Zhang Qian was from Hanzhong. During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, he served as a court official. At that time, the Emperor asked some Xiongnu who'd surrendered, and they all said that the Xiongnu had defeated the Yuezhi and even actually used the Yuezhi king's skull as a drinking cup! The Yuezhi people fled and harbored hatred towards the Xiongnu, unable to find allies for revenge. The Han were looking to wipe out the Xiongnu, and upon hearing this news, they wanted to send envoys to contact the Yuezhi. However, the road to the Yuezhi passed through Xiongnu territory, so they put out a call for volunteers. Zhang Qian stepped forward, and together with a Xiongnu man named Ganfu, they set out from Longxi to the Yuezhi.
They got nabbed in Xiongnu territory and brought before the Chanyu. The Chanyu held Zhang Qian captive for over a decade and said, "The Yuezhi are north of us. What makes you think the Han could send anyone there? I'd send envoys to attack you – what would you say to that?" Zhang Qian was detained by the Chanyu for over ten years, and during that time, he was even given a wife and had children. However, Zhang Qian never forgot that he was an envoy of the Han Dynasty and always upheld his mission.
After so long among the Xiongnu, Zhang Qian gradually relaxed his vigilance. He and his men made a run for it, and after walking west for several days, they arrived at the Great Yuezhi. The Yuezhi had heard the Han were loaded and wanted to trade with them, but never had the chance. They were very happy to see Zhang Qian and asked him, "Where do you want to go?" Zhang Qian said, "I was sent by the Han Dynasty as an envoy to the Yuezhi, but was intercepted by the Xiongnu. Now that I have escaped, I hope the king can send someone to escort me. If I can safely return to the Han Dynasty, the Han will surely reward the king generously, with more riches than you could shake a stick at." The Yuezhi king bought it, sent escorts, and Zhang Qian, passing through Kangju, finally reached the Yuezhi.
Sadly, the King of Dayuezhi has been killed by the Xiongnu, and his son has succeeded him. Dayuezhi was a vassal state of Daxia, with fertile land, and life was peaceful and prosperous. The people were too far from the Han to even think about getting revenge on the Xiongnu. After visiting Dayuezhi, Zhang Qian went on to Daxia, but his mission to forge an alliance with Dayuezhi was a bust.
After staying in Dayuezhi for over a year, Zhang Qian decided to return to his country. He went over the Nan Mountains, hoping to reach the Han through Qiang territory, but was captured by the Xiongnu again. He was held prisoner for over a year until the Xiongnu Chanyu kicked the bucket. Then the Left Valley King attacked the Chanyu's son, and the whole Xiongnu empire went belly up. That's when Zhang Qian made his escape back to the Han Dynasty with his Xiongnu wife and Ganfu. The Han made Zhang Qian a Grand Master and Ganfu an envoy.
Zhang Qian was strong, decent, reliable, and everyone loved him. Ganfu, a Xiongnu himself, was a crack shot with a bow and arrow, and always managed to find food when things got tough. Zhang Qian started out with over a hundred men, but after thirteen years, only he and Ganfu made it back.
Zhang Qian personally visited places like Dawan, Dayuezhi, Daxia, and Kangju, and heard about five or six other large countries nearby. He gave Emperor Wu of Han a full report on everything he'd seen, including Dawan, Dayuezhi, Daxia, Kangju, and rumors of five or six other big countries nearby.
Dayuan is located southwest of the Xiongnu, a good 10,000 li west of the Han Dynasty – a heck of a distance! The folks there are native-born, farming rice and wheat. And they make some mean wine, too. They've got tons of horses, especially these amazing 'sweat-blooded' steeds – you won't find 'em anywhere else. They have cities and houses, with over seventy towns and cities combined, and a population of several hundred thousand. They fight with bows and arrows, spears, and are masters of mounted archery. North of Dayuan is Kangju; west, the Great Yuezhi; southwest, Daxia; northeast, Wusun; and to the east, Yuezhi and Yutian. To the west of Yutian, the rivers flow westward into the Western Sea; to the east of Yutian, the rivers flow eastward into the salty marsh. The salty marsh has underground springs, and south of it is the headwaters of the Yellow River. There are many jade stones there, carried by the Yellow River towards the Central Plains. Loulan and Gushi are also walled cities, right by the salty marsh. The salty marsh is approximately 5,000 li away from Chang'an. The Xiongnu's eastern flank stretches from the salty marsh all the way to Longxi, bordering the Qiang to the south and cutting off our Han Dynasty's supply lines.
