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Written by: Realhistories

Category: Records of the Grand Historian (史記)

Published: 29 November 2024

Created: 29 November 2024

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The Xiongnu, whose ancestors were descendants of the Xia Dynasty, were a people known as the Chunwei. Before the Tang and Yu periods, tribes such as the Shanrong, Xianyun, and Hunzhou lived in the northern wilderness, following their livestock in migration. Their herds mainly consisted of horses, cattle, and sheep, but they also kept more unusual animals such as various types of pack animals. They were nomadic, following the water and pasturelands, without fixed settlements or agriculture, though they did claim territories. They had no written language, relying on word of mouth to conduct business. Children could ride sheep and shoot birds and mice with bows and arrows; as they grew older, they could hunt foxes and rabbits for food. Every man was a skilled archer and cavalryman. They were nomadic pastoralists, supplementing their diet with hunting; when threatened, they readily turned to raiding—it was simply their way of life. They'd attack if there was something to gain, and retreat if not—running away wasn't shameful to them. Profit was all that mattered; they had no qualms about ignoring any rules of decency. From king to commoner, their diet was meat, their clothes were animal hides, and felt was their bedding. The strong and healthy got the best cuts of meat; the elderly got what was left. They valued strength above all else, showing little regard for the old or infirm. When a father died, his son would marry his stepmother; when a brother died, the older brother would marry the younger brother's wife, reflecting their cultural norms. They had no concept of family names, nor did they observe many of the taboos we take for granted.

The Xiongnu lived like this: they were nomadic, moving from place to place and lived by their bows and horses. Brave and skilled in battle, they lacked the civilized ways of the Central Plains. This was closely related to their survival environment and way of life; they had to remain vigilant at all times, ready for combat or escape. Their customs, such as marrying a father's widow or a brother's widow, might seem shocking to us today, but they reflect the unique social structure and values of their era. They had no written language, relying instead on oral tradition, which limited their development but also shaped their unique culture. They were a fierce and powerful people, their history legendary. Their philosophy, encapsulated in the saying "Advance when advantageous, retreat when not, never be ashamed to flee," reveals the essence of their survival strategy.

In summary, this passage describes the ancient way of life, social customs, and values of the Xiongnu people, showcasing the way of life and cultural characteristics of a nomadic tribe. Their lifestyle differed greatly from the Central Plains agricultural civilization, leading to long-term conflicts and confrontations between the two sides. Through these detailed descriptions, we can gain a deeper understanding of this nation that once played an important role in history. Their stories also provide valuable material for the study of ancient history.

When the Xia Dynasty fell apart, Gong Liu, an ancestor of the Zhou people, lost his job and hightailed it to the Western Rong region, settling down in Bin. After more than three hundred years, the Rong and Di tribes attacked King Nanfu of Zhou, who fled to the foot of Qishan. All the people of Bin followed him there, establishing the Zhou Dynasty. Over a hundred years later, Duke Chang of Zhou attacked the Quan Yi tribe. A decade later, King Wu defeated King Zhou of Shang, established the capital in Luoyi, resided in Fenghao, drove the Rong and Di tribes north of the Jing River and Luo River, made them pay tribute regularly, and called them the "borderlands."

More than two hundred years later, the Zhou Dynasty weakened. King Mu went to take on the Quanrong and brought back four white wolves and four white deer. Since then, the outlying territories no longer paid tribute. Therefore, the Zhou Dynasty established strict laws.

Over two hundred years later, King You of Zhou clashed with the Marquis of Shen due to his favoritism towards Bao Si. The angry Marquis of Shen allied with the Quanrong and attacked King You of Zhou, killing him at the foot of Li Mountain and occupying the Jiao and Hu regions of the Zhou Dynasty. They settled in the region between the Jing and Wei Rivers, oppressing the heartland. Duke Xiang of Qin saved the Zhou Dynasty, and King Ping of Zhou left Fenghao and moved east to Luo Yi. At this time, Duke Xiang of Qin defeated the Rong and Di tribes and was granted vassal status.

Sixty-five years later, the Mountain Rong crossed Yan to attack Qi. Duke Li of Qi fought against them outside the borders of Qi. Forty-four years later, the Mountain Rong attacked Yan. Yan sought help from Qi, and Duke Huan of Qi went north to confront the Mountain Rong, who fled.

Twenty years later, the Di people reached Luo Yi and attacked King Xiang of Zhou. King Xiang fled to Fan Yi of Zheng. Initially, he wanted to attack Zheng, so he married a woman from the Di tribe as his queen and launched an assault on Zheng with the Di army. Later, he deposed the queen, who held a grudge. Queen Hui, King Xiang's stepmother, had a son named Zidai, who aspired to be king. Thus, Queen Hui, the queen, and Zidai colluded to open the city gates for the Di tribe to enter, allowing them to attack Luo Yi, defeat King Xiang of Zhou, and crown Zidai as emperor.

The Di people then settled in Luhun, east of the state of Wei, plundering the heartland and inflicting brutal oppression. The various states of the Central Plains hated them, so poets wrote verses praising the achievements of defeating the Di, such as "The Di's Defiance," "Thinly attacking the Xianyun, to the great plains," and "The carriages come and go, the city of the northern frontier." These events marked a period of significant instability and decline for the Zhou dynasty, paving the way for further upheaval.

King Xiang of Zhou stayed outside for four years and sent envoys to seek help from Jin. Duke Wen of Jin had just ascended the throne and wanted to achieve hegemony, so he attacked the Rong and Di tribes, killed Zidai, welcomed King Xiang of Zhou back to the country, and stayed in Luoyi.

At that time, the states of Qin and Jin were the two most powerful states. Duke Wen of Jin defeated the Rong and Di tribes, occupying the land west of the Yellow River and around Luoyang, which he referred to as the Chidi (Red Di) and Baidi (White Di) tribes. Duke Mu of Qin received assistance from Yu, and the Qin controlled numerous tribes, including the Mianzhu, Gunrong, and Zhai to the west of the Long Mountains. Further north, beyond Qishan, Liangshan, the Jinghe, and Qi rivers, the Yiqu, Dali, Wushi, and Quyan tribes also fell under Qin rule. In the north of Jin, there were the Linhu and Loufan tribes; in the north of Yan, there were the Donghu and Shanrong tribes. These hundreds of tribes, each with its own leader, were fiercely independent, and though they sometimes gathered, no single power could unite them.

In short, Qin and Jin were the strongest states at the time. Duke Wen of Jin defeated the Rong and Di tribes, expanding his territory to the west of the Yellow River, while Duke Mu of Qin also subdued many Rong and Di tribes to the west with the help of Yu. There were also many Rong and Di tribes to the north of Jin and Yan; although they were numerous, they ruled independently without a unified leadership.

Over a hundred years later, Duke Dao of Jin sent Wei Jiang to befriend the Rong and Di, and the Rong and Di even sent tribute to Jin. Over another hundred years later, Zhao Xiangzi defeated Bingzhou and Daizhou, and his conquests reached the lands of the Hu and Mao. Later, Zhao, Han, and Wei destroyed Zhibo and divided the land of Jin, with Zhao obtaining the territory north of Daijun and Juzhu, while Wei controlled the area west of the Yellow River and Shangjun, bringing them into direct contact with the Rong and Di.

Afterward, the Yiqu built defensive cities, but the Qin State slowly gobbled up their land. During the reign of King Hui of Qin, they took out twenty-five Yiqu cities in one go. King Hui of Qin also defeated the Wei State, which ceded the Xiriver and Shangjun to Qin. During the reign of King Zhao of Qin, the Yiqu king had two sons with Empress Dowager Xuan. Empress Dowager Xuan had the Yiqu king bumped off in Ganquan, then sent troops to eliminate the remaining Yiqu people. This gave Qin Longxi, Beidi, and Shangjun, plus they built a Great Wall to defend against the Xiongnu.

At the same time, King Wuling of Zhao reformed customs, picked up Hu clothing and archery skills, and defeated the Linhu and Loufan. Zhao also built the Great Wall, extending from Daijun to Yinshan, then to Gaoque, and established Yunzhongjun, Yanmenjun, and Daijun. Later, Yan had a powerful general named Qin Kai, who was held hostage by the Hu but won them over. When Qin Kai returned to his country, he ambushed the Donghu and chased them off for thousands of miles. Later, Jing Ke, who assassinated the King of Qin, was the grandson of Qin Kai. Yan also built the Great Wall, from Zhaoyang to Xiangping, establishing Shanggujun, Yuyangjun, Right Beipingjun, Liaoxijun, and Liaodongjun to defend against the Hu people.

At that time, only six of the Warring States were left, and these three countries all bordered the Xiongnu. Later, under Zhao general Li Mu, the Xiongnu dared not invade Zhao's borders. Later, Qin conquered the six states, and Emperor Qin Shi Huang sent Meng Tian to lead a hundred thousand troops north to attack the Xiongnu, taking back the Henan region. Qin used the Yellow River as a boundary, built forty-four cities, stationed troops, and built a straight road from Jiuyuan to Yunyang. Using the natural landscape, they built a massive road network from Lintao to Liaodong, thousands of miles long. They also crossed the Yellow River and occupied the area north of Yangshan.

At that time, the Donghu and Yuezhi were both powerful. The Xiongnu Chanyu was called Touman, and when Touman couldn't beat the Qin, he led his people to migrate north. Over a decade later, Meng Tian died, the nobles started rebelling against the Qin, the country fell into chaos, and the border troops deserted. This gave the Xiongnu a break, and they slowly crossed the Yellow River and reached the Central Plains near the old Great Wall.

The Xiongnu Chanyu had a son and heir named Modun. Later, the Chanyu favored a concubine who bore him a son. The Chanyu wanted to depose Modun and make his son the heir, so he sent Modun to the Yuezhi as a hostage.

When Modun was in the Yuezhi as a hostage, his father Touman suddenly attacked the Yuezhi. The Yuezhi people wanted to kill Modun, but Modun stole a good horse, rode it, and escaped back to the Xiongnu. Touman thought his son was gutsy, so he equipped him with ten thousand cavalry.

Modun devised a special whistling arrow to train his cavalry in archery. He ordered, "Anyone who misses, dies!" He then led his troops on a hunt, and if the whistling arrow hit the prey, anyone who didn't shoot immediately lost their head.

Later, Modun shot his own prized steed with the whistling arrow. Some soldiers hesitated to shoot, and Modun immediately killed those who were hesitant. Eventually, Modun shot his favorite wife with the whistling arrow. Some soldiers were afraid and didn't shoot, so Modun killed them too.

After a while, Modun went hunting and shot his father Chanyu Touman's good horse with the whistling arrow. This time, all the soldiers followed suit and shot. Modun realized his men were completely under his thumb.

Later, Modu followed his father, Touman Chanyu, on a hunting expedition. He used a special arrow with a whistle attached to shoot at his father, and his men followed suit, firing similar arrows, killing Chanyu Touman. Modu then killed his stepmother, younger brother, and all those who did not obey him. Finally, Modu himself became Chanyu.

After Modu became Chanyu, the Donghu were very powerful. Upon hearing that Modu had killed his father and taken power, they sent envoys to see Modu, hoping to obtain a legendary steed left behind by Chanyu Touman. Modu asked his ministers for their opinions, and they all said, "The legendary steed is a priceless possession of the Xiongnu and cannot be given to them!" However, Modu said, "We can't afford to offend our neighbors over a horse." So he gave the legendary steed to the Donghu.

Not long after, the Donghu felt that Modu feared them, and they sent envoys again, this time wanting to get Chanyu's queen. His advisors again cautioned against this, and they angrily said, "The Donghu have gotten awfully bold, demanding our queen! We should fight them!" But Modu said, "Can't let a woman cause a war with our neighbors." So, he gave his favorite queen to the Donghu.

The Donghu king became even more arrogant and began to invade the Xiongnu from the west. Between the Xiongnu and the Donghu, there was a vast uninhabited wilderness stretching for thousands of miles. Both sides only occupied the border areas, forming a standoff. The Donghu sent envoys to Modu again, saying, "That empty land between us—too far for the Xiongnu to even bother with—we want it." Modu asked his ministers for their opinions, and some said, "Some said we could give it to them, others said no." Modu was furious this time; he roared, "Land's the backbone of our nation! We ain't giving it away!" Those ministers who advocated for giving away the land were all killed by him. Modu immediately mounted his horse, ordered a massacre of the stragglers, and then led his troops east to attack the Donghu.

In the beginning, the Donghu underestimated Modu and did not take proper precautions. When Modu's army arrived, a decisive battle ensued, resulting in a thorough defeat for the Donghu king, who was stripped of his people and livestock. After defeating the Donghu, Modu went on to defeat the Yuezhi to the west and conquer Loufan and the Baiyang King to the south. He also won back the territory lost to General Meng Tian of the Qin Dynasty, extending his reach to the former southern border of the Han Dynasty, reaching as far as Chaona and Fushi, while harassing the Yan and Dai states. At that time, the Han Dynasty army and Xiang Yu were in conflict. The Central Plains region was exhausted from war, allowing Modu to strengthen his forces and amass more than 300,000 elite soldiers.

From the time of Chanyu Chunwei to Chanyu Touman, spanning over a thousand years, the Xiongnu waxed and waned, frequently fracturing and obscuring their lineage. However, during the reign of Chanyu Modu, the Xiongnu reached their peak, conquering all nomadic tribes in the north and becoming hostile towards the Han Dynasty. It was during this time that the genealogy and official titles of the Xiongnu were fully recorded.

The Xiongnu Chanyu commanded a vast bureaucracy, including paired left and right officials such as the Wise Kings, Gu Li Kings, Grand Generals, Grand Colonels, Grand Stewards, and Bone Stewards. Talented individuals were known as "Tuqi," and the crown prince typically held the title of Left Tuqi King. From the Wise Kings down to the Grand Stewards, some had a few thousand cavalry under them, while others commanded up to ten thousand cavalry. In total, there were twenty-four such officials, known as the "Ten Thousand Cavalry." These ministers held hereditary positions, and the Huyan, Lan, and Xubu clans represented the pinnacle of Xiongnu nobility.

The kings and generals on the left side live in the east, all the way to the east of Shanggu, bordering the Xiongnu and Joseon; the kings and generals on the right side live in the west, all the way to the west of Shangjun, bordering the Yuezhi, Di, and Qiang; while the Chanyu's court is near Daijun and Yunchuan. They each have their own territories and migrate following the water and grass. Among them, the Left Worthy King, Right Worthy King, Left Valley King, and Right Valley King have the greatest power, with the Left and Right Bone Marquis assisting them in governing. These twenty-four officials each have their own commanders, captains, and lieutenants, as well as various other minor officials.

