Since ancient times, which emperor with the mandate of heaven didn't perform the Fengshan ceremony? Of course, there are those who were in over their heads but still tried it, but you never heard of someone seeing auspicious signs and not going to Mount Tai for the ceremony. Even if they hadn't achieved enough, or their virtue wasn't sufficient when arriving at Liangfu Mountain (at the foot of Mount Tai), and even if their virtue was impeccable, they were too busy. As a result, the Fengshan ceremony is rarely carried out. The *Shangshu* states that "Three years without ceremonies, and the ceremonies are lost; three years without sacrifices, and the sacrifices decay." Prosperous dynasties held the Fengshan ceremony to thank Heaven; declining dynasties did not. The last Fengshan ceremony was centuries ago, some over a thousand years past, so the ritual's vanished, and the details are lost to history. According to the *Shangshu*, Emperor Shun used the Xuanji Yuheng (an ancient astronomical instrument) to adjust the Seven Luminaries (the sun, moon, and five planets). He then worshipped the Six Ancestral Spirits (heaven, earth, the four directions, and mountains and rivers), inspected mountains and rivers, and offered sacrifices to various deities. He collected five auspicious objects, selected an auspicious day and time, and met with the Four Mountains (gods of the four directions) and various officials before returning the auspicious objects. In the second month, Emperor Shun went on a hunting expedition to the east and arrived at Mount Tai. Sacrifices were held at Mount Tai to pay respects to the mountains and rivers, followed by meetings with eastern vassals. Following the seasons, months, and dates, he established uniform laws, measurements, and weights, arranged the Five Rites, and used five types of jade, three types of silk, two types of living creatures, and one type of dead object as offerings. In the fifth month, he reached Mount Heng (Hengshan). In the eighth month, he reached Mount Hua (Huashan). In the eleventh month, he reached Mount Heng (Hengshan). The ceremonies at these locations were similar to those at Mount Tai. This same pattern of seasonal pilgrimages also included Mount Song (Songshan), visited every five years.
Emperor Yu inherited the practice of Emperor Shun. After fourteen generations, Emperor Kong Jia, who was wild and disrespectful to the gods, caused his dynasty to lose its two dragon protectors. Three generations later, King Tang defeated King Jie of Xia and attempted to move the shrine of the Xia dynasty, but failed, so he established a new one. Eight generations later, Emperor Tai Wu found a mulberry tree sprouted in the palace courtyard, shooting up overnight—it scared the daylights out of him! Yi Zhi said, "Goodness always wins out." Tai Wu then decided to be virtuous, and the tree died. Yi Zhi recommended Wu Xian, and that's when Wu Xian's star started to rise. Fourteen generations later, Emperor Wu Ding was assisted by Fu Shuo, and the Shang Dynasty flourished again, with Wu Ding being known as Gao Zong. A wild chicken landed on the tripod's ear and let out a squawk, giving Wu Ding a real fright. Zu Ji said, "Do the right thing." Wu Ding followed his advice, and he solidified his power. Five generations later, Emperor Wu Yi was disrespectful to the gods and was struck dead by lightning. Three generations later, King Zhou was a total tyrant and was defeated by King Wu. From these events, it can be seen that these sacrifices started out with tons of respect and care, but people got sloppy over time.
The Zhou Dynasty's official system required that on the winter solstice, they had to offer sacrifices to Heaven in the southern suburbs to welcome the winter solstice; on the summer solstice, sacrifices were required for the Earth God. Music and dance must be used during the sacrifices to really impress the gods. The emperor must sacrifice to the famous mountains and rivers of the country, with the Five Great Mountains holding the same importance as the Three Dukes, and the Four Great Rivers being like the vassal states, who sacrifice to the famous mountains and rivers within their jurisdiction. These four rivers refer to the Yangtze River, Yellow River, Huai River, and Ji River. The emperor had the Mingtang and the Biyong, while the vassals had the Pangong.
After assisting King Cheng, Duke of Zhou offered sacrifices to Hou Ji in the outskirts and dedicated him to Heaven; at the Mingtang, he sacrificed to King Wen and dedicated him to the Emperor. During the time of Great Yu, the construction of the ancestral altar for sacrifices began, and Hou Ji engaged in agricultural production, hence the Hou Ji Temple. These temple sacrifices and offerings to the ancestors had been going on for ages.
The Zhou Dynasty overthrew the Shang Dynasty after fourteen generations, and national strength gradually weakened. Society went downhill, and the nobles did whatever they wanted. Eventually, King You got wiped out by the Quanrong, and the Zhou moved their capital east to Luoyi. Duke Xiang of Qin rescued the Zhou by beating the Quanrong, earning him a spot among the nobles. Once a noble, Duke Xiang settled in Xichu, claiming descent from the Shaohao god. He then built Xi Zhi and sacrificed to the White Emperor, using a piebald horse, a yellow ox, and a ram for the offering. Sixteen years later, while hunting near the Wei River, Duke Wen got a reading that the area was good for settling down. Duke Wen dreamt of a yellow snake flying down from the heavens, landing at Fu Yan. When he asked Shi Dun, Shi Dun said, "This is a sign from the gods; you gotta make an offering." Thus, Fu Zhi was built, and the White Emperor was sacrificed to with three animals. Before Fu Zhi, there were other altars near Yongzhou, but they'd been abandoned. People said Yongzhou's high ground was sacred, a place where spirits gathered. That's why altars were built there, going all the way back to the Yellow Emperor's time, even into the late Zhou. But there's no official record of this, and the big shots don't talk about it. Nine years after the construction of Fu Zhi, Duke Wen of Qin obtained a treasure resembling a stone, and a sacrificial site was built for it in Chen Cang North Ban City. This thing, whatever it was, sometimes skipped a year, other times showed up multiple times. Always at night, it'd blaze like a shooting star from the southeast, landing on the altar – looked like a rooster, sounded like a wild chicken. They offered it the full set of sacrificial animals and called it Chen Bao.
So the story goes, seventy-eight years after the state of Qin performed sacrifices at Fufeng, Duke De of Qin succeeded to the throne and chose to settle in the Yong region. Legend has it that someone had divined, "In the future, descendants will drink horses by the Yellow River," so he moved the capital to Yong. From that time on, many sacrificial sites were built in Yong. Duke De also held sacrifices with three hundred animals at Fufeng, built an ancestral shrine, and sacrificed dogs at the four city gates to keep bad luck away.
Two years later, Duke De died. Four years later, his son Duke Xuan built a shrine at Weinan to worship the Green Emperor.
Fourteen years later, Duke Miao succeeded to the throne. One day, he fell ill and remained unconscious for five days and five nights. When he woke up, he said he had a divine vision, and God commanded him to pacify the rebellion of the state of Jin. This event was recorded by historians and kept in the national archives. Therefore, future generations say that Duke Miao had a divine vision.
Duke Miao reigned as king for nine years. After Duke Huan of Qi rose to power, he brought together the lords at Mount Kuiqiu, wanting to hold the big Fengshan ritual. Guan Zhong said, "In ancient times, there were seventy-two families who performed Fengshan at Mount Tai and sacrificed at Liangfu Mountain. I remember twelve of them. Previously, the Huai clan performed Fengshan at Mount Tai... (The original text is quoted here)... King Cheng of Zhou performed Fengshan at Mount Tai and sacrificed at the head of the altar: they all performed Fengshan after receiving the mandate of heaven."
Duke Huan of Qi said, "I launched a northern expedition against the Shanrong, passing through Solitary Bamboo; a western expedition against Daxia, crossing the flowing sands, dismounting the warhorses, halting the war chariots, and ascending Beier Mountain; a southern expedition reaching Zhaoling, ascending Xionger Mountain to overlook the Jianghan. I mustered my armies three times, gathered the lords' chariots six times, and met with the lords nine times, bringing peace to the land, and nobody dared defy me. In the past, the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties all received mandates, so what's the big deal?"
Guan Zhong, seeing this, couldn't reason with Duke Huan, so he used practical examples to persuade him: "In ancient times, when holding the Fengshan ceremony, the finest millet from Haixian and the best rice shoots from Beili are needed to be considered abundant; in the Jianghuai region, three-eared stalks of grass are needed for sacrifices. The East Sea requires tribute of halibut, and the West Sea requires tribute of a pair of birds that share a single wing; only then would fifteen auspicious treasures arrive spontaneously. Now, phoenixes and qilins do not come, good crops do not grow, weeds flourish, and owls are a common sight. Do you still want to hold the Fengshan ceremony? That's just not going to work!"
So Duke Huan of Qi abandoned the idea of the Fengshan ceremony. That year, Duke Miao of Qin supported Jin's heir, Yi Wu, to the throne. Later, Duke Miao of Qin changed the ruler of Jin three times and quelled the rebellion in Jin. Duke Miao of Qin passed away after reigning for thirty-nine years.
Over a hundred years later, Confucius began to study the ancient imperial sacrificial ceremonies. The book briefly mentioned the seventy-plus emperors who held the Fengshan ceremony at Mount Tai and Liangfu Mountain. However, these sacrificial rites are incomplete and poorly understood. When asked about the Diji sacrifice, Confucius said, "I do not know. But knowing the meaning of the Diji sacrifice would be to understand the world's workings." In the Classic of Poetry, it is mentioned that during the reign of King Zhou of Shang, King Wen of Zhou had already received the mandate from heaven, even before his rule extended to Mount Tai. Two years after King Wu conquered Shang, he passed away before the realm was stabilized. King Cheng of Zhou succeeded to the throne, and because the Zhou dynasty was strong, his Fengshan ceremony was considered relatively formal. Later, during the rule of the powerful ministers of the Zhou dynasty, the Ji clan performed sacrifices at Mount Tai, which Confucius criticized.
