I was reading the legal texts and saw those provisions that encourage learning and setting up schools. Every time I read this, I can't help but put down the book and sigh. Ah! Just think about it, during the decline of the Zhou Dynasty, the poem "Guan Ju" was born; during the reigns of King You and King Li, the whole system of rites and music went to pot, the vassals governed independently, and the big boys called the shots. Therefore, Confucius was gutted to see the decline of the royal road and the prevalence of evil ways, so he put together a collection of poems and books to get things back on track. When he heard the Shao music in the state of Qi, he couldn't eat meat for three months; after returning from the state of Wei to the state of Lu, he began to organize music, with everything in its right place musically. However, the world was in chaos at that time, and no one could employ him. So when Confucius was over seventy years old, he traveled to various states but couldn't catch a break. He said, "If someone is willing to employ me, I can turn the country around in a month!" Later, when he was hunting and bagged a qilin, he sighed, "My path has come to an end!" So he wrote the "Spring and Autumn Annals" to set things right. Its words were subtle but its meaning profound, and scholars copied it like crazy. After Confucius passed away, his seventy-two disciples spread out across the various states. Some became big-shot teachers or ministers, others taught but were lower down the ladder, and some dropped out of society. For example, Zilu lived in the state of Wei, Zizhang lived in the state of Chen, Dantai Ziyu lived in the state of Chu, Zixia lived in Xiyue, and Zigong passed away in the state of Qi. People like Tian Zifang, Duanganmu, Wu Qi, and Qin Huali were students of Zixia and had served as teachers to vassal kings. At that time, only the Marquis Wen of Wei was interested in learning. Later, as the era gradually declined, during the reign of Qin Shihuang, the different states were at each other's throats, and Confucianism went downhill too. However, in Qi and Lu, people kept studying Confucianism. During the reigns of Emperor Jing and Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, figures like Mencius and Xunzi inherited and developed the teachings of Confucius, gaining high prestige in society with their knowledge.
By the end of the Qin Dynasty, Qin Shihuang burned books and executed scholars, leading to the interruption of the Six Arts. During the uprising of Chen Sheng, Confucian scholars from the State of Lu carried Confucius' ceremonial vessels to join him. Therefore, Kong Jia was appointed as a scholar by Chen Sheng, and eventually died in battle alongside him. Chen Sheng, born a commoner, led an ill-equipped army and declared himself king of the Chu state within a month, only to perish within half a year. His reign was short-lived and ultimately inconsequential, yet why did those scholars in Confucian attire go to join him and willingly serve him? It was because the Qin Dynasty had burned their books, causing them deep resentment, which led them to rise up in rebellion during Chen Sheng's uprising.
After Emperor Gaozu defeated Xiang Yu, he surrounded the land of Lu with his troops. The scholars in Lu were still earnestly studying rites and music, with continuous sounds of qin music and song. Isn't this the cultural legacy left by the sages, a country flourishing in rites and music? When Confucius was in the state of Chen, he said, "Go home, lads! You're all flash and no substance. Your writing's good, but you haven't learned to refine it." The people in the Qi and Lu regions have always had a natural talent for literature, since ancient times.
After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, scholars finally had the opportunity to study classical works, learn archery rites, and the ritualized village drinking ceremony. Shusun Tong established the ritual system of the Han Dynasty and was appointed as the Chief Minister, with many Confucian scholars participating in the formulation and obtaining good positions. This led to widespread enthusiasm for learning among scholars. However, the country was still in turmoil, with wars everywhere, and there was no time to develop education properly. During the reign of Emperor Hui and Empress Dowager Lü, the ministers in the court gained merit through military achievements. During the reign of Emperor Wen, some Confucian scholars were utilized, but Emperor Wen himself preferred the Legalist school of thought. In the reign of Emperor Jing, Confucian scholars were not valued, and Empress Dowager Dou followed the teachings of Huang-Lao, so despite holding court positions, these scholars had little opportunity to put their knowledge to practical use.
