing thousands of people. The Right Worthy King of the Xiongnu resented the Han Dynasty for taking over the Henan region and building Shuofang City, launching multiple harassments, looting the border, and even penetrating into Henan to disturb Shuofang, killing and capturing many officials and civilians.
In the spring of the second year, the Han Dynasty sent Wei Qing as the Grand General, leading five other generals with a total of more than one hundred thousand troops from Shuofang and Gaoque to attack the Xiongnu. The Right Worthy King thought the Han army couldn’t possibly come, so he drank himself into a stupor. As a result, the Han army swept hundreds of miles across the border and, under the cover of night, surrounded the Right King. Terrified, the Right King fled, with many elite cavalry following him. The Han army captured over fifteen thousand of the Right King’s men and women, as well as more than ten minor kings.
That autumn, a Xiongnu force of over ten thousand cavalry attacked, killing Daijun prefect Zhu Ying and seizing more than a thousand people.
The following spring, the Han Dynasty sent General Wei Qing, leading five other generals and over 100,000 cavalry, hundreds of miles deep into Xiongnu territory, fought a battle, capturing a total of over nineteen thousand prisoners. However, the Han army also suffered heavy losses, with two generals and over three thousand cavalry killed. Right General You managed to escape with his life, but the former general, Zhao Xin, had bad luck and surrendered to the Xiongnu after being defeated. Zhao Xin was originally a prince of the Xiongnu, but later surrendered to the Han Dynasty and was appointed as Marquis Xi (a title). He led troops together with Right General You, but encountered the army of the Chanyu alone and was destroyed. After capturing Zhao Xin, the Chanyu treated him as his second king and gave him his sister in marriage, conspiring against the Han Dynasty. Zhao Xin suggested to the Chanyu to go further north, deliberately luring the Han army to a distant location, and then surrounding and annihilating them outside the border, not approaching the frontier. The Chanyu accepted his suggestion. A year later, ten thousand Xiongnu cavalry raided Shanggu, killing hundreds.
In the second year of spring, the Han dynasty sent General Huo Qubing with ten thousand cavalry troops to set out from Longxi, crossing over more than a thousand *li* beyond Yanzhi Mountain to attack the Xiongnu. They captured over eighteen thousand prisoners and seized the golden figures used by the King of Xiutu to worship the heavens and earth. Talk about a badass line: "Broke the Xiutu King's heaven-worshipping golden idols!" In the summer, General Huo Qubing, along with the Marquis of Heqi, led a large force of cavalry troops from Longxi and Beidi, marching two thousand *li* to fight the Xiongnu. They crossed Juyan, attacked the Qilian Mountains, captured over thirty thousand prisoners, and over seventy lower-ranking officials. At this time, the Xiongnu also invaded Daijun and Yanmen, killing and capturing several hundred people. The Han dynasty sent the Marquis of Bowang and General Li Guang from Youbeiping to attack the Xiongnu's King of the Left Xian. The King of the Left Xian surrounded General Li Guang, and Li Guang's army of over four thousand men was almost completely wiped out, with many Xiongnu killed as well. Later, the army of the Marquis of Bowang arrived to rescue, allowing General Li Guang to escape. The Han army suffered several thousand casualties. The Marquis of Heqi, General Huo Qubing, and the Marquis of Bowang were all sentenced to death, but they ultimately bought their way out and became commoners.
In the autumn, the Chanyu (Xiongnu king) was very angry because the King of Hunxie and the King of Xiutu, who lived in the west, were defeated by the Han dynasty, resulting in the deaths of tens of thousands. The Chanyu wanted to call them back and kill them. The King of Hunxie and the King of Xiutu were afraid, so they decided to surrender to the Han dynasty. The Han dynasty sent General Huo Qubing to welcome them. The King of Hunxie killed the King of Xiutu and surrendered to the Han dynasty with his followers. In total, there were more than forty thousand people, but they claimed to be a hundred thousand to the public. After obtaining the King of Hunxie, Xiongnu incursions in Longxi, Beidi, and Hexi regions decreased. The Han dynasty moved poor folk from the eastern frontier to those areas for settlement, reducing the number of soldiers stationed west of Beidi by approximately half.