Wusun is located northeast of Dayuan, about two thousand li away. They're nomads, following their herds just like the Xiongnu. They've got tens of thousands of archers – a real fighting force. Even though they're under the Xiongnu's thumb, they ain't about to kowtow to the Xiongnu Chanyu when things get rough. Kangju is located northwest of Dayuan, about two thousand li away, also a nomadic tribe, with customs similar to the Great Yuezhi. They're Dayuan's neighbors, a smaller nation, allied with the Yuezhi to the south and the Xiongnu to the east.
Yancai's to the northwest of Kangju, about two thousand miles off, living a nomadic life much like the Kangju. They had a hundred thousand-plus bowmen. They live beside a boundless lake—maybe the North Sea.
The Yuezhi are located west of Dawan, about two to three thousand miles away, living north of Guishui. To their south lay Daxia, Anxi to the west, and Kangju to the north. They are also a nomadic people, migrating with livestock, similar to the Xiongnu. There are about one to two hundred thousand warriors who can shoot arrows with bows. They were once mighty, looking down their noses at the Xiongnu, until Modu, the Xiongnu Chanyu, crushed them, chasing them all the way to the old Xiongnu Chanyu, killing their king and using his skull as a drinking cup! Originally based around Dunhuang and the Qilian Mountains, they were routed by the Xiongnu and fled far away, passing through Dawan, conquering Daxia in the west, and then establishing a royal court north of Guishui. Those who escaped became the Little Yuezhi, finding refuge with the Nanshan Qiang.
Anxi, thousands of miles west of the Yuezhi in the Western Regions, has locals who farmed, growing rice and wheat, and even making wine. The towns are similar to those of Dawan. It governs hundreds of cities large and small, with a vast territory spanning several thousand miles, making it a large country. Anxi is close to the Guishui River, with markets where the common people trade using carts and boats, sometimes traveling thousands of miles to trade with other countries. Their silver coins bore the king's likeness, updated with each new ruler. Leather was their record-keeping medium. To the west lay Zhiguo; to the north, Yancai and Lixuan.
The country of Tiao Zhi is located to the west of the Anxi Kingdom, separated by more than two thousand miles, near the Western Sea. It's a sweltering, humid place. They also farm and grow rice. There is a type of large bird there, whose eggs are as big as water jars! The population is large, often ruled by several petty chieftains, each controlling their own territory, but the Anxi Kingdom ruled them as a vassal state. The people of Tiao Zhi are skilled in illusionary magic. Old folks in Anxi had heard of the Weak Water and the Queen Mother of the West in Tiao Zhi, but no one has ever seen them with their own eyes.
The country of Da Xia is located to the southwest of the Western Region of Da Wan, over 2,000 miles away, south of the Gui Water River. Their customs were much like those of Da Wan, inhabited by the local people, with towns and houses scattered across the land. They had no single ruler; each town elected its own leader. Da Xia's army was weak and avoided fighting, but they were skilled in commerce. When the Great Yuezhi moved west and attacked and defeated Da Xia, Da Xia became a vassal state of the Great Yuezhi. Da Xia has a large population, likely numbering well over a million. Their capital, Lan Shi City, boasted a bustling market selling all sorts of goods. To the southeast of Da Xia is the country of Shen Du.
Zhang Qian said, "When I was in Daxia, I saw bamboo walking sticks and Shu cloth. I asked the locals, 'Where do these things come from?' The people of Daxia replied, 'Our merchants buy them from India. India is located to the southeast of Daxia, probably thousands of miles away. It's kinda like Daxia, but low-lying and swampy, real hot and humid. They fight on elephants.' Their country is close to a great river." So Zhang Qian figured, "Daxia is 12,000 miles away from the Han, located to the southwest of the Han. Since India's got Shu stuff and it's only a few thousand miles southeast of Daxia, it can't be that far from Shu itself! If we go through Daxia, we have to deal with the rough terrain and unfriendly Qiang, or get nabbed by the Xiongnu if we head north. The Shu route's the only smooth one, no bandits to worry about."
The Emperor heard that countries like Dawan, Daxia, and Anxi are all big players with lots of cool stuff, customs kinda like ours, but weak militaries – and they all really want Han gold; and to their north, there are countries like Dayuezhi and Kangju, with strong military forces that can be bribed with wealth to submit to the Han. If we can get these countries on our side fair and square, we'll expand our empire by thousands of miles, hook up all nine provinces, bring everyone together, and make the Han name known far and wide!