Every year in the first month, these officials must gather at the Chanyu's court for a little get-together and sacrifice; in May, a big celebration is held in Longcheng to worship ancestors, heaven, earth, and spirits; in autumn, once the horses have fattened up, they must gather at Dailin to count people and animals. Their laws are very strict, with the death penalty for drawing a sword and confiscation of all family property for theft; minor offenses are punished with flogging, while major offenses result in death. Cases are wrapped up fast, usually within ten days, and there were only a handful of prisoners in the whole land. The Chanyu emerges from his tent every morning to pay respects to the rising sun and worships the moon every night. When he sits, he always faces north, with the senior seat on his left, and the sun rises around where the sun rose. After the Xiongnu people die, they are buried in coffins with gold, silver, clothing, and fur, but they didn't bother with fancy tombs or mourning clothes; for his favorite concubines, the number of people who are buried with them can be in the hundreds or thousands.

Before the Xiongnu went to war, they observed the stars. They attacked under the full moon and retreated under the waning. A pot of wine was the reward for killing an enemy, and the spoils of war belonged to the one who captured them, while captives became their slaves. Therefore, Xiongnu soldiers fought for their own interests and were skilled in luring the enemy. They fell upon the enemy like a flock of birds, but once they were defeated, they scattered and fled. Looters on the battlefield also claimed the dead men's belongings.

Later, the Xiongnu conquered the Hunyu, Qusha, Dingling, Gekun, Xinli, and various other tribes. So the Xiongnu nobles all bowed down to Modun, thinking him a brilliant leader.

Shortly after the founding of the Han Dynasty, Han Xin was moved to the Dai region, and the capital was established in Mǎyì. As a result, the Xiongnu besieged Mǎyì, and Han Xin surrendered to them. With Han Xin as their inside man, the Xiongnu led their troops southward, crossed the Jùzhù Mountains, attacked Tàiyuán, and advanced all the way to the outskirts of Jìnyáng. Emperor Gāozǔ personally led the Han army to fight the Xiongnu. During the harsh winter with heavy snowfall, as many as seven or eight out of ten soldiers lost their fingers to frostbite, resulting in a tragic situation! At this time, Chanyu Modu pretended to be defeated and fled, deliberately luring the Han army. The Han army pursued Modu vigorously, but Modu had hidden his elite soldiers and deliberately showed a weak side. The entire Han army, including 320,000 infantry, pursued the Xiongnu in a massive show of force. Liu Bang first arrived in Píngchéng, but before the infantry had fully arrived, Modu led forty thousand elite cavalry to surround Liu Bang at Báidēng for a full seven days, with the Han army cut off from supplies both inside and out. The Xiongnu cavalry was a breathtaking sight: white horses to the west, azure steeds to the east, black steeds to the north, and tawny horses to the south! Having no other choice, Liu Bang secretly sent many gifts to Modu's wife, Yàshì. Yàshì advised Modu, "We don't need to be enemies. Even if you occupy Han territory, the Chanyu may not be able to hold it for long. Furthermore, Heaven favors the Han king, so you should see the situation clearly!" Modu had originally agreed with the subordinates of Han Xin, Wáng Huáng and Zhào Lì, to cooperate from both inside and outside, but they did not show up. Modu suspected they were colluding with the Han Dynasty, and with Yàshì's persuasion, he eased the siege. At this point, Liu Bang ordered the soldiers to draw their bows taut, with the arrowheads facing outward, and charged straight out from the gap in the encirclement, finally reuniting with the main force. Realizing he was outmatched, Modu withdrew his troops. The Han army also retreated and sent Liu Jing to negotiate a peace with the Xiongnu.

Later, Han Xin became a general of the Xiongnu. He, along with Zhao Li, Wang Huang, and others, repeatedly violated agreements, frequently raided Dai and Yunzhong counties. Not long after, Chen Xi rebelled again and conspired with Han Xin to attack Dai. The Han Dynasty sent Fan Kuai to crush the rebellion and recovered Dai, Yanmen, Yunzhong, and other counties, but did not pursue further beyond the borders. At that time, the Xiongnu saw the strength of the Han army and sent people to surrender. Therefore, Modun often came to Dai to harass and plunder. The Han Dynasty was very troubled by this, so Liu Bang sent Liu Jing to arrange a marriage alliance with a princess for the Chanyu and annually sent a large amount of silk, cloth, wine, rice, and various foods to the Xiongnu, with specified quantities. Both sides agreed to be brotherly states, maintaining peace through marriage. Modun then toned it down a little. Later, King Lu Wan rebelled, leading thousands of people to join the Xiongnu and frequently harass the area east of Shanggu, causing great distress to the Han Dynasty.

When Emperor Gaozu died and Emperor Xiaohui and Empress Dowager Lu were in power, the Han Dynasty had just been established, so the Xiongnu were very arrogant. The Chanyu Modun wrote a letter to Empress Dowager Lu filled with bluster. Empress Dowager Lu wanted to send troops to attack the Xiongnu, but the ministers said, "Even Emperor Gaozu was so powerful; he was once besieged by the Xiongnu in Pingcheng!" Hearing this, Empress Dowager Lu gave up the idea and continued the peace with the Xiongnu.

When Emperor Xiaowen ascended the throne, he continued to implement a policy of peace. In May of the third year, the Xiongnu Right King entered Henan, invaded Shang county, killed people, and looted property. Emperor Xiaowen ordered Prime Minister Guan Ying to lead 85,000 troops to attack the Right King. The Right King fled back beyond the border, and Emperor Xiaowen went to Taiyuan. At this time, the King of Jibei rebelled, so Emperor Xiaowen hurried back to the capital and recalled the troops sent to attack the Xiongnu.

In the second year, the Chanyu of the Xiongnu wrote a letter to the Han Dynasty, saying: "The great Chanyu of the Xiongnu chosen by the heavens respectfully greets Your Majesty the Emperor. Previously, Your Majesty said you wanted to form a marriage alliance, and we agreed, intending for the two nations to be friendly. However, the border officials of the Han Dynasty harassed our Right Worthy King. Before he could request Your Majesty's instructions, he took the advice of Hou Nan Shi and others and clashed with the Han officials, breaking the agreement between the two countries and undermining our brotherly bond. Your Majesty then sent envoys to blame us, and we sent envoys in response, but the Han envoys did not come. Because of this, the Han Dynasty refused to reconcile with us, and neighboring countries were unwilling to be close to us. To punish the Right Worthy King, we sent him to attack the Yuezhi. We were victorious, thanks to heaven's blessing and the bravery of our soldiers and the strength of our horses. We defeated the Yuezhi, killing or capturing them all. Loulan, Wusun, Hujie, and twenty-six surrounding countries have all submitted to the Xiongnu. Every archer is now one of us. The northern region has been pacified, and we hope to cease hostilities. We want to allow our soldiers to rest, care for our horses, forget past grievances, and restore previous agreements. We wish for the border people to live in peace and prosperity, for the young to grow up, and for the elderly to enjoy their later years, living in peace and happiness for generations to come. However, we do not yet know Your Majesty's intentions, so we have sent Lang Zhong Xi Yuqian with this letter to request your response, and have presented a camel, two war horses, and four horse-drawn carriages. If Your Majesty does not want the Xiongnu near the border, then please order the people to live far away from the border. When the envoy arrives, please send him back." This letter was delivered to Xinwang (a place name) in mid-June. After receiving the letter, the Han Dynasty began to discuss whether it was more appropriate to fight or reconcile. The ministers all said: "With the Chanyu victorious over the Yuezhi, war is out of the question. Besides, the land of the Xiongnu is barren, unfit for habitation. Reconciliation is the most appropriate." The Han Dynasty agreed to the reconciliation.

In 176 BC, the Han Dynasty wrote to the Xiongnu saying: "The Emperor sends greetings to the great Chanyu of the Xiongnu. How have you been? We have sent Langzhong Xiyuqian to reply to you. The letter says: 'The Right Worthy King did not listen to advice and believed the schemes of Hou Nan Shi and his associates, violating the alliance between our two countries and damaging our brotherly bond. As a result, the Han Dynasty is displeased, and neighboring countries have grown distant. Now, because the Right Worthy King made a mistake, we have punished him by sending him to the west to fight the Yuezhi and fully conquer them. Let us hope for an end to hostilities, so we can properly train our troops, forget the past, recommit to our previous alliance, and allow the people along the border to live and work in peace. May the young grow up strong, the elderly enjoy their later years, and generations live in peace and happiness.' I really appreciate this letter—smart move! That’s real ancient wisdom! The Han Dynasty and the Xiongnu agreed to be brotherly nations, so the gifts sent to the Chanyu were quite generous. It has always been the Xiongnu who have violated the alliance and damaged the brotherly friendship. However, the matter of the Right Worthy King has already been forgiven, so the Chanyu should not dwell on it. If the Chanyu agrees with the meaning of this letter, then clearly instruct all officials not to violate the alliance any longer and to keep their promises, just like in the Chanyu's letter. The messenger said that the Chanyu personally led the army in battle and worked very hard. We sent a variety of gifts, including one embroidered padded robe, one embroidered padded long shirt, one brocade padded robe, an additional item, a gold-decorated belt, a gold ornament, ten pieces of embroidered fabric, thirty pieces of brocade, and forty pieces each of red fine cloth and green silk. Please ensure the Chanyu receives these gifts through Zhong Daifu Yi and Yezhe Ling." After some time, Modu Chanyu died, and his son Jizhou succeeded to the throne, known as the Old Chanyu (meaning 'senior Chanyu').

Chanyu Ji Zhou, who had recently ascended the throne, was sent a princess from the royal family to be his wife by Emperor Xiao Wen of Han, accompanied by Zhongxing of the Yan. Zhongxing did not want to go, but the Han court compelled him. He stated, "If I go, it will bring trouble to the Han dynasty." When Zhongxing arrived among the Xiongnu, he surrendered to the Chanyu, who greatly favored him.

Initially, the Xiongnu liked the silk fabrics, cotton, and food from the Han dynasty. Zhongxing told the Chanyu, "Even with their large population, the Xiongnu couldn't match a single Han county. However, the reason the Xiongnu are powerful is that they are self-sufficient in their clothing and food, not relying on the Han dynasty. Now that the Chanyu has changed his customs and likes things from the Han dynasty, these items at most only make up one-tenth of the total Xiongnu resources. He proposed letting the Xiongnu wear out the Han silk running through the rough terrain, proving its inferiority to Xiongnu furs; and discarding Han food to highlight the superiority of Xiongnu cheese." So Zhongxing instructed the people around the Chanyu to use this to gauge the Xiongnu's strength.

The Han letter, written on a 13-inch bamboo slip, simply read, "The Emperor respectfully inquires about the well-being of the great Chanyu of the Xiongnu," and the gifts and words conveyed the same meaning. Zhongxing had the Chanyu reply to the Han dynasty on a bamboo slip one foot and two inches long, with a large and grand seal and seal mud, and the letter was written in a proud and arrogant manner, stating, "The heaven-ordained and earth-born Great Chanyu of the Xiongnu respectfully inquires about the well-being of the Han Emperor," with the gifts and words conveying the same message.

A Han envoy once said, "The Xiongnu look down on the elderly." Zhongxing countered, "But in the Han army, aren't soldiers heading to battle receiving the best food and clothing from their parents?" The Han envoy replied, "Yes." Zhongxing continued, "The Xiongnu mainly rely on fighting for a living. Elderly and weak people cannot fight, so they give the best food to the strong to protect themselves, ensuring both fathers and sons can live long. So how can anyone say the Xiongnu disrespect their elders?"

The Han envoy said again, "The Xiongnu sleep in the same tent with their fathers and sons. When a father dies, the son marries his stepmother; when a brother dies, they all marry the deceased's wife. They have no hats or fancy ceremonies." Zhongxing explained, "The Xiongnu live off their livestock – eating their meat, drinking their milk, and wearing their hides. The animals graze freely, and the Xiongnu move with them. Therefore, when needed, everyone can ride and shoot, living leisurely during peacetime. Their constraints are few and easily implemented. The relationship between ruler and subjects is simple, governing the entire country like one person. Marrying their wives when fathers, sons, or brothers die prevents the family from falling apart. So although the Xiongnu are chaotic, they can certainly maintain their clan bloodline.

In China, we don't marry our relatives' widows, but if relatives become estranged, they may end up killing each other or even changing surnames, all because of this reason. Moreover, elaborate ceremonies only lead to mutual resentment, and the higher the houses are built, the less energy people have. Those who toil hard to farm and weave for sustenance, and build walls to defend themselves, will not fight in times of emergency and are tired from work during peacetime. So, you city dwellers in your fancy houses, what do you know about real survival?"

Since then, whenever envoys from the Han Dynasty wanted to debate with the Xiongnu, Zhongxing Shu always said, "Hey, Han envoys, less talk. Just make sure we send enough good stuff—silk, fabrics, and food. What's the point of arguing? If you're not prepared, expect the Xiongnu to raid after harvest." He taught the Chanyu every day to see the pros and cons clearly.

In the fourteenth year of Emperor Wen of Han, the Xiongnu Chanyu led 140,000 cavalry to invade Chaona and Xiaoguan, killed the Beidi Commandant, and took away a large number of people and livestock, advancing all the way to Pengyang. They even sent out a special force to burn the imperial palace at Hui, and Xiongnu reconnaissance cavalry reached Yong County and Ganquan. Emperor Wen appointed Zhoushe as a general, mobilized one thousand chariots and one hundred thousand cavalry to station near Chang'an to guard against the Xiongnu invasion. At the same time, he appointed Lu Qing as the General of Shangjun, Wei Xiu as the General of Beidi, Zhou Zao as the General of Longxi, Zhang Xiangru as the Grand General, Dong Chi as the Front General, and mobilized a large number of chariots and cavalry to attack the Xiongnu. The Chanyu stayed in Han territory for over a month before leaving. The Han army chased them to the border but came back empty-handed. The Xiongnu raids grew bolder each year, slaughtering people and livestock. Yunzhong and Liaodong were hit hardest, with Daijun alone losing over ten thousand. The Han were in a bind, so they sent envoys to the Xiongnu. The Chanyu sent envoys back, thanked them, and brought up the marriage again.