In the second year, the Xiongnu brought several tens of thousands of cavalry to invade Youbeiping and Dingxiang, killing and looting over a thousand people before retreating. The Han analyzed and said, "Xihou Xin, the Chanyu's strategist, who lives north of the Ordos, believes that the Han army cannot reach there." So the Han prepared tons of food and horses, dispatched one hundred thousand cavalry, and had another 140,000 horses on standby, but did not bring too much food. The Han sent their top generals, Wei Qing and Huo Qubing, to lead the troops, with Wei Qing departing from Dingxiang and Huo Qubing setting out from Daijun, agreeing to meet the Xiongnu in a decisive battle north of the desert. After hearing this, the Chanyu moved the supplies to a distance and waited with elite troops in the north of the desert. Wei Qing's army fought the Xiongnu for a day, and in the evening, a gale blew up. The Han army surrounded him with a pincer movement. Realizing he couldn't win, the Chanyu broke out with a few hundred of his best men and headed northwest. The Han army pursued all night but failed to catch up. In this battle, the Han army killed over nineteen thousand Xiongnu, reaching as far north as the Yinshan Mountains before returning. The Chanyu was separated from his main force for so long that his subordinate, Youguli, thinking the Chanyu was dead, declared himself Chanyu. The true Chanyu later gathered his army again, and Youguli had to give up the title of Chanyu and return to being King Youguli. Huo Qubing, setting out from Daijun, fought with King Zuo Xian, killing over 70,000 Xiongnu and routing Zuo Xian's entire command. Then Huo Qubing offered sacrifices at the Wolf Mountain and the Changuyan altar, before finally reaching Lake Baikal and returning home.
Since then, the Xiongnu fled far away, and there was no royal court south of the desert. The Han Dynasty, north of the Yellow River, from Shuofang to Lingju, irrigated and farmed extensively, with some fifty or sixty thousand officials and soldiers, gradually expanding their territory at the Xiongnu's expense, and the territory of the Han Dynasty extended all the way to the north of the Xiongnu.
At first, two large armies of the Han Dynasty unleashed a massive attack, surrounding the Xiongnu Chanyu and killing eighty to ninety thousand Xiongnu people, but there were also tens of thousands of Han soldiers who died in battle or disease, and over a hundred thousand war horses perished. Although the Xiongnu suffered heavy losses and fled, the Han Dynasty also sustained significant losses, with insufficient horses and unable to send troops again. The Xiongnu, using Zhao Xin's idea, sent envoys to the Han Dynasty, employing honeyed words to request a political marriage. The Emperor of the Han Dynasty convened a meeting to discuss the matter, with some advocating for a marriage alliance and others for complete conquest of the Xiongnu. The Prime Minister's Chief Clerk Ren Chang said, "The Xiongnu have just been defeated and are very weak; they should be made a tributary state, paying regular tribute." So the Han Dynasty sent Ren Chang to meet with the Chanyu. When the Chanyu heard Ren Chang's plan, he was very angry and detained him. The Chanyu's action was simply tit-for-tat, mirroring the Han's earlier detention of Xiongnu envoys. The Han Dynasty was busy rebuilding their army and replacing their losses of horses, and at this time, Huo Qubing's death meant that the Han Dynasty had not attacked the Xiongnu in the north for a long time.
After a few years, after reigning for thirteen years, Yizhixie Chanyu passed away, and his son Wuyi took the throne as Chanyu. This year was the third year of the Han Yuan Ding era. After Wuyi Chanyu ascended to the throne, the Emperor of the Han Dynasty began to inspect the various counties. Subsequently, the Han Dynasty was busy with campaigns against the southern Yue, leaving both sides to a period of uneasy peace.
After three years of succession by Wuzhi Chanyu, the Han Dynasty had already wiped out Nanyue. They sent the former Grand Stable Master He Jiangling with fifteen thousand cavalry from Jiuyuan, heading north for over two thousand li, and returned after reaching Fusu Jing without encountering a single Xiongnu person. The Han Dynasty then sent the former Marquis of Biao, Zhao Pono, leading over ten thousand cavalry from Lingju, heading north for several thousand li, and returned after reaching the Xiong River without encountering a single Xiongnu person.