The emperor was very pleased after listening to Zhang Qian's words, thinking they made sense. He then ordered Zhang Qian to set off from the Shu region of Jianwei and dispatched envoys to depart in four different routes simultaneously: one from the Pǎ region, one from the Rǎn region, one from the Xǐ region, and one from the Qióng and Bó regions, with each route covering about one to two thousand miles. The Di and Zuo regions blocked the north; the Gui and Kunming regions, the south. Kunming and the surrounding areas were lawless; no fixed ruler, constant thieving, and a habit of killing Han envoys meant the road was always closed. However, it was said that more than a thousand miles to the west of Kunming, there was a country where people rode elephants, called Dianyue. Sometimes, Shu merchants smuggled goods there, so the Han finally opened a route to Dian, hoping to reach the Great Xia. Previously, the Han Dynasty tried to open up a route to the southwestern Yi tribes, but it was costly and the road was impassable, so they gave up. Only after Zhang Qian suggested a route through the Great Xia did the Han Dynasty try again to open up the Southwest.
Oh, speaking of Zhang Qian, he initially followed the Grand General to fight the Xiongnu. The kid was a whiz—always knew where to find water and grass, so the army never went thirsty or hungry. The Emperor was so happy, he made him Marquis of Bowang right then and there, in the sixth year of Yuanshuo. The following year, Zhang Qian became the Guard Commander and went with General Li to fight the Xiongnu in the right Beiping. The Xiongnu ambushed Li, wiping out most of his army. Zhang Qian showed up late, nearly got his head chopped off, and ended up buying his way out of it, a commoner once more. That year, the Han's cavalry smashed tens of thousands of Xiongnu and Westerners, all the way to the Qilian Mountains.
Another year later, the Hunxie king surrendered to the Han Dynasty with his people, and there were no more Xiongnu people in the region from Jincheng and Hexi, from the Nanshan Mountains to the Yanzhe. Occasionally, Xiongnu scouts would come to check, but it was rare. Two years later, the Han army drove the Chanyu back and reached the northern desert.
After that, the emperor kept asking Zhang Qian about those countries out west. Although Zhang Qian lost his marquis title, he still told the emperor: "I was with the Xiongnu, and I heard that the Wusun king is called Kunmo. His father used to be the king of a small country to the west of the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu attacked and killed his father, and Kunmo was abandoned in the wilderness as a newborn. Crows and vultures circled him; then, unbelievably, a wolf came and nursed him. The Chanyu thought he was some kind of miracle and raised him. When Kunmo grew up, he led troops into battle, achieved great success, and the Chanyu gave him the people who used to belong to Kunmo's father, allowing him to become the ruler of the Western Regions. Kunmo gathered these people, attacked surrounding cities, and had tens of thousands of crack archers under his command. After the Chanyu kicked the bucket, Kunmo hightailed it to a faraway land, crowned himself king, and thumbed his nose at the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu sent elite soldiers to attack him, but they couldn't defeat him. They figured Kunmo was some kind of god, gave him a wide berth, pretended he was their subject, but didn't dare attack him in force. Now that the Chanyu has just been defeated by the Han Dynasty and the territory of the Hunxie king is unguarded, those barbarians all had their eyes on Han loot. Now's our chance. We should shower the Wusun with gifts, get them to move east into Hunxie's old stomping grounds, and make them our brothers in arms. They'll jump at it. If successful, that'll cripple the Xiongnu! After forming an alliance with the Wusun, we can recruit the countries of the Western Regions to become our vassals." The emperor thought Zhang Qian was right, so he reappointed him as a general, gave him three hundred men, two spare horses for each man, tens of thousands of cattle and sheep, and millions worth of gold coins, silk, and other valuables. He also sent him off with a whole bunch of envoys to make contacts along the way.
After Zhang Qian arrived in Wusun, King Kunmo received the Han envoy just like he did the Xiongnu envoys. Zhang Qian felt ashamed, knowing these guys were greedy as hell. He then said, "The Emperor sent some gifts. If the King doesn't accept them, I’ll take them back." Kunmo finally accepted the gifts, but everything else remained the same. Zhang Qian dropped a hint, "If Wusun moved to where the Xiongnu used to be, the Han Dynasty would marry a princess to Kunmo as his wife." However, Wusun was a mess internally. The king was old, and since Wusun hadn't been in touch with the Han for ages, they didn't know how strong they were. Wusun had long been subservient to the Xiongnu and was close to them. Wusun's ministers were terrified of the Xiongnu and refused to move. The king could not act alone, so Zhang Qian struck out.