At that time, Chang Hong assisted King Zhou Ling, but many vassals did not come to pay court to the Zhou king, weakening the country's power. Chang Hong used supernatural and superstitious events to hold a ceremony called "The Ritual of Punishing Defiant Vassals." The "Raccoon's Head" referred to those vassals who did not come to pay court. He used this occult and superstitious method to try to get the vassals to come, but their defiance remained unmoved, and in the end, people from the Jin state killed him. From Chang Hong onwards, this occult and superstitious method became popular in the Zhou dynasty.
Over a hundred years later, Duke Ling of Qin built the Upper Shrine in Wuyang to worship the Yellow Emperor, and the Lower Shrine to worship the Flame Emperor.
Forty-eight years later, the Grand Historian Dan of Zhou told Duke Xian of Qin, "Qin and Zhou were once united, then separated, but five hundred years later, they will unite again, and seventeen years after the union, a supreme ruler will emerge." When there was a golden rain in Liyang, Duke Xian of Qin considered it an auspicious sign, so he built a shrine in Liyang to worship the White Emperor.
One hundred and twenty years later, Qin conquered the Zhou dynasty, and the Nine Tripod Cauldrons of the Zhou dynasty fell into the hands of Qin. Some also say that the Taiqiu Shrine in the Song state was destroyed, and the Nine Tripod Cauldrons sank beneath the Sishui River in Pengcheng.
One hundred and fifteen years later, Qin unified the world.
After Qin Shihuang unified the six states and proclaimed himself emperor, some said, "The Yellow Emperor possessed the virtue of earth, and yellow dragons and earthworms appeared. The Xia dynasty possessed the virtue of wood, and green dragons lingered on the outskirts, with lush vegetation. The Shang dynasty possessed the virtue of metal, and silver surged from the mountains. The Zhou dynasty possessed the virtue of fire, with signs of a red crow. Now, the Qin dynasty has replaced the Zhou dynasty, entering the era of water virtue. Previously, Duke Wen of Qin caught a black dragon while hunting, which is an auspicious sign of water virtue." So Qin Shihuang renamed the Yellow River "Virtuous Water," made October the first month, adopted black as the imperial color, chose six as his auspicious number, adopted the Dili scale as the court music, and modeled his governance on that of the Yellow Emperor.
Emperor Qin Shi Huang ruled for three years and then went on a tour to various places in the east, including Mount Yi to sacrifice and boast about the Qin Dynasty's accomplishments. He then summoned seventy Confucian scholars to come to the foot of Mount Tai. Some of these scholars discussed that in ancient times, the Fengshan sacrifices were conducted with simple vehicles to avoid damaging the mountain's soil, rocks, grass, and trees; the ground was cleaned before the sacrifice, and the mats were made of reeds and straw, and that’s how it was done. Emperor Qin Shi Huang heard these conflicting opinions from the scholars and found it difficult to implement, so he ignored them. He had a road carved out from the south side of Mount Tai all the way to the mountaintop, put up stone monuments bragging about his accomplishments, to show he was worthy of the Fengshan ritual. Afterwards, he descended from the north side of the mountain and conducted sacrifices at Liangfu Mountain. The rites were mostly based on those used by the Taizhong when they worshipped the Yong Emperor, but the details were kept secret.
When Emperor Qin Shi Huang climbed Mount Tai and reached halfway up the mountainside, a storm hit him, and he had to rest under a large tree by the roadside. The ignored scholars, shut out of the Fengshan ceremony, heard about Emperor Qin Shi Huang's encounter with the storm and started to jeer at him.
So Qin Shi Huang continued his eastern tour, went to the seaside, offered sacrifices to famous mountains, rivers, and the Eight Deities, searching for someone like Xianmen. These Eight Deities have existed since ancient times; some say they were established by Jiang Taigong. Qi State got its name from its alignment with Heaven. Its rituals had long been discontinued, their origins lost to time. The Eight Deities are as follows: the God of Heaven, worshipped at Tianqi (Tianqi Abyss lies at the foot of the southern slopes outside Linzi); the God of Earth, worshipped at Mount Tai Liangfu; Heaven, associated with the yin principle, was thus worshipped under high mountains and above small mountains, called a *zhi*, a type of altar; Earth, associated with the yang principle, was worshipped on a circular altar in the swamp. The third is the God of War, with Chiyou's shrine located in the western border of Qi State. The fourth is the God of Yin, worshipped at Three Mountains; the fifth is the God of Yang, worshipped at Zhifu; the sixth is the God of the Moon, worshipped at Laishan; these three mountains are all in the northern part of Qi State, near the Bohai Sea. The seventh is the God of the Sun, worshipped at Chengshan, which extends into the sea and is located at the northeast corner of Qi State, used to welcome the sunrise. The eighth is the God of the Four Seasons, worshipped at Langye, which is in the eastern part of Qi State, symbolizing the beginning of the year. Sacrifices to the Eight Deities are performed with a complete set of sacrificial tools, and the shamans will increase or decrease offerings according to the situation during the sacrificial process. The jade and coins used varied.
Since the time of King Wei of Qi and King Xuan of Qi, there were always spouting their Five Elements theories. Later, when Qin Shi Huang came to power, the people of Qi fed Qin Shi Huang this line, and he swallowed it hook, line, and sinker. People like Song Wuji, Zhengbo Qiao, Chong Shang, and Xianmeng Gao all eventually went to Yan State, chasing immortality and hanging out with ghosts and spirits. Zou Yan's Yin-Yang, Five Elements mumbo-jumbo was all the rage in the vassal states, but the quacks in Yan and coastal Qi couldn't get anyone to buy into it. So the weirdos, yes-men, and self-serving opportunists started popping up like mushrooms after a rain.
From the reign of King Qiwei, King Qixuan to the period of King Zhao of Yan, people sent others to sail the seas in search of the three immortal mountains of Penglai, Fangzhang, and Yingzhou. Legend has it that these three mountains are located in the Bohai Sea, not far from the shore; but as you approach, winds would whip them back. The story goes that some people have actually been there, where immortals reside and the elixir of life can be found. Everything there—plants and animals—was white, and the palaces were built of gold and silver. From a distance, they look like clouds and mist; but when you get close, the three immortal mountains sink beneath the water. If you approach them, the wind will blow you away, and no one has ever been able to reach them. Kings were always chasing this dream. After unifying the country, Qin Shihuang went to the seaside, where the alchemists spun tall tales about the immortal mountains. Even Shihuang thought it too slow, so he sent people with young boys and girls to search the seas. The ships always returned, blown back by the winds, claiming they'd only seen the mountains from afar. The following year, Shihuang went to the seaside again, passing through Langya, Hengshan, and returning from Shangdang. Three years later, he went to Jieshi to inspect the alchemists who had gone to sea in search of the immortal mountains, returning from Shangjun. Five years later, Shihuang traveled south to Xiangshan, then climbed Mount Kuaiji, went to the seaside, hoping to find the legendary elixir on the three immortal mountains. He never found it and died on the way back to Shaqiu. In the first year of Qin Er Shi's reign, he toured Jieshi in the east, went to Hainan, passed through Mount Tai, and arrived at Kuaiji, where he made sacrifices and carved words next to the stone stele erected by Shihuang, praising his achievements. That autumn, rebellions broke out across the Qin empire. Three years later, Ershi was killed.
Twelve years after the First Emperor performed the imperial sacrifice at Mount Tai, the Qin Dynasty fell. Confucian scholars detested the burning of books and the burying alive of scholars by the First Emperor of Qin, and the people resented the oppressive laws of the Qin Dynasty. People throughout the land rebelled against Qin, spreading rumors that "when the First Emperor was offering sacrifices to the heavens on Mount Tai, he was struck by a violent storm and was unable to complete the sacrifice." Doesn't that just show you what happens when you're power-hungry and don't care about anyone else?
In the past, the capitals of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were all located between the Yellow River and Luo River, making Mount Song the central peak. The other four sacred mountains each held their own place, with the four major rivers all located in the Shandong region. When Qin Shihuang became emperor and established Xianyang as the capital, the five sacred mountains and four major rivers were all to the east relative to the Qin capital. From the Five Emperors to the Qin Dynasty, dynastic shifts changed the ownership of famous mountains and rivers, some belonging to vassals and some to the emperor. The rituals of worship also evolved with the times, countless in number. After unifying the country, the Qin Dynasty unified the rituals of worship for the heavens, earth, famous mountains, rivers, and spirits.
Therefore, five famous mountains and two major rivers were selected east of the Xiaoxiao Mountains. The five famous mountains were: Mount Taishi (Mount Song), Mount Heng, Mount Tai, Mount Kuaiji, and Mount Xiang. The two rivers were the Ji River and the Huai River. Sacrifices were offered in spring with cooked meat and wine, and at the melting, drying, and freezing of the ice and snow. A calf was sacrificed each time, and the offerings and ceremonial objects differed for each sacrifice.