In the second year of Emperor Xiaowen of Han's reign, he sent envoys to the Xiongnu with a letter that said: "The Emperor greets the Great Chanyu of the Xiongnu and wishes you well. We have received the two horses sent by your envoys, Han Liao and Dang Hu Qie Ju Diao Qu Nan, and we are very grateful. Our late Emperor decreed that the tribes north of the Great Wall should obey the Chanyu's orders, while the people south of the Great Wall fall under our Emperor's jurisdiction. Let everyone farm, weave, and hunt in peace, ensuring food and clothing, family unity, harmonious rule, and an end to bloodshed. It has come to my attention that some unscrupulous individuals covet the benefits of invasion, betraying trust, forgetting the interests of the people, and damaging the friendly relations between our two countries, which has happened before. As the old saying goes, 'Two countries have reconciled, both rulers are very happy, cease war, recuperate, raise good warhorses, and generation after generation enjoy peace and happiness, completely renewed.' I greatly appreciate this sentiment. Wise rulers always strive for progress and reform, allowing the elderly to enjoy their later years and letting the youth grow up healthy, preserving their lives and enjoying old age. Both the Chanyu and I should follow this path, obey the will of heaven, cherish the people, and pass down this practice for generations to ensure a peaceful world that benefits everyone. The Han and Xiongnu, neighbors yet enemies, are located in the north, where the cold weather brings about early violence. Therefore, we send officials to the Chanyu every year with food, wine, gold and silver treasures, silk, cotton, and other items. Now that the world is peaceful and the people are living happily, we, the Chanyu and I, share responsibility for their well-being. Reflecting on past events, those trivial matters and the mistakes made by advisors are not enough to destroy our brotherly relationship. I have heard that heaven is impartial and the earth does not favor one side. Both the Chanyu and I should forget the unpleasant past, walk the right path together, abandon past mistakes, seek lasting peace, and let the people of both countries be like one family. As all creatures, from fish to birds, instinctively seek advantage and avoid harm, this is the law of nature. Therefore, more and more people are submitting; this is the will of heaven. We should all forget the past: I have released fleeing Xiongnu people, and the Chanyu should also release Zhangni and others. I have heard that ancient emperors always kept their word and never broke their promises. The Chanyu should remember this: after the peace treaty, the Han Dynasty will not strike first. I urge you, Chanyu, to give this matter your careful consideration."

" "

The Chanyu agreed to the request for a marriage alliance, so the emperor ordered the censor to say, "Word came from the Xiongnu Chanyu that the marriage alliance has been confirmed. Those who run off won't make us bigger or richer. No Xiongnu raids, no Han incursions. Anyone who breaks this deal is dead. This is the only way to maintain friendly relations for a long time and avoid future troubles. It is beneficial for both sides. I have agreed. Let everyone know." Four years later, old Chanyu Jizhou died, and his son Junchen took over as Chanyu. After Junchen became Chanyu, Emperor Xiaowen of the Han dynasty made peace with the Xiongnu again, and Zhongxing stayed on at court.

After four years, Chanyu tore up the peace agreement again and led a large army to invade the Shangjun and Yuncheng commands, sending thirty thousand cavalry on each raid, killing many people and looting a lot of goods before leaving. This really worried the Han, so they sent three generals to station troops in Beidi, Juzhu, and Feihu Pass, guarding the borders against Xiongnu incursions. Not only that, near Chang'an, troops under three generals were stationed at Xili, Jimen north of the Wei River, and Bashang to guard against the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu cavalry reached the border of Daijun and Juzhu, and beacon fires blazed all the way to Ganquan and Chang'an. After several months, the Han army finally arrived at the border, and the Xiongnu withdrew to the distant border fortress. Over a year later, Emperor Xiaowen died, and Emperor Xiaojing succeeded to the throne. Then, shockingly, King Zhao secretly contacted the Xiongnu, and the Wu-Chu rebellion broke out, with King Zhao even wanting to attack the Han Dynasty's border together with the Xiongnu. As a result, the Han army pacified the state of Zhao, and the Xiongnu did not dare to act rashly. Since then, Emperor Xiaojing resumed peace talks with the Xiongnu, opened border trade, gave them a lot of wealth, and even gave them a princess in marriage, all in accordance with the previous agreement. During Emperor Xiaojing's reign, although the Xiongnu occasionally raided the border on a small scale, there was no large-scale invasion. Now that you're emperor, your wise policy of appeasing the Xiongnu, treating them well, and opening trade continues to bear fruit. From the Chanyu down to the common folk, the Xiongnu are close to the Han Dynasty, frequently coming and going at the foot of the Great Wall.

It is said that there was an envoy sent by the Han Dynasty to Mayi, named Nie Weng. This envoy betrayed the Han Dynasty by secretly providing the Xiongnu with supplies. He pretended to sell Mayi City to the Xiongnu Chanyu, hoping to lure the Chanyu into a trap. The Chanyu really believed it. Hearing of Mayi's wealth, he led 100,000 cavalry through Wuzhou Pass.

The Han Dynasty had long been prepared, with over three hundred thousand troops ambushed near Mayi. Grand Minister Han Anguo commanded the ambush, overseeing four generals, prepared to spring their trap. When the Chanyu entered the Han border and was within a hundred miles of Mayi, he saw livestock everywhere on the grassland but no one herding them, which he found very strange. So he attacked a pavilion. At this time, the officer at Yanmen Pass was patrolling and, seeing the Xiongnu, defended the pavilion valiantly. He recognized the Han army's ploy, and the Chanyu captured him, wanting to kill him. However, the officer revealed the location of the Han army's ambush to the Chanyu. Hearing this, the Chanyu exclaimed, "I had a bad feeling about this!" So he quickly led his troops to retreat. As he left, he even said, "I was able to capture this officer thanks to the protection of the heavens; it was the heavens that made me do this!" He even elevated the officer to the rank of "Heavenly King." The Han army had originally planned to strike when the Chanyu entered Mayi, but since the Chanyu did not come, the Han army's plan backfired.

General Wang Hui of the Han Dynasty led troops from Daijun to attack the logistics of the Xiongnu, but upon hearing that the Chanyu had returned with a large army, he chickened out. The Han Dynasty figured Wang Hui was dragging his feet, so they had him killed. Since then, the Xiongnu no longer negotiated with the Han Dynasty and frequently raided the Han border, looting as they went. Greedy as they were, the Xiongnu still loved trading with the Han, especially for their fancy stuff. The Han Dynasty continued to trade with them as a way to deal with them.

Five years after the Battle of Mayi, in the autumn, the Han Dynasty sent four generals, each leading ten thousand cavalry, to attack the Xiongnu's markets. General Wei Qing set out from Shanggu and arrived at Longcheng, capturing seven hundred Xiongnu. General Gongsun He left from Yuncheng but achieved nothing. General Gongsun Ao set out from Daijun but was defeated by the Xiongnu, losing more than seven thousand men. General Li Guang came from Yanmen and was also defeated by the Xiongnu, and even captured, before eventually getting away. The Han Dynasty captured Gongsun Ao and Li Guang, but they later bought their way back to civilian life.

That winter, the Xiongnu invaded the border repeatedly, with the Yuyang area suffering particularly badly. The Han Dynasty sent General Han Anguo to defend Yuyang against the Xiongnu. The following autumn, twenty thousand Xiongnu cavalry invaded the Han Dynasty, killing the Liaoxi governor and seizing over two thousand people. The Xiongnu also defeated the army of the Governor of Yuyang, killing over a thousand, and surrounded Han Anguo. At that time, Han Anguo was nearly out of cavalry, but fortunately, reinforcements from Yan arrived in time, which forced the Xiongnu to retreat. The Xiongnu then invaded Yanmen, killing and capturing over a thousand people. In response, the Han Dynasty sent General Wei Qing with thirty thousand cavalry from Yanmen, and General Li Xi from Daijun, launching a joint attack on the Xiongnu and capturing thousands.

In the following year, Wei Qing once again led his troops from Yunzhong, as far as Longxi, where in the Henan region they defeated the Xiongnu Loufan and Baiyang kings, capturing thousands of Xiongnu people and a massive number of cattle and sheep. The Han Dynasty then occupied the Henan region, built Shuofang City, repaired the Great Wall built by the Qin Dynasty's Meng Tian, and used the Yellow River as a natural defense. The Han Dynasty also abandoned Shepi County in Shanggu and the Zhaoyang region, giving these places to the Xiongnu. This was the second year of Emperor Wu's Yuan Shuo era.

Later that winter, the Xiongnu Chanyu died. The Chanyu's brother, King Zuo Gulixi Yizhixie, declared himself Chanyu, defeated the Chanyu's son, Yudan, and his army. Yudan fled to the Han Dynasty and surrendered, and the Han Dynasty made him the Marquis of She'an. He died months later.

After Yizhixie Shanyu ascended to the throne, that summer, tens of thousands of Xiongnu cavalry invaded the Han Dynasty, killing Daijun prefect Gongyou and capturing more than a thousand people. In the autumn, the Xiongnu were at it again, raiding Yanmen and slaughtering over a thousand people. The following year, the Xiongnu invaded Daijun, Dingxiang, and Shangjun once more, each time mobilizing thirty thousand cavalry, killing and seizing thousands of people. The Right Worthy King of the Xiongnu resented the Han Dynasty for taking over the Henan region and building Shuofang City, launching multiple harassments, looting the border, and even penetrating into Henan to disturb Shuofang, killing and capturing many officials and civilians.

In the spring of the second year, the Han Dynasty sent Wei Qing as the Grand General, leading five other generals with a total of more than one hundred thousand troops from Shuofang and Gaoque to attack the Xiongnu. The Right Worthy King thought the Han army couldn’t possibly come, so he drank himself into a stupor. As a result, the Han army swept hundreds of miles across the border and, under the cover of night, surrounded the Right King. Terrified, the Right King fled, with many elite cavalry following him. The Han army captured over fifteen thousand of the Right King’s men and women, as well as more than ten minor kings.

That autumn, a Xiongnu force of over ten thousand cavalry attacked, killing Daijun prefect Zhu Ying and seizing more than a thousand people.

The following spring, the Han Dynasty sent General Wei Qing, leading five other generals and over 100,000 cavalry, hundreds of miles deep into Xiongnu territory, fought a battle, capturing a total of over nineteen thousand prisoners. However, the Han army also suffered heavy losses, with two generals and over three thousand cavalry killed. Right General You managed to escape with his life, but the former general, Zhao Xin, had bad luck and surrendered to the Xiongnu after being defeated. Zhao Xin was originally a prince of the Xiongnu, but later surrendered to the Han Dynasty and was appointed as Marquis Xi (a title). He led troops together with Right General You, but encountered the army of the Chanyu alone and was destroyed. After capturing Zhao Xin, the Chanyu treated him as his second king and gave him his sister in marriage, conspiring against the Han Dynasty. Zhao Xin suggested to the Chanyu to go further north, deliberately luring the Han army to a distant location, and then surrounding and annihilating them outside the border, not approaching the frontier. The Chanyu accepted his suggestion. A year later, ten thousand Xiongnu cavalry raided Shanggu, killing hundreds.

In the second year of spring, the Han dynasty sent General Huo Qubing with ten thousand cavalry troops to set out from Longxi, crossing over more than a thousand *li* beyond Yanzhi Mountain to attack the Xiongnu. They captured over eighteen thousand prisoners and seized the golden figures used by the King of Xiutu to worship the heavens and earth. Talk about a badass line: "Broke the Xiutu King's heaven-worshipping golden idols!" In the summer, General Huo Qubing, along with the Marquis of Heqi, led a large force of cavalry troops from Longxi and Beidi, marching two thousand *li* to fight the Xiongnu. They crossed Juyan, attacked the Qilian Mountains, captured over thirty thousand prisoners, and over seventy lower-ranking officials. At this time, the Xiongnu also invaded Daijun and Yanmen, killing and capturing several hundred people. The Han dynasty sent the Marquis of Bowang and General Li Guang from Youbeiping to attack the Xiongnu's King of the Left Xian. The King of the Left Xian surrounded General Li Guang, and Li Guang's army of over four thousand men was almost completely wiped out, with many Xiongnu killed as well. Later, the army of the Marquis of Bowang arrived to rescue, allowing General Li Guang to escape. The Han army suffered several thousand casualties. The Marquis of Heqi, General Huo Qubing, and the Marquis of Bowang were all sentenced to death, but they ultimately bought their way out and became commoners.

In the autumn, the Chanyu (Xiongnu king) was very angry because the King of Hunxie and the King of Xiutu, who lived in the west, were defeated by the Han dynasty, resulting in the deaths of tens of thousands. The Chanyu wanted to call them back and kill them. The King of Hunxie and the King of Xiutu were afraid, so they decided to surrender to the Han dynasty. The Han dynasty sent General Huo Qubing to welcome them. The King of Hunxie killed the King of Xiutu and surrendered to the Han dynasty with his followers. In total, there were more than forty thousand people, but they claimed to be a hundred thousand to the public. After obtaining the King of Hunxie, Xiongnu incursions in Longxi, Beidi, and Hexi regions decreased. The Han dynasty moved poor folk from the eastern frontier to those areas for settlement, reducing the number of soldiers stationed west of Beidi by approximately half.

In the second year, the Xiongnu brought several tens of thousands of cavalry to invade Youbeiping and Dingxiang, killing and looting over a thousand people before retreating. The Han analyzed and said, "Xihou Xin, the Chanyu's strategist, who lives north of the Ordos, believes that the Han army cannot reach there." So the Han prepared tons of food and horses, dispatched one hundred thousand cavalry, and had another 140,000 horses on standby, but did not bring too much food. The Han sent their top generals, Wei Qing and Huo Qubing, to lead the troops, with Wei Qing departing from Dingxiang and Huo Qubing setting out from Daijun, agreeing to meet the Xiongnu in a decisive battle north of the desert. After hearing this, the Chanyu moved the supplies to a distance and waited with elite troops in the north of the desert. Wei Qing's army fought the Xiongnu for a day, and in the evening, a gale blew up. The Han army surrounded him with a pincer movement. Realizing he couldn't win, the Chanyu broke out with a few hundred of his best men and headed northwest. The Han army pursued all night but failed to catch up. In this battle, the Han army killed over nineteen thousand Xiongnu, reaching as far north as the Yinshan Mountains before returning. The Chanyu was separated from his main force for so long that his subordinate, Youguli, thinking the Chanyu was dead, declared himself Chanyu. The true Chanyu later gathered his army again, and Youguli had to give up the title of Chanyu and return to being King Youguli. Huo Qubing, setting out from Daijun, fought with King Zuo Xian, killing over 70,000 Xiongnu and routing Zuo Xian's entire command. Then Huo Qubing offered sacrifices at the Wolf Mountain and the Changuyan altar, before finally reaching Lake Baikal and returning home.

Since then, the Xiongnu fled far away, and there was no royal court south of the desert. The Han Dynasty, north of the Yellow River, from Shuofang to Lingju, irrigated and farmed extensively, with some fifty or sixty thousand officials and soldiers, gradually expanding their territory at the Xiongnu's expense, and the territory of the Han Dynasty extended all the way to the north of the Xiongnu.