Until the current emperor took the throne, Zhao Wan and Wang Zang, prominent Confucian scholars, gained favor with the emperor, who then began to recruit able and upright scholars. From that time on, Shen Peigong taught poetry in Lu, Yuan Gusheng taught in Qi, and Han Taifu taught in Yan; Fusheng of Jinan taught the "Book of Documents"; Gaotangsheng from Lu taught the "Book of Rites"; Tiansheng from Zichuan taught the "Book of Changes"; Huwusheng taught the "Spring and Autumn Annals" in the Qi and Lu regions, and Dong Zhongshu taught in Zhao. After the death of Empress Dowager Dou, Marquis Wu'an Tian Fen became the Prime Minister. He suppressed the Huang-Lao and Legalist schools of thought, recruited hundreds of Confucian scholars, and Gongsun Hong, with his mastery of the "Spring and Autumn Annals," rose from a commoner to one of the three top officials of the court, and was even titled the Marquis of Pingjin. Scholars throughout the land followed suit, and Confucianism became all the rage.
Gongsun Hong worked in the Imperial College and felt that the pace of educating the populace was painfully slow. Anxious about this, he submitted a memorial stating, "The Prime Minister and the Imperial Censor have said: The Emperor declared: 'I have heard that to guide the people to follow etiquette, music is used to educate them. Marriage is a major human relationship, and now with the collapse of etiquette and the ruin of music, I am very distressed! Therefore, I have specially selected upright and knowledgeable talents from all over the country to come to the court. I have ordered the officials of rituals to actively promote learning, engage in extensive discussions, promote ritual music, and use this as an example for the world.' The Ministry of Rites and the scholars discussed together: According to historical accounts, the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties each had village schools, called 'xiao' in the Xia dynasty, 'xu' in the Shang dynasty, and 'xiang' in the Zhou dynasty. Good deeds and good people will be publicly commended in the court; bad deeds and bad people will be punished according to the law. Therefore, the promotion of education should start from the capital and gradually expand from within to the outside. Your Majesty, you are implementing benevolent governance, ushering in a prosperous era, corresponding to the heavens and the earth, conforming to human relationships, advocating learning, clarifying ritual music, promoting education, and uplifting talents to influence the four directions. This is the foundation of a peaceful and prosperous era. In ancient times, due to the imperfection of political and educational systems, we should use existing official positions to promote education. Fifty disciples will be established for the scholars, restoring their status. The Ministry of Rites will select scholar disciples from individuals over eighteen years old with a pleasing appearance. If there are individuals in counties, states, counties, townships, and villages who love literature, respect their elders, abide by the law, and maintain harmony in the community, the county magistrate and the prefect should report to the high-ranking officials. These officials will carefully examine the qualified candidates and send them to the Ministry of Rites for study, similar to the scholar disciples. After one year, they will all take an exam. Those who demonstrate proficiency in a classical text will be appointed to literary official positions; outstanding students can become junior officials, and the Ministry of Rites will register and report this. If there are exceptionally talented individuals, their names should be reported immediately. Those who do not study or have mediocre abilities and cannot master at least one classical text will be dismissed and punished. I have carefully studied the imperial edicts and laws. They clarify the relationship between humans and the heavens and the earth, connect ancient and modern principles, and possess elegant writing and profound language, reflecting deep benevolence. My official position is lowly, and my knowledge is shallow; I cannot fully grasp the spirit of the imperial edicts and cannot explain them clearly to those below me. The positions of ritual officials should be as important as those of literary officials. Those who are proficient in etiquette and literature should be appointed to these positions, and their promotions or transfers should be based on their abilities. Two individuals should be selected from officials receiving a salary of 200 piculs of grain and above, as well as officials receiving a salary of 100 piculs of grain who can read a classical work, to serve as the Left and Right Historians and the Chief Historian. One individual should be selected from officials receiving a salary of 100 piculs of grain or less to serve as the Prefect Historian; only one person should be selected from border counties. Individuals who are well-versed in reading classics should be given priority. If there are not enough candidates, they should be supplemented by officials under the high-ranking officials from the literary official positions, and supplemented by officials under the county officials from the literary official positions to meet personnel needs. Please issue the decree." His Majesty said, "Approved." Subsequently, a greater emphasis was placed on scholarly achievement among court officials.