Kunmo had over ten sons, one of them being Dalue, a tough military leader who commanded over 10,000 cavalry stationed on his own. Dalue's elder brother was the Crown Prince, who had a son named Cenqu, but the Crown Prince died young. Before his death, the Crown Prince told Kunmo, "You must appoint Cenqu as the Crown Prince and not let anyone else take his place." Kunmo, heartbroken, promised to do it, eventually appointing Cenqu as the Crown Prince. Dalue, furious at not becoming Crown Prince, joined his brothers in leading a rebellion and planning to attack Cenqu and Kunmo. Kunmo, being old, was worried that Dalue would kill Cenqu, so he gave Cenqu over ten thousand cavalry troops to station alone. He also kept over ten thousand cavalry troops for self-defense. The army was split three ways, mostly under Kunmo's control, so Kunmo couldn't just say yes to Zhang Qian.
Zhang then dispatched assistant envoys to Dawan, Kangju, Dayuezhi, Daxia, Anxi, Shendu, Yutian, Wusun, and other neighboring countries. The Wusun sent people to escort Zhang back to his country, and he also sent dozens of people with dozens of horses to Wusun to express gratitude, while asking them to secretly observe how powerful the Han Dynasty was.
Back home, Zhang was appointed Grand Minister and ranked among the highest-ranking officials. More than a year later, he passed away. The envoy from Wusun saw the prosperity and strength of the Han Dynasty and reported back to his country, leading Wusun to pay even more attention to the Han Dynasty. A year or so later, the envoys sent by Zhang gradually returned with people from Daxia and other countries, and from then on, northwest countries started trading with the Han Dynasty. Zhang opened the Silk Road, and from then on, envoys to the West were called "Bo Wang Hou," which gave them credibility and trust with foreign nations.
After the death of the Marquis of Bo Wang, Zhang Qian, the Xiongnu, hearing of the close ties between the Han and Wusun, were livid and wanted to attack Wusun. The Han sent envoys to Wusun, going around the kingdom's southern flank, passing through the Dawan Kingdom and the Dayuezhi Kingdom, both of which bordered Wusun. Scared stiff, Wusun sent envoys with horses, pleading for a Han princess to marry their prince or a brother. The Emperor polled his ministers. "Take the gifts, then send the princess," was the unanimous opinion. The Emperor's diviners had foretold, "Divine horses will come from the northwest." The Wusun horses were magnificent, so the Emperor dubbed them "Heavenly Horses." Then came the Dawan sweat-bloods—even more impressive—prompting a renaming of the Wusun steeds to "Western Extremity," while the Dawan horses remained "Heavenly Horses." From then on, the Han built cities west of Lingju, establishing Jiuquan Commandery to better communicate with the northwest. Envoys were then dispatched to Anxi, Yanchai, Lixuan, Tiaozhi, Shendu, and other countries. The Emperor's love for the Dawan horses kept the envoys constantly on the move. Missions ranged from a few hundred to over a hundred strong, each envoy carrying roughly the same amount of goods as Zhang Qian had. But the constant missions eventually drained the treasury, leading to smaller delegations. The Han sent out ten to fifteen missions a year; the longest trips took eight or nine years, while shorter ones took several.
After the Han Dynasty destroyed the Kingdom of Yue, the Shu region and the southwestern Yi tribes were afraid and actively requested to send officials to the court. So the Han Dynasty established the Yizhou, Yuezui, Zangke, Shenli, Wenshan, and other commanderies, hoping to connect these areas and then open up a route to the Da Xia Kingdom further west. The Han Dynasty sent officials like Bai Shichang and Lu Yueren, with more than a dozen envoy groups annually, starting from these newly established commanderies to the Da Xia Kingdom. However, these missions were all ambushed and murdered by the Kunming people, who robbed them and ultimately prevented them from reaching the Da Xia Kingdom. In response, the Han Dynasty had to send thousands of soldiers from the Sanfu region and the Bashu region, led by Generals Guo Chang and Wei Guang, to attack Kunming and avenge the murdered envoys, killing many thousands of Kunming people before withdrawing. But subsequent envoy missions faced the same fate. The Han never succeeded in opening this route. As for the road from Jiuquan northward to Da Xia, despite many missions, foreign countries eventually grew weary of Han gifts, losing interest in them.