At first, two large armies of the Han Dynasty unleashed a massive attack, surrounding the Xiongnu Chanyu and killing eighty to ninety thousand Xiongnu people, but there were also tens of thousands of Han soldiers who died in battle or disease, and over a hundred thousand war horses perished. Although the Xiongnu suffered heavy losses and fled, the Han Dynasty also sustained significant losses, with insufficient horses and unable to send troops again. The Xiongnu, using Zhao Xin's idea, sent envoys to the Han Dynasty, employing honeyed words to request a political marriage. The Emperor of the Han Dynasty convened a meeting to discuss the matter, with some advocating for a marriage alliance and others for complete conquest of the Xiongnu. The Prime Minister's Chief Clerk Ren Chang said, "The Xiongnu have just been defeated and are very weak; they should be made a tributary state, paying regular tribute." So the Han Dynasty sent Ren Chang to meet with the Chanyu. When the Chanyu heard Ren Chang's plan, he was very angry and detained him. The Chanyu's action was simply tit-for-tat, mirroring the Han's earlier detention of Xiongnu envoys. The Han Dynasty was busy rebuilding their army and replacing their losses of horses, and at this time, Huo Qubing's death meant that the Han Dynasty had not attacked the Xiongnu in the north for a long time.

After a few years, after reigning for thirteen years, Yizhixie Chanyu passed away, and his son Wuyi took the throne as Chanyu. This year was the third year of the Han Yuan Ding era. After Wuyi Chanyu ascended to the throne, the Emperor of the Han Dynasty began to inspect the various counties. Subsequently, the Han Dynasty was busy with campaigns against the southern Yue, leaving both sides to a period of uneasy peace.

After three years of succession by Wuzhi Chanyu, the Han Dynasty had already wiped out Nanyue. They sent the former Grand Stable Master He Jiangling with fifteen thousand cavalry from Jiuyuan, heading north for over two thousand li, and returned after reaching Fusu Jing without encountering a single Xiongnu person. The Han Dynasty then sent the former Marquis of Biao, Zhao Pono, leading over ten thousand cavalry from Lingju, heading north for several thousand li, and returned after reaching the Xiong River without encountering a single Xiongnu person.

At this time, the Han Dynasty emperor inspected the border, arriving at Shuofang and assembling an army of 180,000 cavalry to show off their might. They also sent Guo Ji to demonstrate to the Xiongnu. Upon arrival, the Xiongnu officials asked Guo Ji why he came. Guo Ji humbly stated his friendly intentions, saying, "I have come to see Chanyu and will tell him in person." Chanyu received Guo Ji, who conveyed the message: "The Nanyue king's head is hanging from our north gate. Now, Chanyu, if you want a fight, the Emperor will be waiting for you at the border. Otherwise, pay tribute and become our vassal. Why hide in the freezing wasteland of the far north? It's pointless!" Chanyu was furious. He had the officials who'd met Guo Ji executed. Then, he imprisoned Guo Ji and exiled him to the North Sea. However, Chanyu ultimately did not dare to provoke the Han Dynasty border again, instead consolidating his power, drilling his troops, and honing his warriors' skills, sending envoys to the Han Dynasty multiple times with friendly requests.

The Han Dynasty sent envoy Wang Wu to investigate the situation of the Xiongnu. Xiongnu custom demanded that Han envoys remove their seals and get their faces inked before entering a tent. Wang Wu, a northerner familiar with Xiongnu ways, removed his seal and painted his face with ink, successfully entering the tent. Chanyu liked him and spoke kindly to him, even planning to send his crown prince to the Han Dynasty as a hostage in order to seek peace.

Next, the Han Dynasty sent Yang Xin to the Xiongnu. Around that time, the Han conquered the Huimo and Korea in the east and set up commanderies. In the west, they established Jiuquan County, cutting off the connection between the Xiongnu and the Qiang people. The Han also forged alliances with the Yuezhi and the kingdom of Daxia. To further weaken the Xiongnu, they married a princess off to the Wusun king. The Han reclaimed a lot of land in the north and built the Yelei Pass, which the Xiongnu were powerless against. That year, Chanyu Xin bit the dust, and some Han officials figured the Xiongnu were weakened and ready to submit. Yang Xin was upright and strong, but not a high-ranking official, so the Chanyu did not pay much attention to him. The Chanyu summoned him, but Yang Xin refused to remove his seal, forcing the Chanyu to meet him outside the tent. After seeing the Chanyu, Yang Xin said, "If you want peace, send your crown prince to the Han as a hostage." The Chanyu replied, "Hey, that wasn't the deal! The previous agreement was that the Han would send a princess for marriage and provide a certain amount of silk, cotton, and food so that the Xiongnu wouldn't harass the border. Now you're going back on your word, wanting my son as a hostage—this is too much!" The Xiongnu had a way of dealing with Han envoys. If the envoy wasn't a big shot, they'd try to trip him up with words. If he was young, they'd try to intimidate him. Whenever the Han sent envoys, the Xiongnu responded in kind, always insisting on an equal number of envoys on both sides.

After Yang Xin returned to China, the Han Dynasty sent an envoy named Wang Wu to the Xiongnu. The Chanyu began to use honeyed words to flatter the Han Dynasty, wanting to squeeze more riches out of them. He lied to Wang Wu, saying, "I plan to visit the Emperor of the Han Dynasty; let's be brothers." Wang Wu returned to report to the Han Dynasty, and they built a residence for the Chanyu in Chang'an. However, the Xiongnu said, "Unless the Han Dynasty sends a high-ranking official, we won't deal honestly." Later, the Xiongnu sent some VIP to the Han Dynasty, who fell ill. The Han Dynasty tried to cure him, but unfortunately, he died. The Han Dynasty then sent Lu Chongguo, wearing a seal (a high-ranking official's seal) of two thousand stones, to attend the funeral of the Xiongnu nobleman, giving him a proper burial and spending thousands of gold, saying, "This is a VIP guest of the Han Dynasty!" The Chanyu believed that the Han Dynasty had killed his guest, so he detained Lu Chongguo and did not allow him to return to China. In fact, all the things the Chanyu said earlier were lies to Wang Wu; he had no intention of visiting the Han Dynasty or sending the prince as a hostage. After that, the Xiongnu kept sending their light cavalry on raids to harass the border. The Han Dynasty appointed Guo Chang as General Bahu (a general known for fighting the Xiongnu) and set up camp east of Shuofang to guard against the Xiongnu. Lu Chongguo was detained by the Xiongnu for three years until the death of the Chanyu. Wudi Weyi, the Chanyu, died after ten years in power, and his son Wushi Lu succeeded him as Chanyu. He was very young and known as the Child Chanyu. This was in the sixth year of Emperor Wu of Han. From that time on, the Xiongnu power continued to expand northwestward, with their left flank reaching Yunzhong and their right, Jiuquan and Dunhuang.

After the young Chanyu ascended the throne, the Han Dynasty sent two envoys, one to offer condolences to the Chanyu and one to offer condolences to the Right Worthy King, in an attempt to stir up trouble within the Xiongnu. When the envoys arrived in Xiongnu, the Xiongnu people took them all to the Chanyu. The Chanyu was furious and detained the envoys from the Han Dynasty. The Xiongnu detained over ten groups of Han envoys, while Xiongnu envoys who came to the Han Dynasty were also detained in the same way.

That year, the Han Dynasty sent General Li Guangli to the west to attack Dawan, while also ordering General Aoxiu to build the designated surrender point. That winter, there was heavy snow in the Xiongnu region, causing many livestock to freeze and starve to death. The young Chanyu was eager for battle, leading to unrest in the country. The Left General wanted to kill the Chanyu and then surrender to the Han Dynasty, so he secretly informed them, "I want to kill the Chanyu and surrender to the Han Dynasty. The Han Dynasty is too far away. If you send troops to support me, I will take action." Upon hearing this, the Han built the designated surrender point but still felt it was too far away.

In the spring of the following year, the Han Dynasty sent Marquis Zhuoye to lead more than 20,000 cavalry from Shuofang to the northwest for over 1,000 miles, planning to return after reaching Xunji Mountain. When Marquis Zhuoye returned as planned, the Left General attempted to send troops but was discovered. The Chanyu killed him and then sent his army to attack Marquis Zhuoye. Along the way, Marquis Zhuoye captured many prisoners, numbering in the thousands. On the way back, when they were 400 miles away from the designated surrender point, 80,000 Xiongnu cavalry surrounded them.

Zuo Ye Hou slipped out for a drink of water under the cover of darkness but was caught by the Xiongnu scouts. After the Xiongnu captured Zuo Ye Hou, they immediately went on the offensive against his army. In the army, there was a man named Guo Zong and another named Wei Wang. They discussed, "The officers are too scared the Xiongnu will kill the general to suggest a retreat." As a result, the entire army was wiped out by the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu Chanyu Hu Hanxie was very pleased and sent out an elite unit to attack the city that had previously surrendered. They couldn't capture it, so they looted and then withdrew. The following year, the Chanyu himself planned to attack the surrendered city but passed away before reaching it.

Chanyu Hu Hanxie died after three years in power. His son was too young, so the Xiongnu appointed his uncle, the brother of Wudou Chanyu, as the new Chanyu, named Youli Lake. This was in the third year of the Taichu era of Emperor Wu of Han.

After Youli Lake became Chanyu, the Han Dynasty sent Guanlu (Minister of Ceremonies) Xu Ziwei to build fortresses and guard posts outside the Wuyuan Pass. Some locations were hundreds of miles away from the pass, and even farther than a thousand miles, all the way to Luchu. They also stationed Generals Han Shuo and Wei Kang nearby and sent the Chief Crossbow Officer Lu Bode to construct fortifications on Juyan Lake.

That autumn, the Xiongnu invaded Dingxiang and Yunzhong on a large scale, killing and capturing a large number of people, defeating more than two thousand officials and soldiers before retreating, and destroying the fortresses and guard posts built by Xu Ziwei. The Xiongnu also sent Youli Lake to invade Jiuquan and Zhangye, carrying off thousands of people as captives. Later, Ren Wen led troops to rescue and recovered everything the Xiongnu had taken. That year, the Second General, who had defeated the Dawan and killed their king, returned home. The Xiongnu tried to intercept him but failed. In winter, the Xiongnu planned to attack the surrendered city, but the Chanyu perished again.

Youli Lake Chanyu died after one year in power. The Xiongnu then appointed his brother, the Left Grand Commandant Qie Di Hou, as the new Chanyu.

The Han Dynasty destroyed the Dawan, sending shockwaves through neighboring nations. Emperor Wu of Han wanted to take advantage of this opportunity to completely defeat the Xiongnu, so he issued a decree saying, "Old man Gaozu left me the Xiongnu mess to clean up. During the reign of Empress Dowager, that Chanyu sent letters dripping with arrogance and hostility. Like Duke Xiang of Qi, who got his revenge after nine generations – now *that's* what the history books celebrate!" This was in the fourth year of the Taichu period of Emperor Wu of Han.

It is said that the newly appointed Chanyu Huhanye sent back all the envoys who had not surrendered to the Han Dynasty before, and they got home safe and sound. Just after becoming the Chanyu, he was afraid that the Han Dynasty would come to attack him, so he muttered to himself, "Can't compare myself to the Han Emperor! He's my father-in-law, after all!" Later, the Han Dynasty sent Colonel Su Wu with many gifts to bribe the Chanyu, but the Chanyu got even bolder, not at all as the Han Dynasty had anticipated. The following year, Pono escaped back to the Han Dynasty.

In the second year, the Han Dynasty sent General Li Guangli with thirty thousand cavalry from Jiuquan to attack the Righteous King at the Tianshan Mountains, killing more than ten thousand Xiongnu people, and then came back victorious. However, the Xiongnu surrounded General Li Guangli heavily, nearly wiping them out, losing sixty or seventy percent of their men and supplies. The Han Dynasty then sent General Ao from Xihe to meet with the Strong Crossbow Captain at Zhuotu Mountain, but they came back with nothing to show for it. They also sent Cavalry Captain Li Ling with five thousand cavalry, who marched a thousand miles north of Juyan, where they encountered the Chanyu, fought a battle, and Li Ling killed more than ten thousand Xiongnu people. However, when they ran out of food and ammunition and wanted to retreat, they were surrounded by the Xiongnu, and Li Ling eventually surrendered to the Xiongnu; only four hundred men escaped the massacre. The Chanyu was so impressed, he even married his daughter off to him!

Two years later, the Han Dynasty sent Li Guangli, the Second General of the Han Dynasty, with sixty thousand cavalry and one hundred thousand infantry from Shuofang. The Commander of the Strong Crossbow Corps, Lubode, led over ten thousand troops to join him. The Guerrilla General also set out with thirty thousand troops from Wuyuan, while General Ao led ten thousand cavalry and thirty thousand infantry from Yanmen. When the Xiongnu heard about this, they moved their supplies north of the Yugu River, while the Chanyu positioned one hundred thousand cavalry to the south of the river to await the General. Ultimately, the General was defeated and retreated after fighting the Chanyu for more than ten days. News arrived that his family had been wiped out in a witchcraft purge, leading Li Guangli to surrender to the Xiongnu, and he only brought back over a thousand men. The Guerrilla General also had no gains. General Ao fought against the Left King and was defeated, retreating as well. That year, the Han army engaged the Xiongnu, but no one could claim victory, and there were no significant achievements to speak of. The Emperor also ordered the arrest of the Imperial Physician Ling Suidan, accusing him of disclosing the extermination of the General's family, which led to Guangli's surrender to the Xiongnu.

Sima Qian noted that Confucius wrote the "Spring and Autumn Annals" in great detail between Duke Huan and Duke Zhuang, but became more concise during the reigns of Duke Ding and Duke Ai. This was because Confucius aimed to write history in response to the social realities of his time, avoiding excessive praise and using ambiguous and cautious expressions.

People often discuss the Xiongnu, focusing solely on immediate benefits and flattering their viewpoints to gain advantage, rather than objectively analyzing the situation and considering both their own position and the opponent's strength. Generals boast about the vastness of the Central Plains and their own strength, emotionally advising the Emperor, which leads to incorrect decisions and ultimately prevents them from achieving decisive victories.

Although Yao was very wise, his achievements were not fully realized until Yu came along to stabilize the world. The success of even the wisest rulers depends on capable ministers. The key to a flourishing empire lies in choosing the right leaders!

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Written by: Realhistories

Category: Records of the Grand Historian (史記)

Published: 29 November 2024

Created: 29 November 2024

Hits: 78

Li Guang, a general from Chengji in Longxi, Gansu, was a descendant of Li Xin, a great general during the Qin Dynasty who hunted down Yan's crown prince. The Lis were known for their archery skills, generation after generation.

In the fourteenth year of Emperor Xiaowen of the Han Dynasty, the Xiongnu invaded Xiaoguan in large numbers. Li Guang, a child from an ordinary family, joined the army to resist the Xiongnu. Due to his excellent equestrian and archery skills and numerous enemy kills, he was appointed as a low-ranking officer in the Han military. Li Guang's younger brother Li Cai also became an elite cavalry officer, and the two brothers both served as imperial bodyguards, receiving an annual salary of eight hundred stones. They were fearless in battle, even taking on wild beasts. Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty sighed, "Damn shame he didn't live in Gaozu's time! A marquisate wouldn't have been enough for him!"