Shen Gong was from Lu. When Liu Bang was passing through Lu, Shen Gong took his students to meet Liu Bang at Lu's South Palace. While Empress Lü was in power, Shen Gong went to Chang'an to study, and he and Liu Ying shared a teacher. Later, Liu Ying became King of Chu, and he made Shen Gong tutor his son, Prince Wu. Prince Wu hated studying and Shen Gong even more. After King Liu Ying died, Prince Wu took the throne and sidelined Shen Gong. Mortified, Shen Gong returned to his hometown in Lu and taught from home, never leaving for the rest of his life. He saw no one except by imperial command. Over a hundred students traveled from afar to study with him. Shen Gong only used the *Shijing* – nothing else. He just skipped over any questions students had.
Lanling Wang Zang was once a student of Shen Gong. Later, he was dismissed from his position as the Imperial Tutor due to an incident. After Emperor Jing of Han ascended the throne, Wang Zang wrote a memorial requesting to serve as a palace guard, and within a year, he was promoted to the position of Langzhongling. Similarly, Zhao Wan, another student of Shen Gong, later became the Chief Censor. Zhao Wan and Wang Zang requested the emperor to build a Mingtang to summon the vassals, but the proposal was unsuccessful, so they suggested inviting their teacher Shen Gong for help. The emperor sent a grand procession with gifts to welcome Shen Gong and also sent two students to accompany him. Shen Gong arrived and paid respects to the emperor. When asked about governing the country and stabilizing society, Shen Gong, who was already in his eighties at the time, replied, "Governing a country is not about talking a lot, but about how to take practical actions." The emperor, who favored eloquence, remained silent after hearing Shen Gong's answer. Nevertheless, since Shen Gong was invited, he was appointed as a Palace Attendant, provided with accommodation in the State of Lu, and involved in the construction of the Mingtang. However, Empress Dowager Dou favored the thoughts of Laozi and disliked Confucianism. She seized upon the faults of Zhao Wan and Wang Zang to rebuke the emperor, leading to the halt of the Mingtang construction and the dismissal of Zhao Wan and Wang Zang, both of whom later committed suicide. Shen Gong resigned from his post due to illness and returned home, passing away a few years later. Among Shen Gong's students, more than ten became Doctors. Kong Anguo became the Prefect of Linhuai, Zhou Ba became the Prefect of Jiaoxi, Xia Kuan became the Prefect of Chengyang, Danglu Cizi became the Prefect of Donghai, Lanling Miusheng became the Prefect of Changsha, Xu Yan became the Lieutenant of Jiaoxi, and Zou Renquemen Qingji became the Prefect of Jiaodong. They were all upright officials known for their dedication to learning. While not all of Shen Gong's students became high-ranking officials, there were over a hundred who became Grand Masters, Langzhonglings, or Keepers of Records. While their poetic styles varied, they all shared a common foundation in Shen Gong's teachings.
It is said that Yuan Gu, the Grand Tutor to the Prince of Qinghe, was born in the State of Qi. He was well-versed in the Book of Songs and obtained a position as a scholar at the imperial court during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han. Once, he debated with Huang Sheng in front of Emperor Jing. Huang Sheng said, "Tang and King Wu of Zhou did not receive their mandate from Heaven, but rather usurped the throne by killing the previous rulers!" Yuan Gu countered, "That's not correct! The tyrannical Jie and Zhou were oppressors, and the people turned to Tang and King Wu of Zhou. They overthrew Jie and Zhou with the support of the people, who readily submitted to their rule. Tang and Wu only became rulers out of necessity. How can you say they did not receive their mandate from Heaven?"