At this time, the Han Dynasty emperor inspected the border, arriving at Shuofang and assembling an army of 180,000 cavalry to show off their might. They also sent Guo Ji to demonstrate to the Xiongnu. Upon arrival, the Xiongnu officials asked Guo Ji why he came. Guo Ji humbly stated his friendly intentions, saying, "I have come to see Chanyu and will tell him in person." Chanyu received Guo Ji, who conveyed the message: "The Nanyue king's head is hanging from our north gate. Now, Chanyu, if you want a fight, the Emperor will be waiting for you at the border. Otherwise, pay tribute and become our vassal. Why hide in the freezing wasteland of the far north? It's pointless!" Chanyu was furious. He had the officials who'd met Guo Ji executed. Then, he imprisoned Guo Ji and exiled him to the North Sea. However, Chanyu ultimately did not dare to provoke the Han Dynasty border again, instead consolidating his power, drilling his troops, and honing his warriors' skills, sending envoys to the Han Dynasty multiple times with friendly requests.
The Han Dynasty sent envoy Wang Wu to investigate the situation of the Xiongnu. Xiongnu custom demanded that Han envoys remove their seals and get their faces inked before entering a tent. Wang Wu, a northerner familiar with Xiongnu ways, removed his seal and painted his face with ink, successfully entering the tent. Chanyu liked him and spoke kindly to him, even planning to send his crown prince to the Han Dynasty as a hostage in order to seek peace.
Next, the Han Dynasty sent Yang Xin to the Xiongnu. Around that time, the Han conquered the Huimo and Korea in the east and set up commanderies. In the west, they established Jiuquan County, cutting off the connection between the Xiongnu and the Qiang people. The Han also forged alliances with the Yuezhi and the kingdom of Daxia. To further weaken the Xiongnu, they married a princess off to the Wusun king. The Han reclaimed a lot of land in the north and built the Yelei Pass, which the Xiongnu were powerless against. That year, Chanyu Xin bit the dust, and some Han officials figured the Xiongnu were weakened and ready to submit. Yang Xin was upright and strong, but not a high-ranking official, so the Chanyu did not pay much attention to him. The Chanyu summoned him, but Yang Xin refused to remove his seal, forcing the Chanyu to meet him outside the tent. After seeing the Chanyu, Yang Xin said, "If you want peace, send your crown prince to the Han as a hostage." The Chanyu replied, "Hey, that wasn't the deal! The previous agreement was that the Han would send a princess for marriage and provide a certain amount of silk, cotton, and food so that the Xiongnu wouldn't harass the border. Now you're going back on your word, wanting my son as a hostage—this is too much!" The Xiongnu had a way of dealing with Han envoys. If the envoy wasn't a big shot, they'd try to trip him up with words. If he was young, they'd try to intimidate him. Whenever the Han sent envoys, the Xiongnu responded in kind, always insisting on an equal number of envoys on both sides.
After Yang Xin returned to China, the Han Dynasty sent an envoy named Wang Wu to the Xiongnu. The Chanyu began to use honeyed words to flatter the Han Dynasty, wanting to squeeze more riches out of them. He lied to Wang Wu, saying, "I plan to visit the Emperor of the Han Dynasty; let's be brothers." Wang Wu returned to report to the Han Dynasty, and they built a residence for the Chanyu in Chang'an. However, the Xiongnu said, "Unless the Han Dynasty sends a high-ranking official, we won't deal honestly." Later, the Xiongnu sent some VIP to the Han Dynasty, who fell ill. The Han Dynasty tried to cure him, but unfortunately, he died. The Han Dynasty then sent Lu Chongguo, wearing a seal (a high-ranking official's seal) of two thousand stones, to attend the funeral of the Xiongnu nobleman, giving him a proper burial and spending thousands of gold, saying, "This is a VIP guest of the Han Dynasty!" The Chanyu believed that the Han Dynasty had killed his guest, so he detained Lu Chongguo and did not allow him to return to China. In fact, all the things the Chanyu said earlier were lies to Wang Wu; he had no intention of visiting the Han Dynasty or sending the prince as a hostage. After that, the Xiongnu kept sending their light cavalry on raids to harass the border. The Han Dynasty appointed Guo Chang as General Bahu (a general known for fighting the Xiongnu) and set up camp east of Shuofang to guard against the Xiongnu. Lu Chongguo was detained by the Xiongnu for three years until the death of the Chanyu. Wudi Weyi, the Chanyu, died after ten years in power, and his son Wushi Lu succeeded him as Chanyu. He was very young and known as the Child Chanyu. This was in the sixth year of Emperor Wu of Han. From that time on, the Xiongnu power continued to expand northwestward, with their left flank reaching Yunzhong and their right, Jiuquan and Dunhuang.