Later, when Emperor Jing of the Han Dynasty ascended the throne, Li Guang was appointed as the governor of Longxi, and later transferred to the position of Cavalry Commander. During the rebellion of the Seven Kingdoms of Wu and Chu, Li Guang served as a valiant cavalry commander, following General Zhou Yafu to suppress the rebellion. He captured the enemy's military flag and achieved great military exploits in Changyi. Prince Liang wanted to confer the title of General on Li Guang, but the rewards were never implemented. Afterwards, Li Guang was transferred to the position of prefect of Shanggu. At that time, the Xiongnu frequently invaded, engaging in battles with the Han army. Sun Kunye, the Duke of Dian, practically begged the emperor, "Li Guang's the best soldier we've got, brave and brilliant, but he's reckless! He keeps picking fights with the Xiongnu one-on-one; I'm worried he'll get himself killed!" Therefore, Li Guang was transferred to the position of prefect of Shangjun.

Later, Li Guang was successively appointed as prefect in various border commanderies, such as Shangjun, Longxi, Beidi, Yanmen, Daijun, and Yunzhong, where he made a name for himself for his courage and skill in battle.

So, the Xiongnu army invaded Shangjun, and the emperor sent a big shot from the palace to give Li Guang some field experience against the Xiongnu. This eunuch, leading dozens of cavalry, ran into three Xiongnu and went straight for them. The three Xiongnu were shooting arrows as they ran, injuring the eunuch and killing almost all of his cavalry. The eunuch, scared stiff, ran to Li Guang for help. Seeing the situation, Li Guang said, "Man, those guys could shoot!" So Li Guang had his men chase after them with a hundred cavalry. The three Xiongnu had lost their horses and were running on foot, going for miles and miles. Li Guang had his men spread out, then personally picked off two of the Xiongnu, taking the last one prisoner, a crack shot, no less. They roped the guy to a horse, then – bam! – thousands of Xiongnu cavalry appeared in the distance. Seeing Li Guang, they figured it was a trap and scrambled up the mountain to set up a defense. Li Guang's hundred men were about to bolt. "We're miles from the main force," Li Guang said. "Run now, and we're all dead meat. If we hold our ground, they'll think we're bait and won't risk an attack." "Charge!" he ordered.

When they were a mile or two away from the Xiongnu camp, Li Guang ordered, "Everybody, off your horses! Loosen those saddles!" The cavalrymen were anxious, "But sir, they outnumber us! What if they attack?" Li Guang replied, "The Xiongnu think we’re going to run. By loosening the saddle now, we show that we’re not going anywhere—that'll keep 'em guessing." Sure enough, the Xiongnu backed off. At that moment, a Xiongnu general riding a white horse came out to protect his troops. Li Guang immediately mounted his horse and charged, with a dozen men at his heels, and took out the general on the white horse. He then returned to his own troops, loosened the saddle, and ordered the soldiers to dismount and rest lying down. As dusk settled, the Xiongnu soldiers became even more puzzled and dared not attack. In the middle of the night, the Xiongnu, convinced the Han were ambushing them, pulled back. When dawn broke, Li Guang returned to the Han army camp. Nobody knew where he’d gone, so no one looked for him.

So, Li Guang stayed in the court for a long time. After the death of Emperor Jing, Emperor Wu ascended to the throne. Because Li Guang was very famous, Emperor Wu promoted him from the position of Governor of Shangjun to the Commander of the Weiyang Guard, while Cheng Buxi also became the Commander of the Changle Guard. Cheng Buxi and Li Guang were both previously Governors and Generals of border counties, stationed on the border. The way they led troops in battle was very different. Li Guang led his troops without caring about formations, just finding a place with abundant water and grass to set up camp. The soldiers did as they pleased, a pretty loose and easy bunch, with no military exercises and no tedious paperwork. However, he always sent scouts to spy and never suffered losses. Cheng Buxi, on the other hand, ran a tight ship. His troops moved in an orderly manner, constantly engaged in training exercises, with soldiers not getting a moment of rest, and meticulous paperwork. But he also never suffered losses. Cheng Buxi said, "Li Guang's troops are loose in management, but if the Huns dare to invade, they can resist strongly. His men were happy to fight for him. My men work hard, but the Huns think twice before messing with us." At that time, the famous generals of the Han Dynasty were Li Guang and Cheng Buxi, but the Huns feared Li Guang's strategies more, and the soldiers were more willing to follow Li Guang rather than Cheng Buxi's strict management. During the reign of Emperor Jing, Cheng Buxi was appointed as a high-ranking official for his repeated outspoken advice. He was honest and strictly adhered to rules and regulations. In short, Li Guang's loose style and Cheng Buxi's strict discipline both proved effective, but Li Guang's approach clearly resonated more with his men and intimidated the enemy.

Later, the Han tried to trick the Xiongnu leader, using Mayi city as bait, and sent a large army to ambush in the valley nearby. Li Guang served as Cavalry General and commanded the Guard Commander. But the Chanyu saw right through it, escaped, and the Han army came up empty. Four years later, Li Guang was appointed general and ordered to attack the Xiongnu from Yanmen Pass. The Xiongnu, with their massive army, wiped the floor with Li Guang's troops and took him prisoner. The Chanyu had heard of Li Guang's prowess and ordered, "Bring Li Guang in alive!" After the Xiongnu cavalry captured Li Guang, who was seriously injured, they placed him between two horses, tied him up with ropes, and made him lie there. Ten miles in, Li Guang played dead. Spotting a Xiongnu on a good mount, he jumped on, tossed the guy, grabbed the bow and arrows, and hightailed it south for miles. He then encountered some remnants of his own army and led them back to the pass. Hundreds of Xiongnu cavalry pursued them, but Li Guang shot and killed the pursuers with the stolen bow and arrows while running, thus managing to escape. Upon returning to the Han Dynasty, the government wanted to punish Li Guang for losing many soldiers and being captured by the Xiongnu. The law said he should die, but they let him off the hook and he became a commoner.

Some time later, Li Guang stayed at home for a few years. Li Guang and Pingye, grandson of Yingyin Hou, went hunting together in the southern mountains of Lantian. One night, Li Guang went for a horseback ride and a drink in the fields. When he returned to the Balin Gatehouse, the gatekeeper was drunk and stopped Li Guang. Li Guang's cavalry said, "This is General Li!" The gatekeeper replied, "Even generals cannot travel at night now, let alone an 'old' general!" So Li Guang was forced to spend the night under the pavilion. Not long after, the Xiongnu invasion resulted in the death of the Liaoxi Governor and the defeat of General Han, who was subsequently transferred to Youbeiping. The emperor then summoned Li Guang and appointed him as the Governor of Youbeiping. Li Guang requested to bring the gatekeeper with him, and upon arrival at the camp, he had him executed.

While Li Guang was governor of Youbeiping, the Xiongnu, having heard of his exploits, dubbed him the "Flying General of the Han," and for several years they did not dare to enter Youbeiping. Li Guang went out hunting and saw a stone in the grass, mistaking it for a tiger. He shot arrows at it, and the arrows buried into the stone, but upon closer inspection, it turned out to be just a stone. He tried several more arrows, but couldn't penetrate the stone. Rumors of a tiger circulated around Li Guang's county, and he had personally shot and killed a tiger before. When he finally faced a tiger in Youbeiping, it jumped, wounding him, but he ultimately killed it.

Li Guang was a straight shooter. When he received rewards, he would distribute them to his subordinates and share meals with his soldiers. Throughout his life, Li Guang served as an official for over forty years, but his family had no surplus wealth. He never discussed his family's finances. Li Guang was tall with arms like a gorilla's, and he had a natural talent for archery. Even though his descendants and others tried to learn, no one could reach his level. Li Guang was not good with words and rarely spoke. When interacting with others, he would draw battle formations on the ground and entertain himself by competing in archery. Archery was his game, right up until the end. When leading troops in battle, if soldiers did not have enough to eat or drink, Li Guang would not consume anything himself. He was kind and not strict, so the soldiers loved and willingly served under him. He only fired when his enemy was close enough to guarantee a hit, and he almost always got his man. But this caution cost him, leading to many setbacks, and he was once injured while hunting fierce beasts.

After some time, Shi Jian died, and the emperor summoned Huo Qubing to replace him as the Prefect of Langzhong. In the sixth year of Yuanshuo, Huo Qubing was promoted to Grand General and joined the expedition to Dingxiang to fight the Xiongnu. While other generals captured many prisoners and got promoted and rewarded with land, Huo Qubing's army came back empty-handed.

Two years later, Huo Qubing left Youbeiping with four thousand cavalry as the Langzhongling. Zhang Qian, the Marquis of Bowang, along with ten thousand cavalry, took a different route. After traveling hundreds of miles, the Xiongnu King of the Left, with forty thousand cavalry, surrounded Huo Qubing. Huo Qubing's troops panicked. Huo Qubing had a subordinate charge into the battle. The subordinate led a few dozen cavalry into the Xiongnu formation, fought their way out from both sides, and returned to report to Huo Qubing: "Those Xiongnu are pushovers!" The soldiers were relieved. Huo Qubing formed a circular formation facing the enemy. The Xiongnu attacked fiercely, arrows falling like a hail of arrows. A swathe of Han soldiers fell, and arrows were running out. Huo Qubing ordered his soldiers to draw their bows but not to shoot easily. He used his heavy crossbow to shoot and kill several Xiongnu leaders, sending them into a rout. By nightfall, the men were white as sheets, but Huo Qubing remained calm and continued to organize the army. From then on, the soldiers admired his bravery. The next day brought another fierce battle, but the Xiongnu broke and ran when Zhang Qian's reinforcements arrived. Huo Qubing's army barely escaped annihilation, returning utterly exhausted. According to the laws of the Han Dynasty, Marquis of Bowang Zhang Qian should have been executed for delaying the military operation, but he bought his life, becoming a commoner. Despite their victory, Huo Qubing's men received no reward.

Initially, Li Guang's younger brother, Li Cai, worked together with Li Guang under Emperor Xiao Wen. When Emperor Jing became emperor, Li Cai was promoted to a high-ranking official position due to his military achievements. During the reign of Emperor Xiao Wu, he even rose to the position of Prime Minister. In the fifth year of Yuanshuo, Li Cai was appointed as the Light Cavalry General and accompanied the Grand General to fight against the Right Shanyu, achieving great success and being granted the title of Marquis of Le'an. In the second year of Yuanshou, he succeeded Gongsun Hong as Prime Minister. Li Cai was a pretty average guy, nowhere near as famous as Li Guang, but Li Guang had never received any titles or fiefs; his highest official position was one of the nine highest-ranking ministers, while Li Cai became a Marquis and rose to one of the three highest-ranking officials. Many of the officers and soldiers under Li Guang were also granted marquis titles. Li Guang once drank and chatted with Wang Shuo, who understood omens, saying, "Since the Han Dynasty began fighting against the Xiongnu, I, Li Guang, have never been absent. Those junior officers, their abilities are not top-notch, but because they have achieved merit in fighting against the Xiongnu, dozens of marquis titles have been granted. I've done as much as they have, if not more, so why am I getting nothing? Is it destined that I cannot be granted a marquis title? Or is it the will of heaven?" Wang Shuo asked him, "General, think about it yourself, is there something you can't get over?" Li Guang said, "I once served as the Prefect of Longxi; the Qiang people rebelled, and I deceived them into surrendering; more than 800 people surrendered, but on the same day, I killed them all. Even now, I still deeply regret this." Wang Shuo said, "There's nothing worse than killing surrendering soldiers; that is the reason why, General, you cannot be granted a marquis title!" Two years later, the Grand General and the Cavalry General led a large-scale attack on the Xiongnu, and Li Guang requested to go to battle multiple times. The Emperor thought he was too old and did not agree; it was only after a long time that he agreed, allowing him to become the front general. This was in the fourth year of Yuanshou.

Li Guang followed General Wei Qing to fight against the Xiongnu. After crossing the border, Wei Qing captured a prisoner and learned the location of the Chanyu's headquarters. Wei Qing then led the elite troops straight to the Chanyu's headquarters, while ordering Li Guang and the Right General to take the eastern route. The eastern route was longer and more arid, making prolonged camping difficult for the army. Li Guang volunteered and said, "I'm a former general, but now General Wei Qing has transferred me to the eastern route. I've been fighting against the Xiongnu since I was young, and now that I finally have the opportunity to face the Chanyu head-on, I hope to lead the charge and be the first to take down the Chanyu!"

Wei Qing actually understood in his heart. The Emperor had secretly told him that Li Guang was old and had bad luck, and he didn't want him to directly confront the Chanyu, fearing that it would not achieve the desired effect. At that time, Gongsun Ao had recently been stripped of his marquis title and was now a lieutenant general. He was also going on the expedition with Wei Qing, and Wei Qing wanted Gongsun Ao to face the Chanyu, so he transferred Li Guang from his position as a former general. Li Guang saw through this and tried to explain to Wei Qing, but Wei Qing didn't listen. He had his chief clerk deliver a letter to Li Guang, which read, "Get to your troops and follow the orders in this letter!" Li Guang left without thanking Wei Qing, feeling very angry. When he returned to his troops, he led the soldiers and the Right General on the eastern route.

The troops got lost, and some soldiers even went missing, resulting in them falling behind the main army. The main army engaged the Chanyu, who escaped before they could catch him, and then returned. They headed south through the Mulberry Camp and encountered the former general and the Right General's troops. After meeting with the main army, Li Guang returned to his camp. The main army sent their chief clerk with rations and wine, and also to ask Li Guang and the Right General why they were lost. Wei Qing wanted to report the situation of the battle to the Emperor. Before Li Guang could explain, the main army summoned him to camp for questioning and demanded an explanation. Li Guang said, "It wasn't the lieutenants' fault; I got us lost. I'll take the rap."

Returning to the camp, Li Guang said to his men, "I have been fighting the Xiongnu since I was young, having fought in over seventy-odd battles. Finally, I had the opportunity to fight against the Chanyu (the Xiongnu leader) with the Grand General, but he transferred me to a distant route, and we lost our way. Isn't that fate?! Besides, I am over sixty years old and do not have the energy to deal with those paper-pushers anymore." After saying this, he fell on his sword! Li Guang's soldiers and officers, as well as the entire army, were in tears. Upon hearing this news, regardless of whether they knew Li Guang or not, people of all ages wept. Meanwhile, Right General Shi Qi was condemned to death, but paid a fine to escape execution and lived as a commoner.