Huang Sheng continued, "Even if a hat is worn and torn, it must still be worn on the head; even if shoes are brand new, they must still be worn on the feet. This is the principle of respect between superiors and inferiors. Although Jie and Zhou were immoral, they were still rulers; while Tang and Wu were virtuous, they were still subjects. If a ruler makes mistakes, subjects cannot openly advise and respect the emperor, but instead take advantage of the ruler's mistakes to kill him and take the throne themselves, isn't that killing the emperor?" Yuan Gu then asked, "By your logic, didn't Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang of Han commit a grave crime when he overthrew the Qin Dynasty and became emperor?"
At this point, Emperor Jing interjected, "Eating meat but not horse liver shows a lack of taste; a scholar who doesn't understand that Tang and King Wu had Heaven's mandate is just plain dumb!" And so, the debate ended. After that, no scholar dared to publicly question whether Tang and King Wu ruled by Heaven's mandate or by force.
Empress Dowager Dou liked to read Laozi's "Dao De Jing," so she summoned Yuan Gusheng and asked him to explain it. Yuan Gusheng said, "These are just everyday stuff." Empress Dowager Dou got angry as soon as she heard it: "You think this is just some commoner's ramblings?!" So she ordered Yuan Gusheng to be thrown in with the pigs to slaughter one. Emperor Jing knew that the Empress Dowager was angry, but he felt that Yuan Gusheng was not at fault for speaking frankly, so he secretly gave Yuan Gusheng a good, sharp knife and let him go to the pigpen to butcher a pig. With one swift strike, he hit the pig's heart, killing it instantly. Empress Dowager Dou saw this scene, was speechless, and couldn't find a reason to punish him again, so she had to give up. Not long after, Emperor Jing appointed Yuan Gusheng as the Prince of Qinghe's tutor because he admired his abilities. Later, Yuan Gusheng resigned from his post due to illness.
Emperor Wu of Han had just ascended to the throne and summoned Yuan Gusheng to serve as an official because of his reputation. However, some sycophantic scholars were jealous of Yuan Gusheng and said that he was too old, so they sent him packing. At that time, Yuan Gusheng was already over ninety years old. When Yuan Gusheng was summoned, Xue Rengong Sun Hong also received a summons and gave Yuan Gusheng the side-eye. Yuan Gusheng said to him, "Mr. Sun, you should focus on learning the right things and speaking accordingly; don't distort knowledge to please those in power!" Since then, in Qi, people used Yuan Gusheng as the standard for studying the Classic of Poetry. Many people from Qi became prominent because of their proficiency in the Classic of Poetry, all of whom were students of Yuan Gusheng.
Han Sheng was from the Yan state, served as a doctor during the reign of Emperor Xiaowen of Han, and as the teacher of Prince Changshan during the reign of Emperor Jing. Han Sheng wrote the "Nei Wai Chuan" based on the meaning of the Classic of Poetry, totaling tens of thousands of words. His interpretation was slightly different from that of the Qi and Lu regions, but ultimately led to the same conclusion. Prince Ben of Huainan also studied his teachings. Since then, the people in the Yan and Zhao regions who discussed the Classic of Poetry regarded Han Sheng as their master. Han Sheng's grandson, Han Shang, later became the imperial physician.
Fu Sheng was from Jinan and was once a scholar-official in the Qin Dynasty. Emperor Xiaowen of the Han Dynasty searched the entire country but could not find a single soul who could explain the Classic of Documents. When he heard that Fu Sheng could, he sent for him. At that time, Fu Sheng was already over ninety years old and was too old to travel. So the emperor sent officials from the Imperial Ministry of Rites with gifts to his home to invite him to explain. The Qin Dynasty's infamous book burning and massacre of scholars led Fu Sheng to hide the Classic of Documents in the wall. Later, when war broke out, he went into hiding. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, Fu Sheng retrieved his book, but unfortunately lost several dozen chapters, leaving only twenty-nine. He used these twenty-nine chapters to teach in the Qi and Lu states. From then on, teaching the Classic of Documents became common in Shandong.