From west of Mount Hua, seven famous mountains and four major rivers were selected for ritual offerings. The seven famous mountains are: Mount Hua, Mount Boshan (meaning 'decaying mountain'), Mount Yue, Mount Qi, Mount Wu, Hongzhong Mountain, and Mount Du. The four rivers are: the Yellow River (offered in Linjin), the Mian River (offered in Hanzhong), the Jiao Yuan (offered in Chaona), and the Yangtze River (offered in Shu). The timing of the offerings is the same as in the east, with offerings made during the spring thaw, autumn dryness, and winter freeze. The sacrificial animals, utensils, and silk fabrics are all different. And these four major mountains—Hongzhong Mountain, Mount Qi, Mount Wu, and Mount Yue—hold annual harvest offerings.
When Chen Baojie came to offer to the Yellow River, the ritual also included a ceremony of tasting fermented millet wine. These places are all within the territory of Yongzhou, near the emperor's court, so the specifications of the offerings are higher, with the addition of a carriage and four chestnut horses.
The Ba River, Chan River, Chang River, Feng River, Lao River, Jing River, and Wei River are not major rivers, but because they are close to Xianyang, they are also included in the list of mountains and rivers for offerings, though without any extra ceremony.
The Qian River, Luo River, Mingze, Pusan, and Mount Yue, among others, are all small mountains and rivers that are also offered to annually, but the rituals varied.
You won't believe it, but Yongzhou is home to a whopping hundred-plus temples! There are shrines dedicated to a myriad of deities, including:
- The sun, moon, and stars
- The Big Dipper and Southern Dipper
- The gods of the comet (Yinghuo) and Venus (Taibai)
- The planet Jupiter (Suixing) and the stars of the twenty-eight constellations
- The gods of wind (Fengbo) and rain (Yushi)
- The deities of the seas (Sihai), the Nine Ministers (Jiuchen), and the Fourteen Ministers (Shicheng)
- Various other gods, including Zhu Bu, Zhu Yan, and Zhu Qiu
In addition, there are dozens of ancestral halls in the west. By the lakeside in Yongzhou, you'll find the Temple of the Son of Heaven; in Xiagui, there's a temple for the Heavenly God; and along the Feng and Wei rivers, there are temples for Zhao Ming and the Son of Heaven's Pool. In the Du and Bo regions, you'll discover the main shrine for the Three Societies and the Shrine of the God of Longevity. The temple in Yongzhou dedicated to Du Zhu, the Right General of the Zhou Dynasty, is considered the least significant deity in the Qin region. All these temples hold regular ceremonies based on the changing seasons.
The most esteemed of these is Yongzhou's Four Altars to the Supreme Deity, where the ceremonies are truly a spectacle that captivates the entire city! The rituals at the Four Altars include:
- Spring offerings for a bountiful harvest, held when the ice and snow melt
- Autumn ceremonies conducted when the waters recede
- Winter closures of the shrines
- Special ceremonies in May for colts
- Regular offerings throughout the other months
Each time a ceremony is held, an additional offering is made when Chen Baojie arrives. In spring and summer, red horses are used, while black horses are reserved for autumn and winter. The sacrifices include four colts, a wooden dragon chariot, and a wooden carriage, all color-coordinated with the deities being honored. Four yellow calves and lambs are also required, with specific numbers of ceremonial jade coins dictated—these are all live sacrifices that are buried afterward without using any ritual implements. A grand sacrifice is held every three years.
In the Qin Dynasty, October marks the start of the year, so each year in early October, a grand sacrifice is performed near Xianyang, where beacon fires are lit and participants dress in white for the ceremony, which follows the same rituals as other sacrifices. The ceremonies at the West and Field Altars continue in the same manner, with the Emperor generally not attending in person.
The sacrifices in these temples are all handled by the Grand Priest and carried out on time. As for the spirits of famous mountains and rivers, as well as the Eight Deities, the emperor would make a quick offering as he passed. The sacrifices to the gods and spirits in the outlying counties are the responsibility of the local people themselves, without the need for imperial priests to oversee. These priests possessed secret sacrificial formulas, and in times of disaster, they use these formulas to avert the calamity.
After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, when Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang was young, he once killed a large snake. The story went, "That snake is the son of the White Emperor, and the one who killed it is the son of the Red Emperor." In the early stages of his uprising, Liu Bang prayed at Feng, Pei, and Yu She. After capturing Pei County and becoming the Prince of Pei, he offered sacrifices to Chi You, dyeing his war drums and banners crimson with blood. Later, in October, he arrived at Bashang, and together with the nobles, pacified Xianyang and was declared King of Han. Therefore, he declared October the start of the year and also favored red clothing.
In the second year, after defeating Xiang Yu and returning to Guanzhong, Liu Bang asked his ministers, "What gods did the Qin Dynasty worship?" The ministers replied, "There were four: the White, Green, Yellow, and Red Emperors." Liu Bang said, "I have heard that there should be five emperors in heaven, so why are there only four?" No one could explain clearly. At this point, Liu Bang said, "Ah, so that's it! They were waiting for me to make it a set of five." So Liu Bang established a place of sacrifice for the Black Emperor called Beishi. Although officials went to offer sacrifices, he did not go himself. He assembled the former Qin Dynasty's priests and restored the positions of Grand Priest and Grand Minister, continuing the original sacrificial rituals. He also ordered the establishment of county-level administrative units in each district. He then issued a decree saying, "I place great importance on, and conduct with utmost respect, all sacrifices. From now on, sacrifices to the gods and spirits of the mountains and rivers must be carried out according to the original timing and rituals."
Four years later, after the world was pacified, Liu Bang ordered the inspector to have Feng County properly repair the shrine at Feng and to offer sheep and pig sacrifices every season. He also ordered the officials to establish a shrine for Chiyou in Chang'an, as well as to set up shrines for officials and witches. The witch priests of Liang State sacrificed to the following:
- Heaven
- Earth
- Heavenly altars
- Heavenly water
- Local household deities
- Hall deities
The witch priests of Jin State sacrificed to:
- The Five Emperors
- Eastern Lord
- Lord of the Clouds
- Minister of Fate
- Witch society
- Witch shrine
- Relatives
- Ancestors
The witch priests of Qin State sacrificed to:
- The head of the society
- Witch protector
- Relatives
The witch priests of Jing State sacrificed to:
- Lower hall deities
- Witch ancestors
- Minister of Fate
- Shimi
The witch priests of the Nine Heavens sacrificed to the Nine Heavens. All these sacrifices were carried out in the palace according to the seasons. The river witch priests sacrificed to the Yellow River at Linjin, while the mountain witch priests sacrificed to the mountains in Qinzhong, referring here to the reign of Qin Er Shi. Each sacrifice had a designated date.
Two years later, someone said that the Zhou Dynasty originated in Taiyi and established a shrine for Houji, which the world has been worshipping. So Liu Bang ordered the inspector, "Order each county to build a shrine to Lingxing and sacrifice cattle annually according to the seasons."
In the tenth year of Emperor Gaozu's reign, local authorities requested that each county sacrifice sheep and pigs to the earth god in February and December, with each village contributing money for the sacrifices. Liu Bang approved it.
Eighteen years later, Emperor Xiaowen ascended to the throne. Thirteen years into his reign, he decreed, "The private religious ceremonies are too complicated; I find them excessive. From now on, these rituals will be abolished."
Initially, famous mountains and rivers were all within the territories of the vassal states, and the officials of the vassal states were responsible for the sacrifices, with no involvement from the court officials. When the states of Qi and Huainan were abolished, the court ordered the chief priest to carry out the sacrifices according to the original time and rituals.
One year, Emperor Wen of Han issued a decree saying: "Thirteen years on the throne, and thanks to the blessings of my ancestors, things are good – the country's prosperous, everyone's healthy and happy. In recent years, we've had good weather and abundant harvests. It's not my doing, it's all down to luck! I’ve heard that ancient kings must thank the grace of heaven and repay the merits of heaven, so I want to expand the places where we worship the gods.
The relevant departments suggested the following: add a chariot to Yongzhi (the place of worship) and Wuzhi (the five altars), complete with chariots and utensils; add a chariot to Xizhi (the western altar) and Zhi (the altar), with four horses, also complete with chariots and utensils; at the He (River), Jiao (River), and Han (River), we should add two jade objects to each sacrificial site. Other sacrificial sites should also expand their altars, adding ritual vessels such as gui (a type of ritual vessel), bi (another type), zun (a wine vessel), and dou (a type of bowl), with the quantities increased accordingly.
However, in the past, when offering sacrifices, the ritual officials attributed all the blessings to me, and the people had no share. From now on, we just pay our respects – no more asking for favors."