After the young Chanyu ascended the throne, the Han Dynasty sent two envoys, one to offer condolences to the Chanyu and one to offer condolences to the Right Worthy King, in an attempt to stir up trouble within the Xiongnu. When the envoys arrived in Xiongnu, the Xiongnu people took them all to the Chanyu. The Chanyu was furious and detained the envoys from the Han Dynasty. The Xiongnu detained over ten groups of Han envoys, while Xiongnu envoys who came to the Han Dynasty were also detained in the same way.
That year, the Han Dynasty sent General Li Guangli to the west to attack Dawan, while also ordering General Aoxiu to build the designated surrender point. That winter, there was heavy snow in the Xiongnu region, causing many livestock to freeze and starve to death. The young Chanyu was eager for battle, leading to unrest in the country. The Left General wanted to kill the Chanyu and then surrender to the Han Dynasty, so he secretly informed them, "I want to kill the Chanyu and surrender to the Han Dynasty. The Han Dynasty is too far away. If you send troops to support me, I will take action." Upon hearing this, the Han built the designated surrender point but still felt it was too far away.
In the spring of the following year, the Han Dynasty sent Marquis Zhuoye to lead more than 20,000 cavalry from Shuofang to the northwest for over 1,000 miles, planning to return after reaching Xunji Mountain. When Marquis Zhuoye returned as planned, the Left General attempted to send troops but was discovered. The Chanyu killed him and then sent his army to attack Marquis Zhuoye. Along the way, Marquis Zhuoye captured many prisoners, numbering in the thousands. On the way back, when they were 400 miles away from the designated surrender point, 80,000 Xiongnu cavalry surrounded them.
Zuo Ye Hou slipped out for a drink of water under the cover of darkness but was caught by the Xiongnu scouts. After the Xiongnu captured Zuo Ye Hou, they immediately went on the offensive against his army. In the army, there was a man named Guo Zong and another named Wei Wang. They discussed, "The officers are too scared the Xiongnu will kill the general to suggest a retreat." As a result, the entire army was wiped out by the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu Chanyu Hu Hanxie was very pleased and sent out an elite unit to attack the city that had previously surrendered. They couldn't capture it, so they looted and then withdrew. The following year, the Chanyu himself planned to attack the surrendered city but passed away before reaching it.
Chanyu Hu Hanxie died after three years in power. His son was too young, so the Xiongnu appointed his uncle, the brother of Wudou Chanyu, as the new Chanyu, named Youli Lake. This was in the third year of the Taichu era of Emperor Wu of Han.
After Youli Lake became Chanyu, the Han Dynasty sent Guanlu (Minister of Ceremonies) Xu Ziwei to build fortresses and guard posts outside the Wuyuan Pass. Some locations were hundreds of miles away from the pass, and even farther than a thousand miles, all the way to Luchu. They also stationed Generals Han Shuo and Wei Kang nearby and sent the Chief Crossbow Officer Lu Bode to construct fortifications on Juyan Lake.
That autumn, the Xiongnu invaded Dingxiang and Yunzhong on a large scale, killing and capturing a large number of people, defeating more than two thousand officials and soldiers before retreating, and destroying the fortresses and guard posts built by Xu Ziwei. The Xiongnu also sent Youli Lake to invade Jiuquan and Zhangye, carrying off thousands of people as captives. Later, Ren Wen led troops to rescue and recovered everything the Xiongnu had taken. That year, the Second General, who had defeated the Dawan and killed their king, returned home. The Xiongnu tried to intercept him but failed. In winter, the Xiongnu planned to attack the surrendered city, but the Chanyu perished again.