Fu Sheng taught Zhang Sheng and Ouyang Sheng in Jinan, and Ouyang Sheng taught the Qiancheng boy Kuan. After Kuan mastered the "Book of Documents," he participated in the county exam, passed it, and went to study with a doctor, his teacher being Kong Anguo. Kuan was very poor and often helped his teacher with chores, struggling to survive by doing odd jobs. He always carried books with him when he went out, studying and reciting during his breaks. Later, he passed the exam and became a low-level official. At that time, Zhang Tang was studying in the local area and was appointed as a judicial officer, using ancient laws to judge difficult cases, and he greatly appreciated Kuan. Kuan was kind, honest, and wise, known for his meticulous nature; he excelled in writing articles and memorials, being a gifted writer but a less skilled speaker. Zhang Tang considered him an elder statesman and praised him many times. After Zhang Tang became the Chief Inspector, he promoted Kuan as his subordinate and recommended him to the emperor. After meeting Kuan, the emperor was favorably impressed. Six years after Zhang Tang's death, Kuan rose to the position of Chief Inspector. Nine years later, he passed away due to illness. Kuan held a high position, was gentle, and composed; his long tenure was marked by a lack of significant achievements or outspoken advice. He was well-liked by his subordinates, though perhaps not fully dedicated to his duties. Zhang Sheng also became a doctor, while Fu Sheng's grandson was summoned for his proficiency in the "Book of Documents," but could not explain it well.
Since then, Lu Zhoubao, Kong Anguo, and Jia Jia from Luoyang have all excelled at explaining the "Book of Documents." The Kong family possessed the ancient text of the "Book of Documents," and Kong Anguo used the modern text to explain it, thus becoming wealthy. There are more than ten scattered chapters of the "Book of Documents," indicating that there are more chapters than before.
Many scholars discuss rituals, but Gao Tangsheng from Lu country is the true expert in rituals. The ritual system was already incomplete by Confucius's time, and the Qin Dynasty's burning of books and burying of scholars further decimated the surviving texts. Now only the "Rites of the Scholars" remain, and Gao Tangsheng is able to explain it.
During the time of Emperor Xiaowen, Xu Sheng from the State of Lu was appointed as a court official responsible for ceremonies due to his outstanding appearance. His descendants, Xu Yan and Xu Xiang, also inherited the family legacy. Xu Xiang had a natural talent for bearing but was not proficient in the rites; Xu Yan was somewhat knowledgeable but not particularly skilled. Xu Xiang, with his exceptional appearance, became the Master of Ceremonies for the Han Dynasty, eventually holding the position of Governor of Guangling. Xu Yan and Xu's disciples Gong Huan, Huansheng, and Shanci all served as court officials responsible for ceremonies during the Han Dynasty. Xiao Fen from Xiuqiu (a region in present-day China) became the Governor of Huaiyang due to his expertise in ritual. Afterwards, most experts in courtly etiquette and bearing came from the Xu family.
Starting from the State of Lu, Shang Qu learned the I Ching from Confucius. After Confucius passed away, Shang Qu inherited his teachings and continued to pass on the I Ching. By the sixth generation, it reached Tian He from the State of Qi, also known as Zi Zhuang. At this time, the Han Dynasty had already been established. Tian He passed on the I Ching to Wang Tongzi Zhong from Dongwu, who then passed it on to Yang He from Zichuan. Yang He was proficient in the I Ching and was summoned to the court in the first year of Yuanguang, eventually holding the position of Grand Master. Ji Mo Cheng from Qi became the Magistrate of Chengyang due to his understanding of the I Ching. Meng Dan from Guangchuan became the Grand Master of the Crown Prince thanks to his knowledge of the I Ching. Zhou Ba from the State of Lu, Heng Hu from Ju, and Zhufu Yan from Linzi all achieved high-ranking official positions due to their mastery of the I Ching. However, those truly proficient in the I Ching all originated from the lineage of Yang He.