So, Li Guang had three sons. The eldest was named Li Danghu, the second Li Jiao, and the third Li Gan. They all served as guards by the emperor's side. One time, the emperor was joking with Han Yan, who, despite being young, showed a lack of respect towards him. Li Danghu then hit Han Yan, who quickly ran away. The emperor thought Li Danghu was truly brave! Unfortunately, Li Danghu kicked the bucket early. Later, the emperor appointed Li Jiao as the county magistrate, but both brothers had already died before Li Guang. Li Danghu left behind a son born after his father's death named Li Ling. When Li Guang died, Li Gan was following General Huo Qubing. The year after Li Guang's death, Li Cai was arrested for desecrating the emperor's tomb and committed suicide before being questioned. Li Gan, as a junior officer, followed General Huo Qubing to fight against the Xiongnu, capturing the flag of the Xiongnu King and killing many Xiongnu people. The emperor rewarded him with the title of Marquis and gave him a fief of two hundred households, appointing him as the Prefect of Langzhong in place of Li Guang. Some time later, Li Gan, resentful of General Wei Qing for causing his father's death, laid into Wei Qing, but Wei Qing kept mum about it. Shortly after, Li Gan accompanied the emperor to Shangyong to hunt at Ganquan Palace. General Huo Qubing, who was the emperor's favorite, shot him dead. At that time, the emperor said a deer did it, but everyone knew better. Over a year later, Huo Qubing also passed away. Interestingly, Li Gan's daughter became a maid by the Crown Prince's side, a real favorite, while Li Gan's son Li Yu also gained the favor of the Crown Prince. Unfortunately, both father and son loved money, and that's how the Li family went downhill.

After Li Ling grew up, he was selected as the commander of the Jianzhang cavalry, responsible for managing the cavalry. He was skilled in archery and cared for his soldiers. The Emperor believed that the Li family had been generations of military generals, so he allowed Li Ling to lead eight hundred cavalry. One time, he made a reconnaissance mission two thousand li deep into Xiongnu territory to survey the terrain at Juyan, but returned without encountering any enemies. The Emperor appointed him as the Cavalry Captain, commanding five thousand soldiers from the Danyang and Chu regions to train in archery at Jiuquan and Zhangye to defend against the Xiongnu.

When Li Ling was a few years old, in the autumn of the second year of Han Emperor Wu, General Li Guangli led thirty thousand cavalry to attack the Xiongnu Righteous King near the Qilian Mountains. In order to divert the Xiongnu's forces and prevent them from concentrating against Li Guangli, Li Ling was sent with five thousand troops to an area over a thousand li north of Juyan Pass to distract the enemy.

As the agreed time for Li Ling to return approached, the Chanyu (the Xiongnu leader) led eighty thousand troops to surround Li Ling's forces. Outnumbered eight to one, with their arrows spent and half their men dead, they managed to inflict casualties on over ten thousand Xiongnu soldiers. Fighting and retreating for eight days, when they were within a hundred li of Juyan Pass, the Xiongnu blocked their path. Li Ling's army was low on food, reinforcements had not arrived, and the Xiongnu launched a fierce attack, pressing Li Ling to surrender. Li Ling said, "I'm screwed!" and surrendered to the Xiongnu. His entire army was captured, with only over four hundred men escaping back.

The Chanyu, impressed by Li Ling's reputation and bravery in battle, married his daughter to Li Ling and esteemed him highly. When the Han court heard of this, they executed Li Ling's mother, wife, and children. Since then, the Li family's name was dragged through the mud, and those who worked under the Li family in Longxi were disgraced.

Sima Qian said: They say, "A good leader leads by example; a bad one can't even get people to follow orders." Was he talking about General Li? When I saw General Li, he seemed like a regular guy, not good with words. When he passed away, everyone mourned him, whether they knew him or not. This shows that he was loyal, honest, and genuinely kind to those officials! This is like the old saying: "Peach and plum trees don't talk, but people make a path to them." It's a small saying, but it speaks volumes.

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Written by: Realhistories

Category: Records of the Grand Historian (史記)

Published: 29 November 2024

Created: 29 November 2024

Hits: 62

Han Anguo, originally from Cheng'an in Liangguo, later moved to Suiyang. When he was young, he studied under Zoutian Sheng, learning about Han Feizi and the eclectic schools of thought. Later, he became a high-ranking official under King Xiao of Liang. When the Wu and Chu states rebelled, King Xiao of Liang sent Han Anguo and Zhang Yu to lead troops to resist the Wu army in the east. Zhang Yu led the aggressive charges, while Han Anguo focused on a more defensive strategy, keeping the Wu army out of Liang. After the rebellion was quelled, both Han Anguo and Zhang Yu rose to fame.

Prince Xiaowang of Liang is the younger brother of Emperor Jing. Empress Dowager Dou was particularly fond of him, allowing him to request to serve as prime minister or a high-ranking official (two thousand stones) on his own. He treated the palace as his own personal playground, showing a slight disregard for imperial protocol. When the emperor heard about it, he was very unhappy. Knowing that the emperor was displeased, the Empress Dowager stormed out and dismissed the envoy from the Kingdom of Liang, investigating Prince Xiaowang's faults.

As the envoy of the Kingdom of Liang, Han Anguo, wept and said to the Grand Princess, "Prince Liang is filial to his parents and loyal to the emperor. Empress Dowager, why are you not considerate at all? During the rebellion of the seven states of Wu and Chu, the eastern states united against the west. Liang was in the most perilous position. Prince Liang considered the safety of the Empress Dowager and the emperor while the vassals were causing trouble everywhere. He wept repeatedly, even sending six of us to war on bended knee, repelling the Wu and Chu troops. The Wu and Chu forces dared not attack the west and were finally pacified. It was all thanks to Prince Liang! Now, the Empress Dowager is nitpicking over minor offenses against him.

Prince Liang's father and brothers are all emperors, and he has always witnessed major events since childhood. So when he travels, he uses the ceremonial guards reserved for the emperor and speaks more cautiously when entering the palace. His carriage flags are all bestowed by the emperor. He does this to keep a low profile, traveling around the country to demonstrate the imperial favor bestowed upon him, letting everyone know. Now that the envoy from the Kingdom of Liang has arrived, the Empress Dowager is investigating his responsibilities. Prince Liang is very afraid, distraught with worry and consumed by his longing for the Empress Dowager and the Emperor, not knowing what to do. Given his filial piety and unwavering loyalty, why this lack of compassion from the Empress Dowager?"

The Grand Princess told Dowager Empress Dou everything that Han Anguo had said. Dowager Empress Dou was very pleased and said, "Tell these words to the Emperor." Dowager Empress Dou conveyed Han Anguo's report to the Emperor, and after hearing it, the Emperor felt reassured. He took off his hat and apologized to the Dowager Empress, saying, "It's shameful that we brothers couldn't sort this out ourselves and caused you such worry." The Emperor then received the envoys from the Kingdom of Liang and rewarded them with many gifts. After that, the relationship between Prince Xiaowang and the Emperor became even closer. Dowager Empress Dou and the Grand Princess also rewarded Han Anguo with gifts worth more than a thousand gold pieces. Han Anguo became famous because of this and secured his position in the Han court.

Later, Anguo was sentenced to prison for committing a crime and was humiliated by the jailer Tian Jia. Anguo asked him, "Can dead ashes be brought back to life?" Tian Jia replied, "If they could, I'd throw 'em in the river and drown 'em!" Not long after, the position of the Interior Minister of Liang became vacant, and the Han court sent envoys to appoint Anguo as the Governor of Liang, promoting him directly from a prisoner to a high-ranking official. Tian Jia was scared and ran away. Anguo said, "If Tian Jia does not take office, I will destroy his whole family!" Tian Jia then stripped to the waist and apologized to Anguo. Anguo smiled and said, "You can drown in the water! Are you guys qualified to govern the country together?" In the end, he chose to treat him kindly.

When the position of Interior Minister became vacant, Prince Xiaowang had just received a man from the Qi State named Gongsun Gui. Gongsun Gui urged Prince Xiaowang to try to become Crown Prince and wanted more territory. They feared opposition from the Han court's powerful ministers, so they secretly sent people to assassinate them. As a result, they even killed the former Prime Minister of Wu State, Yuan Ang. Emperor Jing later learned of Gongsun Gui and Yang Sheng's conspiracy and sent people to arrest them, dead set on getting them.

The Han Dynasty sent ten detachments of troops to the Liang Kingdom for a nationwide search, but they found nothing after more than a month. Minister Anguo heard that Gongsun Gui and Yang Sheng were hiding with King Xiao, so he went to see King Xiao and cried, saying, "When the master is shamed, the minister must die. Your Highness, without good ministers by your side, this is a mess. Now that we can't catch Gongsun Gui and Yang Sheng, I beg your forgiveness; I must take my own life to atone for this!" King Xiao asked, "What's gone wrong?" Anguo cried and said, "Your Highness, compare your relationship with the Emperor to your relationships with the Empress Dowager, Emperor Gaozu, and Prince Linjiang. Which is closest?" King Xiao said, "They're not as close." Anguo continued, "The Empress Dowager and Prince Linjiang, father and son, yet Emperor Gaozu said, 'I conquered the world with my own sword,' so the Empress Dowager couldn't participate in politics and had to live in Lixiang. Prince Linjiang, who was originally the crown prince, was stripped of his title and reduced to a commoner because of a wrong word he said, and later committed suicide in the Imperial Guard because of a palace wall incident. Why? Because governing the world cannot violate justice for personal reasons. As the saying goes, 'Even your own father might be a tiger; even your own brother might be a wolf.' Now, Your Highness, you are a prince, but you believe the slander of evil advisors and violate court law. The Emperor's held back by the Empress Dowager. The Empress Dowager weeps every day, begging you to change your ways, but you still haven't awakened. When the Empress Dowager's gone, who can you rely on?" Before Anguo finished speaking, King Xiao started crying and said, "I will hand over Gongsun Gui and Yang Sheng now." Gongsun Gui and Yang Sheng then committed suicide. The envoy of the Han Dynasty returned and reported that everything's sorted out in Liang, all thanks to Anguo. Therefore, Emperor Jing and the Empress Dowager were even more grateful to Anguo. Later, King Xiao died, and King Gong succeeded him. Anguo got fired for breaking the law and went home.

During the Jianyuan period, the Marquis of Wu'an, Tian Fei, became the Grand Commandant/Minister of War of the Han Dynasty, wielding significant power, and all his relatives and noble associates benefited from his influence. Anguo presented Tian Fei with five million cash as a gift. Tian Fei spoke highly of Anguo to the Empress Dowager, and the Emperor had already heard that Anguo was a capable man, so he summoned him and appointed him as the Commandant of Beidi, later promoting him to Chief Imperial Censor. At that time, Minyue and Dongyue were at war, and Anguo and another general, Wang Hui, led troops to quell the rebellion. Before they reached the Yue territory, the King of Yue was killed, and the Yue surrendered, leading to the cessation of the Han army's advance. In the sixth year of Jianyuan, the Marquis of Wu'an became the Prime Minister, while Anguo became the Chief Imperial Censor.

The Xiongnu requested a peace agreement, so the Emperor convened his ministers to discuss. General Wang Hui was from Yan State and had long served on the border, making him very familiar with the situation of the Xiongnu. He suggested, "If the Han Dynasty makes peace with the Xiongnu, they will generally break the agreement in a few years. It's better not to agree with them and just go to war!" However, Anguo countered, "A long war is no picnic. The Xiongnu are like wild beasts, roaming everywhere, making them difficult to predict. Even if we occupy their land, it won't expand our territory much; even if we conquer their people, it won't strengthen our power significantly. From ancient times to the present, the Xiongnu have never been a nation to submit to others. The Han Dynasty running thousands of miles to fight for a small gain will only exhaust our troops, while the Xiongnu can wait for us to tire out. It's like a fully drawn bow that cannot pierce thin silk, or a powerful whirlwind that cannot move a light feather; it's not that we lack strength at the start, but our strength will wane in the end. Therefore, war is not cost-effective; it's better to make peace." Many ministers agreed with Anguo's opinion, so the Emperor granted the Xiongnu's request for peace.

In the second year, also known as the first year of Yuanguang, Nie Wengyi, a local magnate in Yanmen Mayi, suggested to General Wang Hui, "The Xiongnu have just concluded a peace agreement and feel relatively secure along the border. We can use a strategy to lure them." So Nie Wengyi was secretly sent to the Xiongnu to work as a double agent. He went to the Chanyu and said, "I can kill the county prefect of Mayi as well as other officials, and then present the city to you. All the city's riches will be yours." The Chanyu believed him and thought it was a good idea, so he agreed to Nie Wengyi. Nie Wengyi returned and pretended to have killed several convicts, hanging their heads on the city walls of Mayi to show the Chanyu's envoy as proof. He said, "The officials in Mayi are already dead; you can come quickly!" So the Chanyu led a powerful cavalry of over 100,000 through the border defenses and entered Wuzhou Pass.

At that time, the Han Dynasty had deployed over 300,000 troops hidden in the valleys near Mayi, ready to ambush the Xiongnu. In this army, Li Guang was the commander of the elite cavalry, Gongsun He was the commander of the light chariots, Wang Hui was the garrison commander, Li Xi was the materials officer, and Han Anguo was the guard commander, with the other generals following the guard commander's lead. The plan was to lure the Chanyu into Mayi, then unleash a massive counterattack. Wang Hui, Li Xi, and Li Guang also led troops from Daijun to raid the Xiongnu's supply routes.

As a result, the Chanyu really entered through the pass in the Great Wall of the Han Dynasty and reached Wuzhou Pass. Before reaching Mayi, they began looting, only seeing some livestock in the wild and no human figures. The Chanyu found it strange and attacked the Han army's beacon tower, capturing a military officer from Wuzhou. The Chanyu wanted to interrogate this officer, who said, "Tens of thousands of Han troops lay in ambush near Mayi!" Upon hearing this, the Chanyu hurriedly told his generals, "We nearly got played!" and immediately withdrew his troops. As they left the pass, he said, "I got really lucky to capture this officer!" He then bestowed the title of "Lord Protector" upon this officer.

Word came from beyond the Wall that the Chanyu had already withdrawn his troops. The Han army chased to the border, but when they realized they couldn't catch up, they turned back. Wang Hui and his 30,000 men heard that the Chanyu hadn't fought the Han army, so they speculated that if the Chanyu went to attack the supply line, they'd be facing the Chanyu's best troops, and the Han army would definitely suffer losses. So they pulled out, empty-handed.

The Emperor blew his top, saying that Wang Hui didn't attack the Chanyu's supply lines and just pulled out. Wang Hui said, "The plan was to lure the Chanyu into Mayi, fight him, then hit his supply lines. That's how we were supposed to win. But the Chanyu got wind of it and ran before we could even get him. With 30,000 men, we couldn't touch him. Going after him would've been suicide. I know that I will definitely be beheaded when I return, but at least I can save the lives of Your Majesty's 30,000 soldiers!" So Wang Hui got the death penalty.