Youli Lake Chanyu died after one year in power. The Xiongnu then appointed his brother, the Left Grand Commandant Qie Di Hou, as the new Chanyu.
The Han Dynasty destroyed the Dawan, sending shockwaves through neighboring nations. Emperor Wu of Han wanted to take advantage of this opportunity to completely defeat the Xiongnu, so he issued a decree saying, "Old man Gaozu left me the Xiongnu mess to clean up. During the reign of Empress Dowager, that Chanyu sent letters dripping with arrogance and hostility. Like Duke Xiang of Qi, who got his revenge after nine generations – now *that's* what the history books celebrate!" This was in the fourth year of the Taichu period of Emperor Wu of Han.
It is said that the newly appointed Chanyu Huhanye sent back all the envoys who had not surrendered to the Han Dynasty before, and they got home safe and sound. Just after becoming the Chanyu, he was afraid that the Han Dynasty would come to attack him, so he muttered to himself, "Can't compare myself to the Han Emperor! He's my father-in-law, after all!" Later, the Han Dynasty sent Colonel Su Wu with many gifts to bribe the Chanyu, but the Chanyu got even bolder, not at all as the Han Dynasty had anticipated. The following year, Pono escaped back to the Han Dynasty.
In the second year, the Han Dynasty sent General Li Guangli with thirty thousand cavalry from Jiuquan to attack the Righteous King at the Tianshan Mountains, killing more than ten thousand Xiongnu people, and then came back victorious. However, the Xiongnu surrounded General Li Guangli heavily, nearly wiping them out, losing sixty or seventy percent of their men and supplies. The Han Dynasty then sent General Ao from Xihe to meet with the Strong Crossbow Captain at Zhuotu Mountain, but they came back with nothing to show for it. They also sent Cavalry Captain Li Ling with five thousand cavalry, who marched a thousand miles north of Juyan, where they encountered the Chanyu, fought a battle, and Li Ling killed more than ten thousand Xiongnu people. However, when they ran out of food and ammunition and wanted to retreat, they were surrounded by the Xiongnu, and Li Ling eventually surrendered to the Xiongnu; only four hundred men escaped the massacre. The Chanyu was so impressed, he even married his daughter off to him!
Two years later, the Han Dynasty sent Li Guangli, the Second General of the Han Dynasty, with sixty thousand cavalry and one hundred thousand infantry from Shuofang. The Commander of the Strong Crossbow Corps, Lubode, led over ten thousand troops to join him. The Guerrilla General also set out with thirty thousand troops from Wuyuan, while General Ao led ten thousand cavalry and thirty thousand infantry from Yanmen. When the Xiongnu heard about this, they moved their supplies north of the Yugu River, while the Chanyu positioned one hundred thousand cavalry to the south of the river to await the General. Ultimately, the General was defeated and retreated after fighting the Chanyu for more than ten days. News arrived that his family had been wiped out in a witchcraft purge, leading Li Guangli to surrender to the Xiongnu, and he only brought back over a thousand men. The Guerrilla General also had no gains. General Ao fought against the Left King and was defeated, retreating as well. That year, the Han army engaged the Xiongnu, but no one could claim victory, and there were no significant achievements to speak of. The Emperor also ordered the arrest of the Imperial Physician Ling Suidan, accusing him of disclosing the extermination of the General's family, which led to Guangli's surrender to the Xiongnu.
Sima Qian noted that Confucius wrote the "Spring and Autumn Annals" in great detail between Duke Huan and Duke Zhuang, but became more concise during the reigns of Duke Ding and Duke Ai. This was because Confucius aimed to write history in response to the social realities of his time, avoiding excessive praise and using ambiguous and cautious expressions.
People often discuss the Xiongnu, focusing solely on immediate benefits and flattering their viewpoints to gain advantage, rather than objectively analyzing the situation and considering both their own position and the opponent's strength. Generals boast about the vastness of the Central Plains and their own strength, emotionally advising the Emperor, which leads to incorrect decisions and ultimately prevents them from achieving decisive victories.
Although Yao was very wise, his achievements were not fully realized until Yu came along to stabilize the world. The success of even the wisest rulers depends on capable ministers. The key to a flourishing empire lies in choosing the right leaders!