It is said that after the Marquis of Bowang opened up the road to the Western Regions, his status suddenly rose, making the officials and soldiers green with envy. They all competed to write memorials, exaggerating the wonders of the Western Regions, and also playing up the dangers, all with one goal—to become envoys! The emperor felt that the journey to the Western Regions was long and not everyone was willing to undertake this difficult task, but he still agreed to their request, issuing envoy seals and recruiting officials and common people. Once enough people signed up, they were sent as envoys to further expand the road to the Western Regions.
However, after these envoys returned, every single one of them was corrupt, making a killing. Some envoys even failed to complete their missions. The Emperor was furious about this, punishing them severely every time, forcing them to atone, only to have them grovel for another chance. As a result, sending envoys to the West became a vicious cycle, with these envoys often breaking the law. Even the officials and soldiers were in on it, hyping up the riches of the West. Good talkers got the envoy jobs; the rest got scraps. Therefore, lazy good-for-nothings all vied to become envoys to the Western Regions. Most were poor kids who'd hustle goods from local officials, hoping to undercut the Westerners and make a fortune.
The Westerners were sick of these Han envoys – all hot air and no substance. With the Han army miles away, they deliberately withheld food from the Han envoys and made things difficult for them. Soon the Han envoys were starving and freezing, turning on each other in desperation. Loulan and Gushi, right on the route, were the worst; they even robbed envoy Wang Hui and his men. And the Xiongnu were constantly ambushing them. The envoys' reports were full of complaints – the West was weak and ripe for the taking, despite its cities.
Therefore, the emperor decided to send Poni, the Marquis of Bo, to lead several tens of thousands of cavalry and infantry from the vassal states, heading to the Xiongnu River to prepare for an attack on the Xiongnu. However, as soon as the Xiongnu heard the news, they had already fled. The following year, Poni was the first to reach Gushi, captured the King of Loulan alive, and conquered Gushi. Then, Poni pursued and intimidated the Wusun, Dawan, and other countries. Upon his triumphant return, Poni was made Marquis of Zhuoye. Wang Hui was constantly harassed by Loulan during his missions to the Western Regions. He reported this to the emperor, who then sent troops to assist Wang Hui and Poni in attacking Loulan. After that, Wang Hui was appointed as the Marquis of Hao. Then, the Han Dynasty established many guard posts in Jiuquan, extending all the way to Yumen Pass.
The Wusun country proposed a marriage alliance by offering one thousand horses for a princess from the Han Dynasty. The Han Dynasty then sent a princess of the Han imperial house, Jiangdu Weng, to marry the Wusun, and King Kunmo of Wusun appointed her as the first wife. The Xiongnu also sent a princess to marry Kunmo, who appointed her as the second wife. When Kunmo grew old, he had his grandson Cen marry Princess Jiangdu Weng. The Wusun was rich in fine horses, with wealthy families owning up to four or five thousand horses.
Initially, the Han Dynasty sent envoys to the Parthian Empire (present-day Iran), and the Parthian king ordered twenty thousand cavalry to welcome them at the eastern border. The eastern border was a journey of thousands of miles away from the Parthian capital! The envoys traveled through dozens of cities, with people lining the streets to welcome them. After the Han envoys returned, the Parthian Empire sent envoys to see the prosperity of the Han Dynasty, bringing large bird eggs and a substance called Lixuan, said to have mind-altering properties, as tribute to the Han Emperor. The small countries of Huanqian and Dayi to the west, and Gushi, Yumi, and Suxie to the east of Wan, all came to visit the emperor with the Han envoys. The Emperor was immensely pleased!
Later, the envoys of the Han Dynasty also explored the source of the Yellow River. The Yellow River originates from Mount Yùn (音yùn), which is rich in jade, and the envoys brought back some of it. After the emperor reviewed ancient texts, he named the mountain where the Yellow River originates Kunlun Mountain.