The Ministry of Justice thought Wang Hui deserved to die. Wang Hui slipped Prime Minister Fen a thousand gold. Fen didn't dare tell the Emperor, so he went to the Empress Dowager and said, "Wang Hui came up with the Mayi plan. Killing him now just plays into the Xiongnu's hands." The Empress Dowager told the Emperor what Fen had said. The Emperor said, "It was Wang Hui's Mayi plan that got hundreds of thousands of troops mobilized. Even if they hadn't caught the Chanyu, hitting his supply lines would've given the troops something to show for it. If we don't kill Wang Hui, we'll look like fools!" Wang Hui killed himself.

An Guo was a far-sighted man, incredibly smart and talented for his time, but he was honest yet a bit greedy. The people he recommended were all talented officials, each better than him. While in Liang, he recommended the renowned Hu Sui, Zang Gu, and Zhi Ta, and everyone else admired him, but the Emperor saw them as key figures in the state. An Guo served as a high-ranking official for more than four years. After Prime Minister Tian Fen died, An Guo became acting Prime Minister, but his health was poor and he was often unwell. The emperor wanted to appoint An Guo as Prime Minister, but after observing his condition, it was found that he was indeed not well, so Xue Ze, the Marquis of Pingji, was appointed as Prime Minister. An Guo took sick leave for several months due to illness, and after his health improved, the emperor appointed him as a Commandant. Over a year later, he was transferred to serve as the Guard Commander.

General Wei Qing led the cavalry to fight against the Xiongnu, setting out from Shanggu and capturing Hulun City. General Li Guang was captured by the Xiongnu but later escaped; General Gongsun Ao lost many soldiers. They should have been executed, but got off with fines and demotion to commoners. The following year, the Xiongnu launched a full-scale invasion, killing the Liaoxi Prefect and breaking into Yanmen, resulting in the deaths of about several thousand people. General Wei Qing went to meet them, marching from Yanmen. Guard Commander An Guo served as the General of Supplies, stationed in Yuyang. An Guo captured some Xiongnu prisoners, who said that the Xiongnu had already left, so he suggested in a memorial that because it was harvest time, military action should be temporarily suspended. The army stood down for over a month, and the Xiongnu invaded Shanggu and Yuyang in force again. An Guo's 700-strong camp was defeated and forced to retreat. The Xiongnu took away over a thousand people, and many animals were lost. The emperor was very angry when he heard about it and sent for An Guo. An Guo was transferred eastward, to Right North Ping. At that time, prisoners reported that the Xiongnu were planning an eastern invasion.

An Guo initially served as the Chief Imperial Censor and Military Protector, but gradually got sidelined, with his position declining further. Meanwhile, the newly favored young generals like Wei Qing rose in status due to their accomplishments. An Guo became a non-entity and vanished from view. Later, his army was deceived by the Xiongnu, resulting in heavy losses, which left him feeling ashamed. Fortunately, he was allowed to retire and return home, but was reassigned to a more remote location in the east, where he remained unhappy. Several months later, he died of illness and suffered a fatal hemorrhage, passing away in the second year of Yuanshuo.

Historian Sima Qian said: I studied the law and the calendar with Hu Sui and witnessed Han Changru's loyalty. Hu Sui was a quiet, honest man of integrity. People say that the talents of the people of Liangguo are outstanding, and this is absolutely true! Hu Sui rose to the position of Grand Minister, and the Emperor had his eye on him as the next Prime Minister, but unfortunately, Hu Sui passed away. Otherwise, he was a truly dedicated and upright man!

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Written by: Realhistories

Category: Records of the Grand Historian (史記)

Published: 29 November 2024

Created: 29 November 2024

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Wei Qihou Dou Ying is the cousin (by marriage) of Empress Xiaowen. His father's ancestors were officials responsible for managing ferry operations. Dou Ying is a smooth operator and well-connected. When Emperor Xiaowen was in power, Dou Ying served as the governor of Wu, but later resigned due to illness. When Emperor Xiaojing ascended the throne, Dou Ying became the Grand Master of Ceremonies.

Prince Xiaowang of Liang is the younger brother of Emperor Xiaojing, and his mother, Empress Dowager Dou, absolutely adored him. Once, Prince Xiaowang entered the palace and drank with Emperor Xiaojing and his brother. At that time, a crown prince had not been established yet. After drinking too much, Prince Xiaowang slurred, "In the future, make me the next emperor!" Empress Dowager Dou was delighted to hear this. Dou Ying quickly raised his wine cup to toast Emperor Xiaojing, saying, "This empire was founded by Emperor Gaozu and has always been passed down from father to son. This is the tradition of the Han Dynasty. How can you casually pass the kingdom to the Prince of Liang?" Empress Dowager Dou's face fell at this remark, and she began to turn against Dou Ying. Seeing no future at court, Dou Ying resigned from his position on the pretext of illness. Empress Dowager Dou was even harsher, directly removing Dou Ying's name from the list of court officials, banning him from court.

Three years later, the seven states of Wu and Chu revolted. Emperor Xiaojing carefully considered and thought that there was no one more capable in the royal family than Dou Ying, so he summoned him back. After Dou Ying entered the palace, he steadfastly refused, saying he was sick and unable to work. Empress Dou also felt a bit embarrassed. At this time, Emperor Xiaojing said, "The country's falling apart; can you, someone of your rank, just stand by?" So Emperor Xiaojing appointed Dou Ying as the Grand General and rewarded him with a thousand catties of gold (about 1,200 pounds). Dou Ying recommended famous generals and wise men like Yuan Ang and Luan Bu to work. The gold sat piled up in the corridor, letting the officers help themselves, without taking a single cent for himself. Dou Ying defended Xingyang and was in charge of commanding the armies of Qi and Zhao. After the rebellion of the seven states was quelled, Dou Ying was enfeoffed as Marquis Qi of Wei. Lots of people flocked to serve Marquis Qi of Wei. During important court discussions, Marquis Qi of Wei held a very high position, and the other marquises didn't dare cross him.

In 151 BC, the emperor appointed Crown Prince Li as the crown prince and let Marquis Qi of Wei be his teacher. By 148 BC, Crown Prince Li was deposed, and Marquis Qi of Wei tried to get him reinstated several times, but it was no use. Marquis Qi of Wei feigned illness and ran to the foot of the southern mountains of Lantian to hide for several months. But nobody could talk him out of it.

Later, a man from Liang named Gao Sui went to persuade Marquis Qi of Wei, saying, "The emperor's the one who made you rich and powerful, and the one who can bring you close to him is the empress dowager. Now you are the teacher of the crown prince, but you failed to successfully argue for him when he was deposed; you lost the fight, but you're too scared to die. You are pretending to be sick, taking your wife from Zhao, and hiding in a remote place without attending court. It looks like you're saying the emperor's wrong. If they both turn on you, your wife and children will be in danger!" Marquis Qi of Wei found this reasoning very convincing, so he returned to court and went back to work.

After Taohou was dismissed from the position of Prime Minister, Dowager Empress Dou often badmouthed Marquis Weiqi in front of the emperor. Emperor Xiaojing said, "Dowager Empress, do you think I favor him, so I don't use Weiqi? That Weiqi, he's got a big head and makes enemies easily. It's just not going to work having him as Prime Minister; he is too proud." So the emperor passed over Weiqi and appointed Marquis Jianling, Wei Wan, as Prime Minister.

Wu'an Marquis Tian Fei is the maternal younger brother of Empress Xiaojing and grew up in Ling County. When Marquis Weiqi became Generalissimo, his power was at its peak, while Tian Fei was still a small fry who often totted Weiqi's drinks, treating him like a father figure. As Emperor Xiaojing grew older, Tian Fei became more favored and rose to the position of a big shot. Tian Fei was eloquent and well-read, earning the appreciation of Dowager Empress. After Emperor Xiaojing's death, the crown prince took over right away and began to rule, with Tian Fei and his buddies running the show on many matters. Three years after Emperor Xiaojing's death, Tian Fei was made Wu'an Marquis, and his brother, Tian Sheng, was made Zhouyang Marquis.

The Marquis of Wu'an wanted to become the Prime Minister, so he began to flatter those important guests, especially focusing on the scholar-recluses, in an attempt to suppress the Marquis of Weiqi and other powerful players. In the first year of Jianyuan, the Prime Minister resigned due to illness, and the Emperor planned to establish two positions, Prime Minister and Chief Commandant. Ji Fu advised the Marquis of Wu'an, saying: "The Marquis of Weiqi holds a high position, and all the scholars support him. You're a newcomer; you don't have the name recognition of Weiqi Hou. If the Emperor directly appoints you as Prime Minister, you will surely have to step aside for the Marquis of Weiqi. In this case, the Marquis of Weiqi will become the Prime Minister, and you will only be the Chief Commandant. The positions of Prime Minister and Chief Commandant are similar, and you will gain a reputation for humility." The Marquis of Wu'an then secretly whispered a few words to the Empress Dowager, resulting in the Marquis of Weiqi becoming the Prime Minister, and he himself becoming the Chief Commandant. Ji Fu congratulated the Marquis of Weiqi on becoming the Prime Minister, and advised him: "You are a good guy who hates bad guys. Now everyone praises you, so you can become the Prime Minister. But you also dislike scoundrels, and offending many people will lead to badmouthing. If you can be more tolerant, you will enjoy a long and happy life; if not, you will be ruined soon." The Marquis of Weiqi did not heed the advice. Both the Marquis of Weiqi and the Marquis of Wu'an liked Confucianism. They recommended Zhao Wan as the Minister of Justice, and Wang Zang as the Prefect. They also invited Lu Shengong to build a Ming Hall, allowing lords to return to their fiefs, abolishing checkpoints, and regulating clothing according to Confucian rituals, in order to seek peace in the world. They also investigated some unruly members of the imperial family, stripping them of their titles. At that time, many relatives of the imperial family were lords, and many lords had married princesses, so they were unwilling to return to their fiefs and went running to Dowager Empress Dou.

Empress Dowager Dou liked Huang-Lao philosophy, while Wei Qi, Wu An, Zhao Wan, Wang Zang, and others were big on Confucianism and looked down on Daoism. As a result, Empress Dowager Dou became increasingly displeased with them. In the second year of Jianyuan, Chief Secretary Zhao Wan suggested not to submit memorials to the Crown Prince's palace. Empress Dowager Dou blew her top and canned Zhao Wan, Wang Zang, and others, along with the Prime Minister and Grand Commandant. Duke of Bozhi, Xu Chang, was appointed as Prime Minister, and Duke of Wuqiang, Zhuang Qingzhai, was appointed as Chief Secretary. From then on, Duke of Wei Qi and Duke of Wu An were just dukes, stuck at home.

Although Duke of Wu An did not hold any official position, he had a good relationship with Wang the Queen Mother, so the Emperor was very close to him, often listening to his advice and implementing many of them. Ambitious officials and commoners ditched Wei Qi for Wu An, whose power continued to grow. In the sixth year of Jianyuan, Empress Dowager Dou passed away, and Prime Minister Chang and Chief Secretary Qingzhai were dismissed for botching the funeral. The Emperor then appointed Duke of Wu An, Tian Fen, as Prime Minister, and Minister of Agriculture Han Anguo as Chief Secretary. Officials, prefects, and vassals across the country were even more eager to kiss up to Wu An.

The Marquis of Wuan, although not very handsome, came from a noble background and felt that the other princes were too arrogant. When the emperor had just ascended the throne and was still young, Tian Fen became the prime minister of the capital. If he did not take a firm hand and use court etiquette to rein them in, the world would be in chaos. At that time, when the prime minister reported to the palace, the emperor could chat with him for half a day, and the emperor hung on his every word. Some of the people he recommended could directly rise to high-ranking officials, with power exceeding that of the emperor. The emperor once said, "Have you purged all the officials who needed purging? I also want to deal with officials." Once, Tian Fen wanted to expand his estate, and the emperor angrily said, "Why don't you just take the armory directly! You're getting too big for your britches!" Since then, Tian Fen has become much more honest. When he entertained guests with wine, he seated his elder brother, Marquis Gai, to his south, himself taking the east. He believed that the position of prime minister in the Han Dynasty was noble and should not be changed casually due to brotherly relations. The Marquis of Wuan became increasingly proud because of these things. His house was better than others, his fields were fertile, the goods from the counties he'd acquired were piled high, his front courtyard overflowed with bells and drums, and magnificent banners flew; the back courtyard housed hundreds of women. The princes showered him with gifts—gold, jade, dogs, horses, the works—more than he could count.

Since falling out of favor with Empress Dowager Dou, Weiqi Hou's star had fallen, his power waning. His hangers-on started to desert him, with General Guan being the only one who has always stayed by his side. Despite his fall from grace, Weiqi Hou remained loyal to General Guan.

Guan Fu's father-in-law is from Yingyin. His father-in-law, Zhang Meng, used to work under Yingyin Hou Ying and was promoted to a high-ranking official position because of his efficient work. Therefore, he took the surname Guan and was called Guan Meng. During the Wu Chu rebellion, Yingyin Hou Guan He became a general under the Chief Commander and requested Guan Meng to be a centurion. He led a thousand soldiers to the battlefield with his father-in-law. Though old, Guan Meng was pressed into service by Yingyin Hou, much to his displeasure. He consistently fought at the vanguard in every battle and eventually died in the Wu army's camp. Military custom allowed that if a father and son serve in the army together and one dies, the body can be taken back home. However, Guan Fu refused to take his father's body back and swore he'd take the head of the Wu king or general to avenge his father. So, Guan Fu put on armor, took a spear, and recruited scores of men in the army who were willing to go with him. When they reached the city gate, no one dared to go out first. Just he and another man, along with a dozen cavalrymen, charged into the Wu army, killing dozens of people under the Wu army's leader. But they were forced to retreat and ran back to the Han army camp. His cavalrymen scattered, leaving him alone with his horse. Guan Fu sustained over a dozen grievous wounds, but fortunately, there were precious medicines at the time, so he did not die. Once he'd somewhat recovered, he went to the general again and said, "I know the Wu camp's layout better now. Please let me go again!" The general admired his guts and loyalty, but feared for his life, so he told the Grand Commandant, who firmly stopped him. After the pacification of Wu, Guan Fu became a legend for his bravery.