Next, a man from Lu named Gongsun Chen wrote to the emperor saying, "The Qin Dynasty had the water element. Now the Han Dynasty has inherited the throne of the Qin Dynasty. According to the principles of yin and yang and the five elements, the Han Dynasty should inherit the earth element, and the symbol of the earth element is the appearance of a yellow dragon. Therefore, the calendar and the color of clothing should be changed to yellow." At that time, Prime Minister Zhang Cang was well-versed in the calendar. He believed that the Han Dynasty marked the beginning of the water element, and the Yellow River flooding was a fulfillment of this, because in the winter of that year, in October, the sky was a dark, reddish hue, which corresponded to the water element. So he thought that Gongsun Chen's statement was incorrect and rejected his suggestion. Three years later, the yellow dragon did appear in Chengji. Emperor Wen then summoned Gongsun Chen, made him a court scholar, and asked him and other scholars to discuss the matter of changing the calendar and clothing colors. That summer, Emperor Wen issued a decree saying, "The appearance of a yellow dragon in Chengji brought a good harvest and no misfortune. I prayed to the heavens and gods outside the suburbs, and after consulting with the ritual officials, keep me informed, and don't waste my time." Officials from relevant departments all said, "This summer sacrifice to Heaven was known as the suburban sacrifice." Therefore, in the fourth month of summer, Emperor Wen held the suburban worship for the first time in Yongzhi and Wuzhi, and the clothes were all red on top. The following year, a man from Zhao named Xinyuan Ping, who was skilled at observing celestial phenomena, went to the palace to meet the emperor and said, "There is a divine aura in the northeast of Chang'an, showing five colors, like people wearing hats. Some say that the northeast is where the gods reside, and the west is the tomb of the gods. This is an auspicious sign bestowed by the heavens. Temples should be built to worship the heavens to correspond to the signs of the celestial phenomena." So, the Five Emperors Temple was built in Weiyang, with the temples forming a complex, the middle one being the palace of the Heavenly Emperor. Each temple had five gates, each gate colored to represent a different emperor. The ritual objects and ceremonies used for worship were the same as those in Yongzhi.
In April, Emperor Wen of Han personally went to the Ba River and Wei River to hold a sacrificial ceremony, worshipping the five emperors in the Wei Yang Temple. The temple is located on the south bank of the Wei River, and north of the Pu Chi Canal. At that time, the sacrificial flames blazed to the heavens, shining brightly like heavenly light. Because of this sacrifice, the chief sacrificial officer was rewarded with a large sum of money. Emperor Wen also instructed scholars to study the content of the imperial system in the "Six Classics" and discuss important matters such as ritual inspections and Fengshan sacrifices.
Next, Emperor Wen came out of Chang Le Palace and thought he saw five people on the north side of the road, so he built the Five Emperor Altar there and sacrificed with five kinds of offerings.
The following year, Xinyuan Ping sent someone to offer a jade cup to the emperor and wrote a letter saying, "Your Majesty, there is a treasure jade aura in the palace!" The emperor took a look and indeed someone had offered a jade cup with the words "Long Live the Emperor" engraved on it. Xinyuan Ping also said, "Your Majesty, I predict that the sun will appear twice at noon." After a while, the sun reappeared at noon. Therefore, Emperor Wen of Han decided to change the seventeenth year to the first year and ordered a huge national celebration.
Xinyuan Ping then said, "The legendary Nine Tripods of the Zhou Dynasty were lost in the Si River. Now the Yellow River has risen and submerged the Si River. I observed a glittering golden light in the northeast direction near Fenyin, and I think the Zhou Tripod might have been unearthed there! If you don't seize the omen, it'll be gone." So the emperor sent people to build temples on the south bank of the Fenyin River to prepare for the sacrifice, hoping to find the Nine Tripods of the Zhou Dynasty.
Later, someone wrote a letter accusing Xinyuan Ping of fabricating those miraculous omens. The emperor ordered an investigation and eventually executed Xinyuan Ping. Since then, Emperor Wen of Han lost interest in changing the calendar, clothing colors, and religious observances. He left the regular sacrifices to the officials, and he no longer attended himself.
In the second year, the Xiongnu invaded the border multiple times, forcing Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty to raise troops for defense. Then, for several years, there were crop failures.
After a few years, Emperor Jing of Han succeeded to the throne. During his sixteen-year reign, official sacrifices continued without incident, and this tradition has continued to this day.
The new emperor was a big believer in appeasing the spirits.
The Han Dynasty has been established for over sixty years, and the country is peaceful. The bigwigs were all hoping the Emperor would do a Fengshan ceremony, overhaul the calendar, and reform the whole system. The emperor also leaned towards Confucianism, recruiting talented individuals. Guys like Zhao Wan and Wang Zang became top dogs in the court. They wanted to build a Mingtang south of the city to summon the nobles, just like in the old days, and planned to prepare for hunting expeditions, the Fengshan ceremony, changing the calendar, and altering clothing colors, but none of these were completed. But the Empress Dowager Dou, a big fan of Huang-Lao philosophy and not a fan of Confucianism, had them investigated and found dirt on them. They were hauled in for questioning and ended up killing themselves. Everything they'd done was scrapped.
Six years later, Empress Dowager Dou passed away. The next year, Emperor Jing called in Confucian scholars like Gongsun Hong.
The next year, the emperor went to Yongdi for the first time and performed sacrifices at the Wuzhi Altar. Later, the emperor performed sacrifices every three years. The Emperor heard about this deity living in the Si Shi Guan in Shanglin Park. This deity was a woman from Changling; after her son died, she started seeing spirits all the time—real ones, it seemed. People built her a shrine at home, and tons of people worshipped her. Even Lord Pingyuan went to worship, and his descendants went on to become really important. After he became Emperor, he showered the shrine with gifts. Everyone knew her story, but nobody'd ever actually seen her.
At that time, Li Shaojun was summoned by the emperor because he understood the arts of kitchen-god worship, health cultivation, and longevity. The emperor was really impressed with him. Li Shaojun used to work at the Marquis of Shenze's place, specializing in these techniques. He kept his age and background under wraps, always claiming to be seventy years old, saying he could command ghosts and gods and could live forever. He wandered the land, using his skills to get by, without a wife or children. People heard that he could command ghosts and gods and live forever, so they all showered him with gifts. He was always rolling in cash, clothes, and food. Everyone thought he lived a wealthy life without worrying about his livelihood, and not knowing his background, they believed in his abilities even more, kissing up to him. Li Shaojun was proficient in various techniques, skilled in cleverly predicting and deducing. Once, he was drinking with the Marquis of Wuan. There were over ninety old-timers present. Li Shaojun said that when he was young, he went hunting with his grandfather to a certain place, and those elderly people had also been to that place with their grandfathers when they were young, recognizing the place, which blew everyone away. When Li Shaojun met the emperor, the emperor had some ancient bronze objects in his hands and asked Li Shaojun about them. Li Shaojun said, "These were placed in the Baiqin Palace by Duke Huan of Qi ten years ago." Later, after verifying the inscriptions on them, it was indeed objects from the time of Duke Huan of Qi. The palace staff were gobsmacked, convinced he was a god who'd been around for ages.
Li Shaojun said to the emperor, "By worshipping the Kitchen God, one can obtain treasures. With these treasures, one can refine cinnabar into gold. The tableware made of this gold can help one live longer. By living longer, one can see the Penglai immortals and Anqisheng in the sea. By seeing them, one can achieve immortality through the Fengshan ceremony, just like the Yellow Emperor did. I have traveled on the sea before and seen Anqisheng. Anqisheng eats a very large date, as big as a melon. Anqisheng is an immortal who resides on Penglai Island. He could appear and disappear at will." Therefore, the emperor personally began to worship the Kitchen God, sent diviners to search for Penglai Island and Anqisheng, and started to refine gold using cinnabar.
After a long time, Li Shaojun died. The emperor believed that he had become an immortal and did not die, so he left his techniques to the historian Huang Chuishi. The search for Penglai Island and Anqisheng yielded no results, but some flaky fortune-tellers from places like Yanzhou and Qi on the sea came to tell weird stories.
There was a man from Bozhou named Miuji who petitioned the emperor to sacrifice to the god Taiyi. He said, "Among the heavenly gods, the most noble is Taiyi, with the Five Emperors as his assistants. In ancient times, the emperor would sacrifice to Taiyi in the southeast suburbs in spring and autumn, offering the most lavish offerings for seven days, and creating eight pathways to the underworld on the altar." Therefore, the emperor ordered the chief priest to establish a temple to Taiyi in the southeast suburbs of Chang'an and to conduct year-round sacrifices according to Miuji's suggestion.
Later, someone wrote to the emperor, saying, "In ancient times, the emperor would offer sacrifices to three gods - Tianyi, Diyi, and Taiyi - every three years." The emperor agreed and ordered the chief priest to conduct the sacrifices at the Taiyi altar built in Miouji, following the suggestions in the memorial. Then, another person sent a memo saying, "In ancient times, in the spring, the emperor would also hold other sacrificial activities, offering an owl and a cracked mirror for sacrifices to the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi); offering a sheep for sacrifices to Mingyang; offering a green stallion for sacrifices to the Horse God; offering oxen for sacrifices to Taiyi, Zeshan Jun, and the Earth God; offering dried fish for sacrifices to Wuyi Jun; and offering a cow for sacrifices to the messengers of Yin and Yang." The emperor ordered the sacrificial officials to carry out the suggestions in the memorial, and these sacrificial activities were conducted next to the Taiyi altar built in Miouji.
A white deer appeared in the emperor's gardens, and the emperor used its hide to make sacrificial cloth, believing it to be an auspicious sign. Therefore, he minted white gold to reward his nobles.