Dong Zhongshu was from Guangchuan. He was proficient in the "Spring and Autumn Annals" and became an imperial scholar during the reign of Emperor Xiaojing. He studied diligently behind closed doors, imparting his knowledge and having his disciples memorize texts, some of whom had never even seen his face. It is said that for three years Dong Zhongshu never left his house, demonstrating his dedication to learning. He was a model of Confucian propriety, and his students respected him greatly. After Emperor Wu of Han ascended the throne, he became the Prefect of Jiangdu. Based on the records in the "Spring and Autumn Annals" regarding disasters and anomalies, he deduced the rules of the operation of yin and yang, thus suppressing yang and promoting yin when praying for rain, and doing the opposite when stopping rain. This method was implemented nationwide and never failed. Later, he was demoted to the position of a middle official, where he wrote the "Records of Disasters and Anomalies" at home. At that time, a fire broke out in Gaomiao, Liaodong, and Zhufu Yan accused Dong Zhongshu of it, slipping the book to the emperor. The emperor had scholars examine Dong Zhongshu's work and found criticisms of the court within it. Dong Zhongshu's disciple, Lv Bushu, did not understand his teacher's book and deemed it the ravings of a madman. As a result, Dong Zhongshu was imprisoned and faced the death penalty, but was later spared due to an imperial pardon. After that, Dong Zhongshu kept his thoughts on such matters to himself.
Dong Zhongshu was a particularly upright person. At that time, the court was busy fighting wars and pacifying borderlands tribes. Although Gong Sunhong was not as skilled as Dong Zhongshu in the study of the Spring and Autumn Annals, he was a master flatterer, quickly rising through the ranks to become a senior official in the court. Dong Zhongshu felt that Gong Sunhong was too good at flattery, which chafed him. Gong Sunhong also held a grudge against Dong Zhongshu, so he went to the emperor and said, "Dong Zhongshu is the only one fit to advise King Jiaoxi." King Jiaoxi had heard that Dong Zhongshu was upright and talented, so he treated him well. Dong Zhongshu was worried that he would get into trouble if he stayed in office for too long, so he quickly resigned and returned home. Until his death, he paid little attention to material things, instead devoting himself to studying and writing books. Therefore, from the establishment of the Han Dynasty to the Five Dynasties, Dong Zhongshu was considered the leading expert on the Spring and Autumn Annals, focusing mainly on the Gongyang school of thought.
Hu Wusheng was from the state of Qi. During the reign of Emperor Jing of Han, he held a position as a court scholar, but as he grew older, he returned home to teach. Many Qi scholars specializing in the Spring and Autumn Annals studied under Hu Wusheng, including Gong Sunhong.
Xiaqiu Jiangsheng studied the Guliang school of thought in the Spring and Autumn Annals. After Gong Sunhong became a high-ranking official, he compared the different schools of Spring and Autumn thought, finally settling on Dong Zhongshu's interpretation.
Dong Zhongshu's notable students include Chu Da from Lanling, Yin Zhong from Guangchuan, and Lv Bushu from Wenxian. Chu Da later became the prime minister of Liang. Lv Bushu attained the position of Secretary General and was once dispatched to Huainan to handle local cases. He acted unilaterally in the princely states, did not report to the court, but was able to explain his actions using the wisdom of the Spring and Autumn Annals, and the emperor was convinced by his argument. Many of Dong Zhongshu's students achieved high official positions, with numerous serving as various mid-level and high-ranking officials. In fact, his son and grandson also rose to high office thanks to their inherited knowledge.