At that time, the emperors of the Han Dynasty often went on maritime tours and would bring along these foreign envoys. When there were many people, they would simply take them all together, showering them with gifts—cash, silk, and feasts galore—entertaining them lavishly so they could witness the prosperity of the Han Dynasty. Then, they would put on a dazzling display of exotic sights and wonders, attracting many onlookers. The emperor would reward them with gifts; it was one big, extravagant party! The envoys were given tours of the Han Dynasty's overflowing warehouses and treasuries. The sheer scale of it all left them speechless. After that, those mesmerizing performances and exotic acrobatics became more spectacular year by year, with the scale getting larger, and this is the origin of these performances.
It is said that the envoys of those remote countries in the northwest were a constant stream of visitors. Countries like those west of the Great Yuezhi felt that they were very far away and were quite arrogant, unable to be controlled with polite gestures or gifts. From the Wusun Kingdom to the west to the Parthian Kingdom, they were close to the Xiongnu, who bullied the Yuezhi Kingdom. As long as the Xiongnu envoys brought a letter from the Chanyu, all the countries would compete to send them food, not daring to neglect them. But Han envoys? No bribes, no food, and no free rides.
The Han were far away, but rich as Croesus. These folks needed to grease palms to get anything, still terrified of the Xiongnu, so they treated Han envoys like royalty.
Near the country of Dawan, people make wine from grapes. The wine produced by wealthy families can be stored in vast quantities and can last for decades without spoiling. Wine was a favorite drink, and the horses loved alfalfa. The envoys of the Han Dynasty brought these items back, prompting the emperor to plant alfalfa and grapes on fertile land. Later, there were many heavenly horses (feral horses prized for their speed and strength) and foreign envoys, and the palaces and estates were surrounded by grapevines and alfalfa, stretching as far as the eye could see. Westward from Dawan to Anxi, while languages varied slightly, customs were largely similar, allowing for easy communication. The people there had deep-set eyes and bushy beards, were skilled in business, and were very meticulous. They valued women highly; women held significant sway in the home, often making the decisions that men then implemented. They did not have silk or lacquerware, nor did they know how to cast coins. It was not until runaway soldiers and those who surrendered from the Han Dynasty came over and taught them how to cast weapons that they received gold and silver from the Han, which they used to make decorative vessels, not as currency.
Apparently, many envoys from the Han Dynasty traveled to Dawan in the past. The frequent envoys were very familiar with the emperor. They told him, "There is a place in Dawan called Ershi City, where there are good horses, but the people of Dawan hide them and refuse to give them to the envoys of the Han Dynasty." The emperor particularly liked the horses of Dawan. When he heard this, it made him impatient, so he sent a brave warrior named Cheling with a thousand gold pieces and a magnificent golden steed to Dawan to request the good horses of Ershi City from the King of Dawan.
Wan was originally wealthy, with plenty of everything. They were like, "The Han Dynasty is far away from us, and they have suffered several defeats in sea battles. There are Xiongnu rebels to the north, and a lack of water and grass to the south. Their supply lines were constantly disrupted, and many starved. Each time the Han envoys come, there are hundreds of them, often hungry, and half of them died, at least. How can they possibly bring a large army? They can't do anything to us. Besides, the good horses of Ershi City are the best in Wan!" So, they refused to give the horses to the Han envoys. In anger, the Han envoys ranted and raved, smashed the golden horse, and left. When the Wan nobles heard this, they were furious: "The Han envoys are underestimating us!" They saw the Han envoys off, and had Yu Cheng ambush them in the east, killing the envoys and looting them blind.
Now, the emperor was truly angry. Envoys like Yao Ding and Han, who'd been to Wan before, said that Wan's military strength was weak, and as long as three thousand Han soldiers were sent with strong crossbows, they could wipe out Wan. The emperor had previously sent Marquis Zuo Ye to attack Loulan, and he had arrived with only seven hundred cavalry and captured the king of Loulan, so the emperor thought Yao Ding and the others were right. Coincidentally, the emperor wanted to promote the brother of his favorite concubine, Li Shi, so he appointed Li Guangli as the General of Ershi, leading six thousand cavalry from vassal states, along with a bunch of unemployed punks from the counties, totaling tens of thousands of troops, to attack Wan. The goal of this expedition was to seize the good horses in Ershi City, hence the title "General of Ershi". Zhao Shi became the strategist, Houhou Wang Hui led the way, and Li Duo served as the military commander. That year, the first year of Taichu, saw a massive locust plague that reached all the way to Dunhuang.