The following year, during the state sacrifices, the emperor unexpectedly obtained a unicorn, resembling a bao (a type of deer). The official in charge of the sacrifices said, "Your Majesty, you devoutly conducted the state sacrifices, and as a result, heaven has bestowed upon you a unicorn, probably the legendary qilin!" The unicorn was then offered as a sacrifice to Wuzhi (the ancient god of the land), and an additional cow was added to the original sacrificial livestock for burning. The emperor also rewarded the lords with white gold, all of which were auspicious signs fulfilled by heaven!
The King of Jibei thought that the emperor was probably going to hold the Fengshan ceremony soon, so he submitted a memorial offering Mount Tai and several surrounding counties. The emperor compensated the King of Jibei with other counties. The King of Changshan committed a crime and was demoted, so the emperor enfeoffed his brother in Zhending, allowing him to inherit the ancestral sacrifices. At the same time, the Changshan region was established as a prefecture, thus all five famous mountains (Wuyue) were under the jurisdiction of the emperor's prefectures.
In the second year, an old man from the Qi state claimed to have some supernatural abilities and put on a show for the emperor. At that time, the emperor favored Lady Wang, but unfortunately, she passed away. With his magic, the old man conjured up images of Lady Wang and the Kitchen God, right there in the night, which the emperor saw through the curtain! The emperor was beside himself with joy and immediately appointed him as General Wen Cheng, rewarding him greatly and treating him like a VIP.
General Wen Cheng said, "Your Majesty, this place isn't fit for immortals; they won't show up in this dump!" So he began to draw cloud chariots pulled by all sorts of mythical beasts, to scare away any evil spirits. He also designed and built the Ganquan Palace, where he created a hall decked out with paintings of gods and demons, as well as items for sacrifices, in preparation to welcome the immortals. However, after more than a year, his magic stopped working, and the immortals never came. Later, he fed a silk scroll to a cow, then claimed the cow had swallowed a treasure. As a result, when the cow was slaughtered, they did find the silk book with weird stuff scribbled on it. The emperor saw right through the fake writing – it was Wen Cheng's own handiwork! So the emperor had General Wen Cheng killed, and the whole thing was hushed up.
Then he started building all sorts of things, like the Bailiang Terrace, bronze pillars, and even started growing these weird plants, like the dew-carrying cactus.
Two years after General Wencheng passed away, the emperor fell seriously ill at Dinghu, where he sought out various witch doctors but none could cure him. At this time, a man named You Shuifa told the emperor that there was a wizard in Shangjun who, when sick, would be visited by spirits. The emperor quickly summoned this wizard to Ganquan Palace, and when he was gravely ill, he sent people to inquire of the spirit guy. The spirit guy said, "Your Majesty need not worry; the illness will soon be healed. After you recover, come to Ganquan Palace to see me." As a result, the emperor's illness was indeed cured. After his recovery, he went to Ganquan Palace, and his illness was completely healed. The emperor declared a general amnesty and specifically established a Longevity Palace for the spirit guy. The most respected deity in this palace was the Taiyi Spirit Lord, accompanied by other assisting deities such as Dajin and Siming. These deities could not be seen, only heard, and their voices sounded like human speech. They came and went, and when they arrived, the wind would howl. They lived in curtains and spoke during the day, but mostly at night. The emperor had to perform a purification ceremony before entering. The emperor appointed the wizard as the host, responsible for keeping him fed and housed, and conveying the messages of the spirit guy. The emperor also built the Longevity Palace and the Northern Palace, decorated with feather flags and offerings, to solemnly worship the spirit guy. The words of the spirit guy were pretty mundane, nothing special, really, but the emperor particularly liked them. This matter was kept secret; it was all hush-hush, and nobody else knew about it.
Three years later, someone told the emperor that the era name should reflect good omens in the heavens, not numbers like one, two, three. For example, the first year was called "Jian" because of a comet, the second year was called "Guang" because of a bright star, and the third year was called "Shou" because a unicorn was found outside the suburbs.
In the second winter, the emperor went to the Yong region to worship the heavens, and then someone suggested, "Now the emperor worships the heavens in person, but the earth god hasn’t been worshipped—that's not quite right, is it?" Then the officials in charge of the sacrifices, the historian Sima Qian, and Kuanshu, the official in charge of the sacrifices, discussed together, "There's a proper way to do things when sacrificing to Heaven and Earth—the animals, the silk cocoons, even the chestnuts. Since Your Majesty wishes to personally worship the earth god, five altars should be set up for the Earth God on the circular altar in the marshland, with each altar using a yellow ox as a sacrifice. The offerings would then be buried after the ceremony, and the worshippers should wear yellow clothes." So the emperor journeyed east and established the place for worshipping the earth god at the Fenshui Mound in Fenyin, following the plan discussed with Kuanshu. The emperor personally worshipped, with the same grandeur as the Heaven-worship ceremony. After the sacrifice, the emperor went to Xingyang and then returned. Passing through Luoyang, the emperor issued a decree saying, "The Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties are ancient history; it's hard to know what really happened. We'll grant the Zhou descendants within a thirty-mile radius the title of Lord of Zhouzinan, and let him be in charge of worshipping the ancestors of the Zhou dynasty." That year, the emperor toured the counties, even going as far as Mount Tai.
In spring, Marquis Le Cheng accused Luan Da in a memorial. Luan Da, a court official from Jiaodong, used to have the same teacher as General Wen Cheng and later served as an alchemist for the King of Jiaodong. Marquis Le Cheng's sister is Dowager Queen Kang, who has no sons. When King Kang died, the son of another concubine inherited the throne. Queen Kang had a bit of a reputation; she did not get along well with the new king and was almost punished. Upon hearing that General Wen Cheng had died, Queen Kang wanted to please the emperor, so she sent Luan Da to request an audience with him through Marquis Le Cheng, hoping to present her own supernatural abilities. The emperor regretted executing General Wen Cheng prematurely, realizing his untapped potential. When he saw Luan Da, he was very pleased. Luan Da was tall, handsome, eloquent, and dared to speak boldly. The emperor did not doubt him at all. Luan Da said, "I often walk back and forth in the sea and have met immortals like An Qi Sheng and Xian Meng Gao. They think I am of low status and do not believe me. They also consider King Kang just a vassal, not worth my talents. I have advised King Kang many times, but he did not accept my advice. My teacher once said, 'Gold can be refined, even the Yellow River, when it bursts its banks, can be controlled, the elixir of immortality can be found, and immortals can be invited.' But I fear following in General Wen Cheng's footsteps, so other alchemists remain silent; who dares to discuss these sorceries?" The emperor replied, "General Wen Cheng died just because he ate horse liver. If you can truly cultivate those supernatural abilities, I'd give you anything!" Luan Da continued, "My teacher did not actively seek others; rather, others sought him. If Your Majesty really wants to invite immortals, you must value the envoys sent. Let them have relatives by their side and treat them with proper guest etiquette. Do not disrespect them. Each envoy should wear their own tokens to facilitate smooth communication with the divine beings. Whether the divine beings are willing to come depends on the nobility of the envoys; only then can they be invited." So the emperor had people test some minor spells, such as playing chess with the chess pieces mysteriously moving and striking each other.
At that time, the court was worried about the breach of the Yellow River, and since no gold was found, the emperor appointed Da as the Five Virtues General. About a month later, Da received four seals, namely the Seals of Heaven, Earth, and Great Harmony. The emperor also issued a decree to the imperial censor, saying, "In the past, Yu the Great dredged nine rivers and opened four tributaries. Recently, the Yellow River flooded the fields, and the embankments were constantly being repaired. I have been emperor for twenty-eight years, and if heaven wants to send me a capable person, it is probably Da. Like the *I Ching* says, 'a dragon soars in the heavens,' and 'a wild goose settles on the land.' Let's appoint Da as the Marquis of Great Harmony and Joy, giving him a fief of two thousand households." The emperor also rewarded him with the mansion of a marquis, one thousand servants, as well as various luxurious vehicles, tents, and objects, to make his family wealthy. He also married the Princess Wei Chang to him, with a dowry of ten thousand catties of gold, and changed his fiefdom's name to "Princess Dangli." The emperor himself frequently visited, and envoys streamed in with gifts and provisions. From the Grand General to the Prime Minister, they all went to his house to host banquets and present gifts to him. Later, the emperor carved a jade seal called "Seal of Heaven," and sent envoys in ceremonial robes to present it under the cover of darkness, with the General also robed and waiting to accept the seal, to show that he was not a subject. Wearing the "Tian Dao" seal was also to allow General Wuli to communicate with heaven for the emperor. So General Wuli often worshipped at home in the evening, hoping to invite the gods down. Instead of the gods, many ghosts came, but he somehow managed to keep them at bay. Later, he packed his bags and set out east to the sea to find his teacher. After a few months, he returned with six seals, his reputation shaking the world. Coastal Yan and Qi buzzed with whispers of forbidden arts and immortality.
So, in mid-June of that year, there was a shaman named Jin in Fenyin who was holding a ceremony near the Temple of the Earth God for the Wei King. She discovered something hook-shaped in the ground, and upon digging it out, it turned out to be a strange tripod, unlike any other, with no markings. Jin quickly reported it to the officials. Sheng, hearing this, immediately reported it to the court. The emperor sent investigators, who confirmed Jin's story, then performed a ritual according to etiquette, bringing the tripod back to Ganquan Palace. The emperor went along himself.
