Ancient etiquette is divided into five types, among which the third type is hospitality etiquette, mainly referring to the rituals of worship, audience, and gatherings. Since the Zhou Dynasty, these rituals became increasingly elaborate. After the Qin Dynasty unified the six states, many ancient classics were destroyed, and many of the previous etiquette regulations were lost. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, Emperor Gaozu of Han instructed Shusun Tong to formulate etiquette, referencing the etiquette systems of previous dynasties but also making many changes. The New Year's Day court ceremony of the Han Dynasty was as follows: on the first day of the first month, before dawn and before the water clock finished seven quarters (around 4 am), the bell tolled, and the emperor received congratulations from the officials. Officials below the rank of marquis presented their gifts on either side of the courtyard, while officials of the rank of 2,000 stones or higher could pay their respects in the court, shouting "Long live the Emperor!" Then the banquet and entertainment activities began. When Emperor Wu of Wei, Cao Cao, established the capital city in Ye, the New Year's Day court ceremony took place in Wenchang Hall, adhering to Han Dynasty etiquette while adding over a hundred exquisite lanterns. After the establishment of the Jin Dynasty, Emperor Wu of Jin re-established the etiquette of the New Year's Day court ceremony, as recorded in the "Xianning Annotation." Fu Xuan noted in his "Yuanhui Fu": "Examining the teachings left by the Xia and Shang dynasties, summarizing the etiquette of the Yin and Zhou dynasties, adopting the old rituals of the Qin and Han dynasties, and establishing the auspicious meeting of the New Year." This passage indicates that the Jin Dynasty's etiquette drew from the systems of various dynasties such as Xia, Shang, Zhou, Qin, and Han, distilling their essence to create its own.
On that early morning, all the officials were waiting at their respective positions ahead of time. Before ten o'clock, all the ministers had arrived, and torches were already lit in the courtyard. The emperor first accepted congratulations, then got up and went to congratulate the empress as well. Upon returning, the emperor entered the palace from the Yunlong East China Gate, went to the East Pavilion, and sat down to work. Before seven o'clock, all the officials, from the bribed officials to the accountants, had arrived, stood in their positions, and the scene was as grand as when the emperor received guests in the main hall. Close to five o'clock, the palace attendants, the Minister of Rites, and the Grand Herald each reported that the ministers were all present and ready. When the time came, the attendant announced that everything was ready outside. The emperor came out, the bells and drums sounded together, and all the officials knelt down to pay their respects. The Grand Minister guided the emperor to the throne, the sound of the bells and drums stopped, and the officials rose. The Grand Minister knelt down and reported, "Please accept the morning greetings!" The Chief of Ceremonies proclaimed, "The emperor invites the princes to ascend!" The Grand Minister knelt and proclaimed, "The princes and ministers present white jade as tribute, and bow in congratulations!" The Grand Minister reported back, "The princes have all ascended!" The palace attendants led the princes to the hall and to the throne. The emperor got up, and the princes bowed again. The emperor sat down, and the princes bowed again. The princes knelt down and placed the jade on the throne, bowing again. After the ceremony, the palace attendants escorted the princes out of the hall and back to their original places. The Chief of Ceremonies proclaimed, "The emperor invites the Grand Marshal and others to approach!"
Next, the officials, special envoys, Chanyu of the Southern Xiongnu, and General Jinzi stood on the west side of the Grand Minister of Rites, while officials of various ranks stood on the west side of the Daxingling. All officials faced north and knelt down. The Grand Minister of Rites knelt and sang, "Grand Commandant, officials of various ranks, receive the jade, fur, silk, lambs, geese, and pheasants, and we offer our congratulations!" The Grand Minister of Ceremonies sang, "May the Emperor grace the officials!" The attendants escorted the officials to General Jinzi’s presence. The Emperor stood up, prompting all the officials to kneel again. The Emperor sat down, and they knelt once more. They presented the jade, fur, and other tribute items before the throne and knelt once more. After the ceremony, the attendants led them out of the hall and back to their original positions. When the officials presented the jade, officials of lower ranks also paid their respects. After the ceremony, the tribute items were presented to the designated recipients, who in turn passed the jade and silk to the attendants, and the lambs, geese, and pheasants to the Grand Court. The Grand Musician knelt to request the performance of music, and the music band played in order. The Chief of the Yellow Gate dispatched personnel to prepare the chariot, and the Emperor departed the court, and all the officials took their seats.