General Ershi's army passed through the Salt Waters to the west. Along the way, the small countries were all afraid and tightly closed their city gates, refusing to provide food. They conquered some towns, securing food supplies; others they bypassed after a few days, unable to take them. Reaching Yucheng, they had dwindled to a few thousand exhausted, starving men. Their assault on Yucheng ended in a disastrous defeat, with heavy losses. General Ershi conferred with his officers, Do and Shicheng among them. "If we can't take Yucheng," he declared, "we've no chance of reaching their capital!" He ordered a retreat. Two years of campaigning had whittled their numbers down, and only a tenth of his original force remained. General Ershi sent messengers to the court, stating, "Look, the journey was a killer, we were starving, and the men are more scared of going hungry than fighting. We're too few to take the Wanguo state. We need to call a halt, get more troops, and then try again."
After the emperor heard about it, he was furious and sent people to block the Yumen Pass, ordering that any army daring to enter would be killed without mercy! The Second Army General was afraid, so he had to stay in Dunhuang. That summer, the Han Dynasty lost more than 20,000 soldiers to the Xiongnu in the Zhuoye region. Court officials all suggested giving up the plan to attack Wanguo and focusing on striking the Xiongnu. However, the emperor had already decided to attack Wanguo, thinking that if even such a small country as Wanguo couldn't be conquered, the other states would lose respect for the Han, and the good horses of Wanguo would never be obtained. The Wusun and Rouran would also make it more difficult for the Han envoys. Or we'd be the laughingstock of the whole world! So, the emperor reviewed reports advising against attacking Wanguo, such as the opinions of Deng Guang and others, and then pardoned prisoners and drafted a huge army of conscripts and border troops. After more than a year, an army of 60,000 set off from Dunhuang, excluding those who joined on their own. There were 100,000 cattle, over 30,000 horses, and countless other supply wagons. A large amount of food was brought, and various weapons and equipment were fully prepared. The entire country mobilized for the war. Over fifty centurions were dispatched to respond to the call to attack Wanguo. Wanguo's capital had no wells; they relied on the river outside the city for water. So, Han engineers diverted the river, hoping to cut off the city's water supply. Eighteen thousand more troops were stationed north of Jiuquan and Zhangye, establishing the Juyan and Xiutu bases to defend Jiuquan. At the same time, seven types of transport were requisitioned nationwide, along with supplies for the Second Army General. Supply convoys streamed into Dunhuang. Two expert horse trainers were appointed to select the best warhorses once Wanguo fell.
Li Guangli launched their second campaign to the Western Regions with a large military force. Along the way, the smaller states rolled out the welcome mat and offered supplies for the army. When they reached Luntou, the city refused to surrender, and the Han army attacked for several days before finally taking and sacking the city. Continuing westward, the army reached Wancheng with approximately 30,000 troops. Wancheng's defenders charged, only to be routed by a hail of Han arrows, and they retreated back into the city to defend it.
Originally, Li Guangli's army planned to directly attack Yucheng, but considering that doing so might just harden Wancheng's resolve, they decided to first take Wancheng. They cut off their water and laid siege. After more than forty days of siege, the outer walls of Wancheng were breached, and the nobles and brave generals of Wancheng were captured. Panic gripped Wancheng, and its people retreated to the inner city. The nobles huddled together, figuring, "The Han army is attacking because our king, Wu Guai, hid some prime steeds and even offed a Han envoy. If we whack Wu Guai and hand over the horses, maybe the Han will back off. If not, we fight to the death, and it ain't too late." Everyone agreed to this plan, so they killed Wu Guai, sent his head to Li Guangli, and sent someone to negotiate with him, saying, "Cut it out. We'll give you all our best horses, and feed your army. If you don't agree, we'll kill all the good horses, and the Kangju reinforcements will arrive. When they arrive, we will defend the inner city while the Kangju army will fight alongside you. Think about it!"
At that time, the Kangju were watching the Han army, seeing that they were still very powerful and didn't dare make a move. Li Guangli discussed with Zhao Shicheng, Li Duo, and others, saying, "I hear there are some Qin folks in Wancheng now. They're good at digging wells, and there’s a lot of food in the city. We're here to kill Wu Gua, the ringleader. We've got Wu Gua's head. If we don't withdraw our troops now, they'll just sit tight. If the Kangju see us hanging around, they’ll come to rescue Wancheng, and we’ll get wiped out." The officers agreed. Wancheng let us pick out their best horses and gave us tons of food. The Han army selected dozens of top horses and over three thousand others. So we made Meicai—a local noble who'd been good to our envoys—the new king, made an alliance, and left. We never took the inner city, so we went home.