When they reached Zhongshan, the sun was scorching hot, and suddenly a yellow cloud appeared in the sky, and a strange deer flew past. The emperor personally shot and killed it, and then offered both the deer and the cloud as sacrifices. Upon arrival in Chang'an, everyone agreed it should be enshrined properly. However, the emperor said, "The Yellow River flooded, crops failed, and I prayed to the Earth God for a good harvest. We haven't even heard about the harvest yet, and now this shows up?"
The ministers all said, "Legend has it that in ancient times, the Tai Emperor once cast a divine tripod, with 'one' representing unity, symbolizing where everything in heaven and earth ultimately ends up. The Yellow Emperor then cast three precious tripods, symbolizing heaven, earth, and humanity. Great Yu collected metals from nine states and cast nine tripods, which were used for sacrifices to heaven and earth, and the spirits. Whenever a good emperor appears, the tripods will appear and pass down through the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. As the Zhou dynasty declined, the sacrificial rites of the Song state were abandoned, and these nine tripods disappeared, never to be seen again. The hymn reads, 'From altar to hearth, from sheep to ox, the tripods and vessels, humble and reverent, a worship to our ancestors.' Now, these tripods have appeared in the Ganquan Palace, shining brightly, like dragons themselves, bearing infinite auspiciousness. Auspicious beasts heralded the descent of yellow and white clouds, and the emperor shot a roe deer, like a god's shot, all signs of blessings from heaven, a great omen of worshipping the earth god. Only an emperor appointed by heaven can understand the implications and be in harmony with Heaven's will. These tripods should be enshrined in ancestral temples, stored in the imperial palace, to align with the celestial phenomena." The emperor said, "So ordered!"
As for those searching the seas for Penglai Immortal Island, they all said that Penglai was not far away, but they just couldn't find it, perhaps they just missed the island's auspicious glow. The emperor then sent people specifically to observe the celestial phenomena and wait for the auspicious aura of Penglai Immortal Island to appear.
In autumn, the emperor went to Yongdi to prepare for an outdoor sacrifice. Someone suggested, "The Five Emperors served the Supreme God, so we should worship the Supreme God, and the emperor should personally preside over the outdoor sacrifice." The emperor hesitated, unsure what to do.
Gongsun Qing, a man from Qi, said: "This year we obtained the Bao cauldron. This winter, on the first day of the Xin Si month (which also happened to be the new year's day of the Jiyou year), is the same as in the time of the Yellow Emperor." Gongsun Qing took out a letter and said: "The Yellow Emperor obtained the Bao cauldron in Wanxu, then went to ask Guiyuqu. Guiyuqu replied: 'You have obtained the Bao cauldron and the Mandate of Heaven. This year is the first day of winter, which also happened to be the new year's day of the Jiyou year; you have obtained the celestial cycles, which end and begin again.' So the Yellow Emperor performed a sun-salutation ritual, calculated the calendar, and every twenty years encountered the winter solstice on the first day of the lunar month, a total of twenty times, totaling three hundred and eighty years, and the Yellow Emperor achieved immortality and ascended to the heavens." Gongsun Qing, wanting to be loyal to the emperor, wanted to report this letter to the emperor. The official reviewing the memorials felt that the content of the letter was not in line with the norms, suspected it was fake, and declined, saying: "The Bao cauldron's already settled, so what's the point?"
Gongsun Qing slipped a letter to the emperor via a well-connected eunuch. The emperor was delighted upon hearing it and summoned Gongsun Qing to inquire. Gongsun Qing replied, "I received this letter from Shen Gong, who is dead." The emperor asked, "Who is Shen Gong?" Gongsun Qing said, "Shen Gong was a man from the state of Qi, with a close relationship with An Qisheng. He received rumors from the Yellow Emperor, which were not recorded in writing, only this letter about the Sacred Cauldron. The letter said: 'The Han Dynasty will prosper and usher in the era of the Yellow Emperor once again'; 'A truly great Han ruler will appear among the grandsons and great-grandsons of Gaozu'; 'When the Sacred Cauldron emerges, it will be able to communicate with the divine and conduct the investiture ceremony. Seventy-two emperors have performed the investiture, but only the Yellow Emperor succeeded on Mount Tai.' Shen Gong also said, 'The emperor of the Han Dynasty should also go to Mount Tai to perform the investiture, and by doing so, ascend to immortality. In the era of the Yellow Emperor, there were thousands of vassals, but only seven thousand were deemed worthy by the gods to perform the ceremony. There are eight famous mountains in the world, three of which are in barbarian lands, and five are in China. The five famous mountains in China are Mount Hua, Mount Shou, Mount Taishi, Mount Tai, and Mount Donglai, where the Yellow Emperor often visited and met with the divine. The Yellow Emperor pursued immortality while fighting wars. He was concerned that the people would not follow the right path, so he punished those who disrespected the spirits. It was only after he was over a hundred years old that he communicated with the divine. The area known as Guoyu is called Dahong, and after his death, he was buried in Yongdi, so it is called Hongzhong. Later, the Yellow Emperor met with all spirits in Ganquan. Ganquan is known as the Bright Court. What they called 'Hanmen' was just a valley mouth. The Yellow Emperor mined copper in Mount Shou and cast the Sacred Cauldron at the foot of Mount Jing. After the Sacred Cauldron was cast, a dragon lowered its whiskers to welcome the Yellow Emperor. The Yellow Emperor rode the dragon, with over seventy court officials and palace concubines following him to ascend to the heavens. Those lowly officials who did not make it to the heavens grabbed onto the dragon's whiskers, which resulted in them falling down when the whiskers broke, along with the Yellow Emperor's bow. People saw the Emperor ascend, wailing as they clutched his bow and the dragon's whisker, giving the place its name, Dinghu, and the bow, its name, Wuhao Bow.
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The emperor said, "Geez! If I could be like the Yellow Emperor, I would feel leaving my wife and children as easy as shedding my skin!" The emperor then appointed Gongsun Qing as an official and sent him to Taishi Mountain to worship the gods.
The emperor went to the outskirts of Yongzhou, then to Longxi, climbed Mount Kongtong to the west, and also went to Ganquan. He ordered the temple officials to prepare the Altar of Taiyi, which was much larger than a regular altar, covering a vast area approximately three times the size of a typical altar. The Altar of the Five Emperors surrounded the Altar of Taiyi, with each altar placed according to its direction. The altar of the Yellow Emperor was in the southwest, and eight paths to the spirit world were opened. The offerings for Taiyi were similar to those in Yongzhou, with some additional items such as sweet rice wine and dried dates, and a rare bovine was also sacrificed for meat. The offerings for the Five Emperors consisted only of vessels and sweet rice wine. On the square ground below the altar, offerings were placed for other gods, attendants, and the Big Dipper. After the worship was completed, the remaining offerings were burned. The cow was white, with a deer inside it, and a pig inside the deer, all soaked in clear water, which was an unusual practice. A cow was used to worship the sun, and sheep and pigs were used to worship the moon. The main priest wore a purple embroidered robe for the Taiyi ceremony. For the Five Emperors' ceremonies, they wore clothes according to their respective colors: red for the sun and white for the moon.
On the winter solstice, the first day of the eleventh month, before dawn, the emperor began to worship the Taiyi god in the suburbs. Every morning, he worshipped the sun, and every evening, he worshipped the moon, performing the prescribed bows each time. The sacrificial hymn went: "Heaven's Emperor, by sacred tripod and decree, grants power to the Son of Heaven. Each new moon returns, and we give thanks." The emperor wore yellow robes during the worship. The altar was filled with fire, and cooking utensils for the offerings were placed nearby. It was reported that a radiant light shone upon the altar. Observers noted, "When the emperor worshipped Taiyi in the suburbs, offerings of precious jade and prime sacrificial animals were presented in the land of Yunyang. That night, there was a beautiful light, and by day, a golden vapor ascended to the heavens." The court historians and temple priests said, "This is an auspicious sign from the gods, a sign of good fortune and blessing. A Taiyi altar should be built in this place to manifest the will of heaven. The chief priest was ordered to perform sacrifices in autumn and the twelfth month, once every three years, with the emperor personally attending the suburban worship."
In the autumn of that year, the emperor prayed to Taiyi for the conquest of Nanyue. He used branches of the Vitex tree to draw flags representing the sun, moon, Big Dipper, and rising dragons, symbolizing Taiyi and the three stars of the celestial trio, as the military flag of Taiyi, called the "Spirit Flag." In order to pray for victory in war, the historian held up the flag pointing towards the country to be conquered. However, General Wuli did not dare to go to sea and instead ran to Mount Tai to worship. The emperor sent people to investigate, but they saw nothing. General Wuli falsely claimed to have seen his army; his deception was uncovered, and he was subsequently executed by order of the emperor.
That winter, Gong Sunqing was performing rituals to the gods in Henan, saying that he saw traces of immortals on the walls of Goushi City, with a bird, something like a pheasant, flying around. The emperor personally went to Goushi City to see those traces. The emperor asked Gong Sunqing, "Is this like what Wen Cheng and Wuli did, fabricating a story?" Gong Sunqing replied, "Immortals do not actively seek rulers; rather, rulers seek out immortals. The reason behind this is not something that can be achieved with mere tolerance and charity. The divine beings will not come. Talking about gods sounds like nonsense; it's a matter of years, even decades, to achieve." So all the regions began to build roads, renovate palaces, famous mountains, and temples, waiting for the emperor to visit.