The Marquis of Yingyin recommended him to the emperor, who then appointed him as a junior general. Several months later, he was dismissed from his position for incurring imperial displeasure. Later, he lived in Chang'an, where all the officials praised him. During the reign of Emperor Jing of Han, he became the acting chancellor. When Emperor Jing passed away and Emperor Wu just ascended the throne, he was transferred to Huaiyang as the governor because it was a strategic location. In the first year of Jianyuan, he was transferred back to Chang'an as the Minister of the Imperial Stables. The following year, he got into a conflict with Douchu, the Commandant of the Changle Guard, after drinking too much. In his drunken rage, he struck Douchu. Douchu was the brother of Empress Dowager Dou. The emperor was worried that the empress dowager would punish him, so he transferred him to Yan as a minister. Several years later, he was dismissed from his position for committing an offense and returned to live in Chang'an.

Guan Fu was an honest person who liked drinking but disliked flattery. He did not try to please those of higher status and instead would stand up to them. He showed respect to those of lower status, even poor scholars, treating everyone equally. In crowded places, he always helped those of lower status. Because of this, scholars liked him very much.

Guan Fu did not like to read but enjoyed making friends with chivalrous adventurers and keeping his word. His friends were all powerful and unscrupulous. His family had immense wealth, with a fortune in the tens of millions, and he entertained dozens to hundreds of guests every day. His family had extensively developed lands in Yingchuan, and he used his family's influence and relationships with guests to act with impunity. The common people of Yingchuan composed songs to mock him: "When Ying's waters run clear, the Guan family thrives; when Ying's waters run murky, the Guan family declines."

Although Guan Fu was loaded, he later lost his clout, and all his fancy friends gradually distanced themselves from him. When Marquis Wei also fell from grace, he wanted to rely on Guan Fu to help him get even with those who used to look down on him and were now trying to flatter him. With Marquis Wei's support, Guan Fu hung out with all the bigwigs and royals and became a big shot. They were each other's biggest fans, inseparable, like father and son, and they wished they'd met years ago.

One day, Guan Fu wore mourning clothes to visit the Marquis of Wu'an. The Marquis of Wu'an offhandedly said, "I want to visit the Marquis of Wei Qi with you. It'll be easier since you're already in mourning." Guan Fu replied, "With the General going, how could I say no? I'll go tell the Marquis of Wei Qi to prepare food and wine, and you can come early tomorrow morning." The Marquis of Wu'an was all for it. Guan Fu truthfully informed the Marquis of Wei Qi that the Marquis of Wu'an was coming to visit. The Marquis and his wife scrambled to prepare a feast, cleaning the house and buying supplies the night before, and waiting from dawn. After dawn, the Marquis of Wei Qi even sent someone to wait at the door. By noon, the Marquis of Wu'an still hadn't arrived. The Marquis of Wei Qi asked Guan Fu, "You don't think he forgot, do ya?" Guan Fu was a little upset and said, "I went all the way in mourning, he should've shown up!" So Guan Fu drove to meet the Marquis himself. In fact, the Marquis of Wu'an was just talking casually and never intended to go. When Guan Fu arrived at the Marquis's house, the guy was still sound asleep! After entering, Guan Fu said, "General, you promised to go to the Marquis of Wei's house yesterday. The Marquis and his wife have been waiting for you since morning and haven't eaten anything!" The Marquis of Wu'an stammered an excuse, "I got drunk yesterday and forgot to tell you about it." Then he drove to the Marquis's house, taking his sweet time, which made Guan Fu angrier. When they were almost done with the feast, Guan Fu stood up to dance, trying to butter him up, but the Marquis remained still. Guan Fu then laid into the Marquis right there at the table. The Marquis of Wei Qi quickly pulled Guan Fu away and apologized to the Marquis. The Marquis didn't leave until late, happy as a clam after drinking late into the night.

The Prime Minister once sent Jifu to Wei Qi's place to ask for a piece of land south of the city. Wei Qi arrogantly said, "Although I am old and almost dead, General, even though you are of high rank and authority, can you still take advantage of me and grab my land?" He flatly refused. After hearing this, Guan Fu was very angry and tore into Jifu. Jifu felt that there was a conflict between the two, so he deliberately pretended to be very friendly to explain to the Prime Minister, "Wei Qi is almost dead; we should wait." Some time later, the Marquis Wu'an heard that Wei Qi and Guan Fu were really angry because of the land issue, and he was also angry and said, "Wei Qi's son used to kill someone, and it was Fen (referring to Dou Ying) who saved him. Fen always obeyed Wei Qi; what can't he agree to? Why not even give this little piece of land? Besides, who is Guan Fu? I dare not ask for land anymore." From this incident, the Marquis Wu'an held a grudge against Guan Fu and Wei Qi. In the spring of the fourth year of Yuanguang, the Prime Minister said that Guan Fu's family in Yingchuan was bullying the common people, who could not bear it, so he requested to investigate him. The emperor said, "That's your problem, Prime Minister. Why bother me?" Guan Fu also had some dirt on the Prime Minister, saying that the Prime Minister was corrupt, took bribes, received money from the Prince of Huainan, and secretly colluded with the Prince of Huainan. Later, someone mediated between the two sides, and this matter was let it drop. In the summer, the Prime Minister married the daughter of the King of Yan as his wife, and the Empress Dowager ordered all marquises and members of the royal family to gather to congratulate. Marquis Wei Qi wanted to go with Guan Fu. Guan Fu declined, saying, "I offended the Prime Minister before because of drinking, and now the Prime Minister has a bit of a grudge against me." Marquis Wei Qi said, "That's all in the past," and he literally dragged Guan Fu along.

At the banquet, the atmosphere was in full swing. Wu Anhou stood up and requested a toast in his honor, prompting everyone to rise and kneel in homage. When it was Wei Qihou's turn to be toasted, only his old friends rose, while the others remained seated, only partially kneeling. Guan Fu took umbrage at this. When it was his turn to toast, he walked up to Wu Anhou, who was half-kneeling, and said, "I can't drink that much." Guan Fu, furious, retorted, "General, you're a VIP; surely you can manage a little more?" Wu Anhou did not respond at that moment.

Next was Linruhou's turn, who was engaged in hushed conversation with Cheng Bushi and did not rise. Ignoring Wu Anhou, Guan Fu scolded Linruhou, "You always claim Cheng Bushi is worthless, yet today, when the elders are toasting, you whisper like schoolgirls!" Wu Anhou replied to Guan Fu, "Cheng Bushi and Li Guang are both imperial guards. Now everyone is humiliating General Cheng; why don't you consider General Li?" Guan Fu angrily shot back, "I'm about to be executed and framed, and what's that got to do with them?"

The guests began to depart, excusing themselves to change clothes. When Wei Qihou left, he signaled for Guan Fu to follow. Wu Anhou was completely enraged and declared, "This proves Guan Fu's insolence!" He then ordered the guards to detain Guan Fu. Even though Guan Fu wanted to leave, he couldn't. Ji Fu stood up to apologize on behalf of Guan Fu, but Guan Fu refused to apologize. Wu Anhou then commanded the guards to bind Guan Fu and confine him in the post station, before calling the chief administrator and stating, "Today's gathering of royal family members is in accordance with the Empress Dowager's decree."

Marquis Wu'an accused Guan Fu of being disrespectful in his speech at the banquet and imprisoned him. Then, he dug up Guan Fu's past and sent officials to arrest members of the Guan family, all of whom were sentenced to death. Marquis Wu'an felt very ashamed and sought help from everywhere to plead for mercy, but to no avail. Marquis Wu'an's men were everywhere, watching the Guan family, while Guan Fu was detained and unable to expose Wu'an's plot.

Marquis Weiqi, in order to save Guan Fu, really put himself on the line! His wife advised him, "General Guan has offended the Prime Minister and is also at odds with the Empress. Do you really want to save him? This is a huge risk!"

Marquis Weiqi was resolute: "I earned this title myself, and I'll decide what to do with it. There's nothing to regret. Besides, I cannot let Guan Fu die alone while I am alive!" So, he secretly hid at home and then quietly wrote a letter to the emperor.

The emperor immediately summoned him to the palace, where Marquis Weiqi explained in detail about Guan Fu's drunken ramblings, saying it was not worth a death sentence. The emperor found his reasoning sound, rewarded him with a meal, and said, "Go argue your case before the court in the east."

So, Lord Wei Qi's in court, praising Guan Fu to the skies, saying that even when he's drunk and full, he's still good enough. But the Prime Minister framed Guan Fu for other issues. Marquis Wuan slammed Guan Fu for being a real menace and a total pain in the neck. Lord Wei Qi thought this was a mess, so he turned around and criticized the Prime Minister instead. Marquis Wuan shot back, "It's lucky there's peace in the world right now, or the Prime Minister wouldn't be living the high life, loving his music, his dogs, his horses, and his huge house. The Prime Minister prefers those showbiz types and artisans, unlike Lord Wei Qi and Guan Fu, who gather heroes day and night to discuss politics, badmouthing the court, always looking down their noses at everyone, strutting around the palace like they owned the place, waiting for a chance to make a name for themselves. I've got no idea what their game is!"

The Emperor listened to this and asked the court officials, "So, who's right?" Han Anguo, the Imperial Censor, replied, "Lord Wei Qi pointed out that when Guan Fu's father died, Guan Fu stormed into the thick of the Wu army, took dozens of arrows, and still came out fighting! He's a hero of the world. If he hasn't committed a major crime, he shouldn't be dragged down by a few drinks. Lord Wei Qi is right. The Prime Minister also said that Guan Fu's got rich friends, bullies everyone, flaunts his wealth, and treats the royal family and his own relatives like dirt. This is like he's gotten too big for his britches. The Prime Minister is also right. Only a smart ruler can sort this out." Ji An, the top guy, supported Lord Wei Qi. Zheng, the court official, initially backed Lord Wei Qi but later didn't dare to stick to his position. Others were even more afraid to speak.

The emperor angrily said to the Imperial Secretary, "You often comment on the right and wrong of the Marquis of Weiqi and the Marquis of Wu'an. Today in the court, you were like a rabbit caught in the headlights. I will kill all of you!" After saying this, the emperor stormed out and went to eat with the Dowager Empress. The Dowager Empress had already sent someone to investigate and was informed of the situation. She was furious, refused to eat, and said, "As long as I am alive, these people dare to rely on my brother. If I die, won't they treat all my people like pawns? Besides, does the emperor have to be immortal? The emperor is still in power now and has concerns. If I die, can these people still be trusted?" The emperor explained to the Dowager Empress, "They are all from the royal family and in-laws, which is why they argue endlessly in the court. If it weren't for this, a lowly jailer could decide this case." At this time, Minister of the Palace Attendants, Shi Jian, privately explained the situation of these two people to the emperor.

After leaving the court, the Marquis of Wu'an called for Grand Master Han and angrily said, "You and Changru (referring to Guanfu) are entangled with that old geezer (referring to Weiqi). Why are you so worked up?" Grand Master Han remained silent for a long time and then said to the Marquis of Wu'an, "Why get your knickers in a twist? If Weiqi slanders you, you should take off your hat, remove your seal, go home, and say, 'I only serve the emperor with loyalty; I'm not suited for this position, and what Weiqi said is correct.' In this way, the emperor will think that you are very modest and will not dismiss you. Weiqi will feel guilty, hide at home, and die of shame. Now, if others slander you, and you slander others, it's like a quarrel between market vendors and shrews—where's your dignity?" The Marquis of Wu'an then admitted his mistake, saying, "I was caught up in the moment; I didn't think things through."

The emperor sent an imperial censor to investigate Wei Qi's accusations against Guan Fu and found that many of Wei Qi's claims were unfounded, involving even deception and slander. As a result, Wei Qi was arrested and detained in the capital's prison. When Emperor Xiaojing was alive, Wei Qi was often authorized by the emperor to handle government affairs using his own judgment, without being bound by strict regulations. After Wei Qi's detention, Guan Fu's charges became increasingly severe, and the situation grew more critical; no court officials dared to intercede on their behalf with the emperor. Wei Qi had his nephew write a letter to the emperor, hoping to be summoned again. However, it turned out the Imperial Secretariat did not possess a decree left by Emperor Xiaojing. The decree, it turned out, was hidden in Wei Qi's house and even stamped with the seal of the family steward. Therefore, Wei Qi was accused of forging the late emperor's decree and condemned to death. In October of the fifth year, Guan Fu and his family were all executed. Wei Qi only learned of the executions much later. Enraged, he fell ill, refusing food and drink, and appearing near death. Later, it was heard that the emperor actually did not want to kill him, so Wei Qi started eating again and got medical attention, leading everyone to believe he would survive. Yet, whispers reached the emperor, and in late December, Wei Qi was executed in Weicheng.

The following spring, Marquis Wu'an fell ill and kept calling for forgiveness. He called in shamans and mediums, claiming that he saw the spirits of Wei Qi and Guan Fu guarding him, wanting to kill him. Marquis Wu'an eventually kicked the bucket, and his son Tian inherited his title. In the third year of Yuanshuo, Marquis Wu'an was punished for wearing a robe that was way too casual for the palace. The plot of Prince Huainan An's rebellion was exposed and investigated by the court. When Prince Huainan served in the court, Marquis Wu'an was the Grand Commandant. At that time, he welcomed Prince Huainan to Basha and said to him, "The Emperor hadn't named an heir yet. You are the most promising and the Emperor's grandson. If the Emperor croaks, who else but you can inherit the throne?" Prince Huainan was stoked and showered Marquis Wu'an with gold and silver. Ever since the Wei Qi thing, the Emperor hadn't trusted Wu'an, but the Empress Dowager kept him out of trouble. When he heard about Prince Huainan bribing Marquis Wu'an, the Emperor said, "If Wu'an were still alive, I'd wipe out his whole family!"

Sima Qian said: Wei Qi and Wu'an were big shots because of their royal connections. Guan Fu got famous for one good move. Wei Qi was as powerful as the Wu and Chu regions combined; Wu'an was as bright as the sun and moon. But Wei Qi was clueless, and Guan Fu was arrogant and disrespectful, despite lacking any real talent. Their conspiracy blew up in their faces. Wu'an, riding high on his power, loved to pull strings and often got drunk and angry, ruining those two guys. Man, that's a bummer! Blaming others ultimately led to his own downfall, losing his life. The common people also suffered, being labeled with infamy. And that's how it all went down!

According to Sima Qian, Wei Qi Hou and Wu An Hou, relying on their royal connections and immense power, wielded great influence; Guan Fu, in contrast, gained fame for a fleeting success. However, Wei Qi Hou lacked political foresight, while Guan Fu was conceited and overbearing, and their alliance ultimately led to disaster. Wu An Hou abused his power, often prone to drunken rages, persecuting loyalists and ultimately harming himself. This narrative is rife with brutal power struggles and human tragedies, reflecting Sima Qian's profound contemplation on the current situation. "Wei Qi's power rivaled that of Wu and Chu; Wu An's influence was as vast as the sun and moon" vividly illustrates their might, yet the tragic ending is lamentable. "Alas, their wrath brought ruin upon others and themselves. The people suffered, and disaster ensued." This encapsulates the tragic nature of the event and the root of the calamity.