At first, General Li Guangli set out from Dunhuang to the west, feeling that there were too many people and the army's supplies were running low, so he divided the army into several routes, splitting it and sending columns north and south. Captain Wang Shensheng and Huchongguo, formerly of the Honglu Office, led more than a thousand people on a different route to Yucheng. The governor of Yucheng refused to supply them. Wang Shensheng and his men were 200 miles away from the main army, recklessly confronted the governor of Yucheng. Yucheng still refused to provide food, and they found that Wang Shensheng's forces were decreasing day by day. At dawn, they sent three thousand men to attack, killing Wang Shensheng and his men. The army was routed; only a handful escaped to report to General Li Guangli. General Li Guangli then sent Shangguan Jie, the Inspector of Supplies, to attack Yucheng. King Yucheng fled to Kangju, and Shangguan Jie chased him there. Learning of the Han conquest of Wancheng, Kangju surrendered King Yucheng to Shangguan Jie. Shangguan Jie assigned four horsemen to bind and escort King Yucheng to the Grand General. The four horsemen talked it over, saying, "King Yucheng is an enemy of the Han Dynasty. What if we mess this up?" They all wanted to kill him, but no one dared to make the first move. Young Zhao Di from Shanggui drew his sword and killed King Yucheng, carrying his head. Zhao Di and Shangguan Jie rejoined the Grand General.
At the beginning, General Li Guangli started their campaign from the rear. The Emperor sent envoys to inform the Wusun to join forces to attack Wancheng. The Wusun only sent two thousand cavalry over and were hesitant to commit fully. General Li Guangli headed east, passing through small countries along the way. When they heard Wancheng had fallen, they all sent their sons to offer gifts to the army and see the Emperor, effectively holding them hostage. During the attack on Wancheng by General Li Guangli, Zhao Shicheng, the army's chief of staff, distinguished himself in battle, achieving the greatest feats; General Shangguan Jie dared to penetrate deep into enemy territory, while Li Duo provided strategies. The army entering Yumen Pass had over ten thousand soldiers and over a thousand horses. The army that set out from the rear under General Li Guangli did not lack food, and not many soldiers died in battle. However, corruption among the officers led to neglect and embezzlement, resulting in significant soldier losses.
For the distant expedition to attack Wancheng, the Emperor did not investigate their faults and appointed Li Guangli Marquis of Haixi. Zhao Di, a cavalryman under King Yucheng, was appointed as the Marquis of Xinzhi. Zhao Shicheng was appointed as the Grand Master of the Palace, Shangguan Jie as the Minister of the Household, and Li Duo as the Governor of Shangdang. Among the officials in the army, three became Nine Ministers, over a hundred became high-ranking officials, and over a thousand became officials below one thousand stones. Brave soldiers were promoted beyond expectations; those who underperformed were demoted. Each soldier was rewarded with forty thousand coins. The siege of Wancheng took a total of four years to conclude.
The Han defeated Wan, appointed Mei Cai as the King of Wan, and then left. Over a year later, the elites of Wan felt that Mei Cai's flattery had led to the massacre of their people. They conspired to kill Mei Cai, appointed his brother Chan Feng as the King of Wan, and sent his son to the Han Dynasty as a hostage. The Han then sent envoys bearing gifts to pacify them.
The Han Dynasty also sent over a dozen missions to various small countries west of Wanguo, grabbing up exotic treasures and flexing their military might after conquering the place. The Han Dynasty established the Jiuquan garrison in Dunhuang; they set up waystations all the way to Yanshui. Around Luntou, hundreds of soldiers were farming, so the Han Dynasty sent envoys to protect the fields and stockpile food for the foreign envoys.
Sima Qian says: The *Yu Ben Ji* says that "the Yellow River originates from the Kunlun Mountains. The Kunlun Mountains are more than 2,500 miles high, and the sun and moon hide there, making it dazzlingly bright. There are also sweet springs and shimmering pools on the mountain." Ever since Zhang Qian went to the West, people have explored the source of the Yellow River, but nobody's ever seen the Kunlun Mountains described in the *Yu Ben Ji*. So, the *Shangshu*'s description of the Nine Provinces is more accurate. As for the weird stuff in the *Yu Ben Ji* and *Shan Hai Jing*, I'll just leave that alone.