In the spring, Nanyue was destroyed. The emperor had a favorite courtier named Li Yannian, who was a skilled musician, and the emperor liked him very much. The emperor discussed this matter with his advisors, saying, "Folk rituals often include music and dance, but there is no music at the suburban sacrifices; is this appropriate?" The court officials replied, "In ancient times, sacrifices to heaven and earth had music, and the divine beings are receptive to music." Someone said, "Legend has it that Emperor Tai let a female musician play a fifty-stringed *se*, and the sound was too sad; even when Emperor Tai asked her to stop, she couldn't. So the *se* was split into twenty-five strings." After pacifying Nanyue, the emperor started using music and dance in sacrifices to Taiyi and Houtu, and specially invited songstresses. The twenty-five-stringed *se* and the *kong hou qin* zither became popular from then on.
The next winter, the emperor said, "In ancient times, the army was reorganized before the Fengshan ceremony." So he went on a northern campaign to the border regions with over a hundred thousand troops, and after returning, he performed a ritual at the tomb of Emperor Huang on Qiaoshan before dispersing the army. The emperor asked, "I heard that Emperor Huang is said to have ascended to heaven; so why is there a tomb now?" Someone replied, "Emperor Huang has become an immortal, and the ministers only buried the clothes and hat he wore." Before proceeding to Mount Tai for the sacrifice, they first performed a ritual to Taiyi at a local shrine.
After I obtained the treasured tripod, I discussed the Fengshan ceremony with the ministers and scholars. The Fengshan ceremony is so rare that nobody knew exactly how to do it. The scholars poured over the *Shangshu*, *Zhouguan*, and *Wangzhi*, trying to find records of sacrificial rituals and shooting oxen to reference. There was a man from the State of Qi named Ding Gong, over ninety years old, who said, "The Fengshan ceremony is to get immortality. Even Qin Shihuang failed to successfully perform the Fengshan ceremony. Your Majesty, if you really want to do this, just pick a higher spot to avoid the wind and rain." After hearing his words, the emperor had the scholars practice shooting oxen and began drafting the Fengshan ceremony. Several years passed, and the Fengshan ceremony was about to take place. The emperor bought into Gongsun Qing and the other diviners' claims that the Yellow Emperor's Fengshan ceremony had been accompanied by miracles and strange happenings. The emperor also wanted to emulate the Yellow Emperor, seeking immortals on Penglai Mountain, hoping to be as famous as the Nine Emperors and make his family proud. However, he had the scholars write articles about these matters to hear their opinions. But the scholars couldn't explain what the ceremony actually was, and they were so stuck on ancient texts they weren't any help. The emperor showed the prepared ceremonial objects for the Fengshan ceremony to the scholars, and some scholars said, "These aren't like the old ones!" Xu Yan said, "The Tai Chang Temple scholars' ceremonies are nowhere near as good as Lu's!" Zhou Ba even drew a picture depicting the Fengshan situation. The emperor thought Xu Yan and Zhou Ba were pushing it, so he fired all the scholars.
In March, the emperor made a big show of climbing Taishi Peak of Mount Song during his eastern tour to Goushi. Some of his guys swore they heard someone yell "Long live the Emperor!" down below, but when they asked the emperor, he didn’t say anything; the officials below didn’t respond either. The emperor then allocated three hundred households at the foot of Taishi Peak as a place for sacrifices, naming it Chonggao Village. After that, he went to Mount Tai, where the plants hadn't even leafed out yet, and had a stone tablet erected at the top of Mount Tai.
The emperor then continued his eastern tour to the seaside, where he performed a ritual to honor the Eight Gods. The state of Qi sent a letter to the emperor, reporting a load of hogwash about miracles—ten thousand entries, and not a single one true. The emperor doubled down on shipbuilding, sending thousands of people to the sea to search for immortals on Penglai Fairy Island. Gongsun Qing, holding a cane, led the way, whose job it was to find famous mountains. When they reached Donglai, he said he saw a giant at night, dozens of zhang tall (a zhang is an ancient Chinese unit of length, roughly equivalent to 3.3 meters). When he approached, the giant disappeared, leaving behind huge footprints on the ground that looked like some kind of giant bird or beast had been there. Some ministers said they saw an old man walking a dog, saying, "I wanna meet some big shots," and then he suddenly disappeared. The emperor also saw the huge footprints and initially didn’t believe it. However, when the ministers mentioned seeing the old man too, the emperor decided it must be a god. The emperor stayed by the seaside for several days, sending out thousands of carts and a whole army of messengers to search for immortals.
In April, I arrived in Fenggao. Those Confucian scholars and Daoist priests couldn't agree on the Fengshan ceremony, and most of their ideas were rubbish anyway, making it a nightmare to organize.
The emperor arrived at Liangfu Mountain and performed a sacrificial ceremony to the local land god. In the year of Yi Mao, the emperor ordered his court officials and Confucian scholars to wear ceremonial caps and robes and to hold the ritual ox-shooting ceremony. Then, the emperor made offerings and consecrated the land to the east of Mount Tai, with a ceremony as grand as the one for offering sacrifices to Taiyi. The consecrated land covered a square area of two zhang and two chi on each side, with a height of nine chi, and buried underneath was a jade tablet inscribed with secret prophecies. After the ceremony, the emperor only took his court officials and his chariot master to climb Mount Tai, where he consecrated the land again. All of these events were kept secret.
The next day, the emperor descended from the Yin Pass. On the day of Bingchen, a ritual of relinquishing the Mandate of Heaven was held at Suren Mountain to the northeast of Mount Tai, similar to the one for offering sacrifices to the Earth. The emperor personally participated in the sacrificial ceremony, wearing yellow sacrificial robes and playing music. The local populace used a simple thatched dwelling with three rooms as the sacrificial site and sealed the land with a mixture of five colors of soil. Rare birds, animals, and white pheasants were offered as sacrifices, all given grand offerings. However, animals like rhinoceroses and elephants were not used. These rites culminated at the foot of Mount Tai. After the ritual was completed, lights appeared at night, and by day, white clouds rose from the consecrated earth.
After the emperor returned from the abdication ritual, he sat in the Ming Hall, and the courtiers paid their respects and offered him birthday felicitations. Later, the emperor issued a decree to the imperial censor, saying: "I, your humble servant, have carried the supreme throne with constant worry, fearing that I am inadequate. My virtues are shallow, and I am not proficient in rituals and music. During the sacrifice to Taiyi, it seemed as if there were auspicious lights and signs, and these strange events deeply unsettled me. I wanted to stop but dared not, so I ascended Mount Tai, went to Liangfu Mountain, and then abdicated at Suran Mountain. In order to renew myself, I intend to begin again with the scholar-officials and grant every hundred households a cow, ten stones of wine, and two pieces of cloth for those over eighty who are widowed. Exempt the counties of Bo, Fenggao, Sheqiu, and Licheng from taxes this year. At the same time, I will issue a general amnesty, on a scale similar to that of the Yimao year. All past matters, from over two years ago, shall not be investigated further."
The emperor issued another decree saying: "In ancient times, emperors toured every five years. They held sacrifices on Mount Tai. The vassals had to attend and stay overnight at Mount Tai. I order each vassal to build a residence at the foot of Mount Tai."
After the emperor performed the Fengshan ceremony at Mount Tai, the weather was favorable, and the diviners said that immortals on Penglai Island could be found. The emperor was ecstatic at the prospect and thought he might really meet immortals, so he went to the seaside hoping to find Penglai Island. However, the official responsible for the carriages died suddenly. The emperor was forced to return, traveling north along the coast to Jieshi, then inspecting Liaoxi, and continuing north to Jiuyuan. It was not until May that he returned to Ganquan Palace. Officials declared that year the first year of the Yuanding era, because the emperor had found a precious tripod.
In autumn, a comet appeared in the asterism Dong Jing. Over ten days later, another comet appeared in the San Neng asterism. Wang Shuo, responsible for observing celestial phenomena, said, "I just saw a star shaped like a melon suddenly appear, and then disappear a moment later." Officials all said, "That's Heaven rewarding the Emperor for his piety!"
The following winter, the emperor sacrificed to the Five Emperors in the outskirts. Upon returning, he went to pay homage to the Taiyi God. The sacrificial hymn proclaimed, "The star of virtue shines brightly, indicating good fortune; the star of longevity appears again, shining brightly; the star of trust is clearly visible, and the emperor respectfully offers sacrifices to the Taiyi God."
In spring, Gong Sunqing said he saw immortals on Mount Donglai and that the immortals wanted to see the emperor. The emperor then went to Guoshi City, appointed Gong Sunqing as a mid-level official, and stayed in Donglai for several days, seeing nothing but some giant footprints. The emperor then sent thousands of sorcerers to search for immortals and collect herbs. That year, there was a drought. The emperor prayed at the vast dunes of Wanli and then went to sacrifice at Mount Tai. Upon returning to Huzi, he personally inspected the breach in the Yellow River, stayed for two days, performed sacrifices, and then left. He then sent two ministers and soldiers to block the breach in the Yellow River, dredge two channels, and restore the way Dayu had controlled the Yellow River.
At that time, the kingdom of Nanyue had already perished. The Yue people were deeply religious and said, "The people of Yue worship ghosts and gods very devoutly, and their sacrifices are often effective. In the past, the King of Dong Ou respected ghosts and gods and lived to be 160 years old. Later generations neglected ghosts and gods, so the country declined." Therefore, the emperor ordered the wizards of Yue to establish places for worshiping ghosts and gods, without the need for altars, and to sacrifice to celestial gods, gods, and various ghosts using chicken bones to foretell the future. The emperor believed in this, and so, the Yue practices of worship and divination began.
Gongsun Qing said, "The immortals can be seen, but Your Majesty is usually too busy to meet them. Now Your Majesty can set up offerings like in Guōchéng, and the immortals should be able to come. Besides, immortals like to live in high buildings." So the emperor ordered the construction of the Feilian Gui Observatory in Chang'an and the Yi Yanshou Observatory in Ganquan, allowing Gongsun Qing to prepare offerings and wait for the immortals with talismans. Then the Celestial Stem Platform was built, with offerings placed below the platform, intending to attract the immortals. The Ganquan Palace also added a front hall and began to expand the palace. In the summer, ganoderma grew in the hall. In order to block the Yellow River, the emperor built the Tongtian Terrace, and upon seeing auspicious clouds, he decreed, "Nine-stemmed ganoderma has grown in the Ganquan Palace, granting a general amnesty and no longer pursuing past sins."
A year later, they went to war with Korea. In the summer, a drought occurred. Gongsun Qing said, "During the time of the Yellow Emperor's Fengshan ceremony, there was also a drought, as was the case in the third year of Ganfeng." The emperor then decreed, "Is the drought due to a desire for Ganfeng? Then let the world honor and worship the Lingxing star!"
The next year, the emperor went to the outskirts of Yongzhou to offer sacrifices to heaven, repaired the road back to the palace, and inspected various regions. In the spring, he arrived at Mingze and returned from the West River.
In the following winter, the emperor toured Nanjun, arrived in Jiangling, then headed east, climbed Tianzhu Mountain in Liling, calling it Nanyue. He traveled downstream by boat from Xunyang to Zongyang, passing through Pengli Marsh and offering sacrifices to famous mountains and rivers along the way. Then he headed north to Langye, all the way to the seaside. In mid-April, he arrived at Fenggao, where the Fengshan ceremony was held.
Initially, when the emperor performed the Feng and Shan sacrifices at Mount Tai, there was a place at the northeast foot of Mount Tai where the Mingtang used to be; the terrain was too steep and cramped. The emperor wanted to build a Mingtang next to Fenggao but didn't know its structure. Gong Yudai, a man from Jinan, brought the plans for the Mingtang from the time of the Yellow Emperor. In the plans for the Mingtang, there was a hall with no walls on all four sides, with an open thatched roof allowing for drainage, and a circular colonnade topped with a pavilion. The emperor's entrance for worshipping Heaven was from the southwest, called Kunlun. So the emperor ordered the construction of the Mingtang next to Fenggao, following the plans brought by Gong Yudai. When the Fengshan rites were held five years later, the Taiyi and Five Emperors were worshipped on the upper level of the Mingtang, with the imperial ancestor's spirit tablet facing them. Offerings were made to the Earth Mother (Houtu) on the lower level of the Mingtang using twenty livestock. The emperor entered from Kunlun and began the ritual of worshiping the Mingtang following the customary rites. After the worship was completed, offerings were burned under the Mingtang. The emperor then ascended Mount Tai, where there was already a secret place of worship. The Five Emperors were worshipped at the foot of Mount Tai, each in their respective directions, with officials serving the sacrifices. A fire was lit on the mountaintop, visible from below.
Two years later, on the day of the winter solstice in the eleventh month of the lunar calendar, the emperor personally went to Mount Tai to worship Heaven, holding a ceremony at the Mingtang but without performing the Fengshan rites. The praise during the worship was: "Heaven bestows the Emperor with Heaven's mandate, the Taiyuan decree, everlasting and renewing. The Emperor respectfully worships Taiyi." The Emperor also visited the East Sea, investigating the coast and questioning alchemists seeking immortality, but found no results. Nevertheless, he continued to send people to search, hoping to find immortals.
A few days later, on the first day of the twelfth month, the Baoliang Palace caught fire. On the first day of the next month, the Emperor personally went to Gaoli to worship the Earth. When he arrived at Bo Sea, he planned to view Penglai and the other mythical islands, hoping to find paradise.
After the emperor returned to the palace, after the fire at Bailiang Palace, he accepted the officials' felicitations at Ganquan Palace. At this time, Gong Sunqing said, "The Yellow Emperor held a twelve-day sacrifice at Qingling Terrace before building the Mingtang. And the Mingtang is actually located in Ganquan." Many fortune-tellers claimed that ancient emperors had all built their capitals in Ganquan. Later, the emperor summoned the vassals to Ganquan several times, making Ganquan a vassal residence. A man named Yong said, "In Yue, tradition held that when rebuilding houses after a fire, they must be bigger and more magnificent than before in order to suppress disaster." So, the Jianzhang Palace was built, with more than a thousand gates and tens of thousands of rooms. Its front hall was as high as Weiyang Palace. To the east is the Fengque, over twenty zhang high; to the west is the Tangzhong, with a circumference of several tens of li, and there is also a tiger enclosure. A large pond was built to the north of the palace, with a high platform built with earth, over twenty zhang high, named the Taiye Pool. In the pool, there are imitations of immortal mountains such as Penglai, Fangzhang, Yingzhou, and Huliang, as well as turtles and fish. To the south are the Yutang, Bimen, and all sorts of weird creatures. The Temple of the Gods and Jingan Tower were also built in the palace, both fifty zhang high, linked by palace walkways. In the summer, the Han Dynasty reformed the calendar, starting the year in January, the emperor's robes turned yellow, and officials used five-character seals, calling this year the Taichu first year. That year, the Han's western campaign against Dayuan was met with a devastating locust plague. Lady Ding, Luoyang Yuchu, and others put a curse on the Xiongnu and Dayuan with their magic.
In the second year, the court reported to the emperor that Yongzhou's sacrificial animals were scrawny, and the offerings weren't up to snuff. So the emperor ordered the officials in charge of the sacrifices to improve the livestock and offerings, insisting on lavish offerings and vibrant colors, using wooden horses instead of live foals. Live foals were reserved for the May sacrifice; otherwise, wooden horses sufficed, even during the emperor's personal sacrifices at the capital and prominent mountains and rivers.
In that same year, the emperor traveled east to the seaside to investigate matters related to immortals but found nothing. Some alchemists said, "During the time of the Yellow Emperor, five cities and twelve towers were built to await the arrival of immortals, known as 'Welcoming the Year'." The emperor agreed to construct them as the alchemists suggested and named it "The Year to Come." The emperor personally sacrificed to the Supreme Deity.
Gong Yudai remarked, "Although the Yellow Emperor performed the Fengshan ceremony on Mount Tai, Feng Hou, Feng Ju, and Qi Bo suggested that he perform it on East Mount Tai and classify other mountains as ordinary to comply with the ritual and achieve immortality." Since the emperor had ordered the preparation of sacrificial items, he went to East Mount Tai and found it to be a puny, underwhelming peak, not living up to its reputation. Therefore, the sacrificial officials performed the sacrifice there but did not perform the Fengshan ceremony. Later, the emperor put Yudai in charge of the sacrifices and watching for divine signs. In the summer, the emperor returned to Mount Tai and conducted five years of sacrifices following established practice, adding sacrifices at Shilu. Shilu is located south of Mount Tai, and many believed it to be a sacred place, a dwelling of the immortals, so the emperor personally performed sacrifices there.
Five years later, he performed the Fengshan ceremony at Mount Tai again, and offered sacrifices at Mount Heng on his way back.
The Emperor's currently building shrines to Taiyi and Houtu. Every three years, he personally heads out to the boonies to offer sacrifices, establishing the Han Dynasty's Fengshan system, with a Fengshan ceremony held every five years. The Emperor's a bit superstitious about Taiyi and those other four gods, so he lets the priests do kinda low-key sacrifices at certain times of the year. There are six shrines in total, all run by the Taizhu. The other eight gods? Same with the 'next year' sacrifices, Fan Mountain, and all that – he'd just offer sacrifices if he happened to be passing by, and that's it. Those shrines the shamans built? Each one was their own deal, and if the guy in charge kicked the bucket, that was it – the priests weren't responsible. Other sacrificial activities remain the same. He'll do the Fengshan thing now, and then again in twelve years, hitting up the Five Great Mountains and the Four Rivers. Those shamans? They waited for immortals to show up and sailed off looking for Penglai Island, but nada. Gongsun Qing did the same thing, trying to explain it all away with some 'adult' signs, but it didn't work. The Emperor was getting sick of the shamans' crazy stories, but he wasn't ready to give up entirely; he still held out hope of meeting a real immortal. After that, the shamans' stories about immortal sacrifices got even crazier, and everyone could see how pointless it all was. Sima Qian said: I tagged along with the Emperor on his rounds to the shrines, the big mountains, and rivers, and even got to be in on the Fengshan ceremony. I was at the Shou Palace, watching those shamans and priests do their thing. After I retired, I wrote this whole thing down – the history of sacrifices to gods and ghosts, from way back when to now – hoping it'd be useful for future generations. All the nitty-gritty details – offerings, vessels, rituals, the whole shebang – are in the official records.