At six o'clock in the morning, the various foreign guests entered the court one after another, who all bowed and then took their seats. After the emperor retired from court, he re-emerged three hours later, with bells and drums sounding together. The herald and the chancellor knelt and reported: "Please let the officials enter!" The herald led the princes and the officials of two thousand stones into the hall, while the officials of one thousand and six hundred stones remained in their places. The herald guided the princes to the wine vessels to pour wine, kneeling to present the wine to the chamberlain, who then knelt to set the wine before the imperial throne. After the princes then withdrew, they poured wine for themselves and placed it in front of them. The herald knelt and reported: "The vassal kings and ministers offer a toast, bowing once more to wish for long life and prosperity!" The musicians played, prompting the officials to bow once more. After the wine was finished, they bowed again. The herald led the princes back to their original places. Then a decree was issued for everyone to be seated, and the officials all knelt in response. The chamberlain, the Minister of the Interior, and the Minister of Rites took turns to toast and wish for longevity on the throne. The singing and music ensemble started performing, and the grand official presented the imperial wine. The imperial wine was carried up the steps, and the grand official ordered it to be handed over to the deputy minister while kneeling, who then knelt to set the wine before the imperial throne. They then began to serve wine to the officials. The chief musician knelt and reported: "Play the song of ascent!" It only stopped after three repetitions. The grand official knelt and requested that the imperial feast be prepared, which was brought up the steps as the officials rose. The grand official ordered the soup to be handed over to the Minister of Education, also while kneeling, the rice to the Minister of Agriculture, also while kneeling, and the dishes to be handed over together to the official holding the edict, who knelt to set the dishes before the imperial throne. The officials then took their seats. The chief musician knelt and reported: "Play the food and music!" The grand official served the imperial feast to the officials.
After finishing the meal, Tai Le Ling knelt down and announced, "Please start the music!" The musicians performed in succession. The herald stepped forward and also knelt, saying, "Please present a variety of performances in order!" Then officials from various counties were summoned to receive the emperor's instructions at the steps. After the banquet concluded, an envoy knelt down and said, "Please retire!" The bells and drums rang together, the courtiers bowed to the north, and then the court session concluded. Therefore, before seven o'clock in the evening, this was referred to as the "morning congratulations," and at nine o'clock in the morning, the emperor came out again, and the officials raised their glasses to toast and wish him a long life, known as the "daytime meeting." In addition, outside the yellow tent, thirty female musicians were specifically arranged to perform court music. It is said that in the Jiangzuo region in those years, the situation was rather intricate, and everyone dared not easily congratulate the New Year. The emperor got up very late, and the night clock had not yet completed ten quarters (about five hours) before opening the Xuanyang Gate. Only when dawn broke did the palace gate open. After the sundial showed that it had passed five quarters (about two and a half hours), the emperor came out to receive the New Year greetings. The crown prince would receive the New Year greetings, ranking above the royal ministers, but below the three respects (referring to ancestral temples, the state altar, and the mountains and rivers). During the New Year's Day grand court meeting, a white beast jar would be placed in the palace, with the lid adorned with white animal motifs. If anyone dared to speak frankly, the emperor would open the jar and offer him a drink. According to the ritual, this white beast jar was an ancient custom established by Du Ju, with the lid added in later dynasties, meaning to warn everyone to be cautious in their words and actions and not to speak recklessly.
During the Wei Dynasty, the system stipulated that the princes were not required to attend court for audience. During the reign of Emperor Ming of Wei, the princes who were able to attend court were exceptions rather than the norm. By the time of the Taishi era, the relevant authorities reported: "Officials below the rank of princes from the feudal states will be divided into two groups by region when coming to court, with rotations every three years, starting anew after each cycle. In special circumstances, attendance may be postponed to the following year. After attending court in the second year, they must wait another three years before they can do so again, and this rule must be strictly observed. During the audience, they must personally present a jade bi, just like in previous dynasties. In the year when no audience is held, each feudal state must send officials to present tributes." The emperor approved this memorial. The princes in the Jiangzuo region did not return to their domains. If they accepted court appointments to serve elsewhere, their protocols would align with those of local officials and officials of the rank of two thousand stones, and since there was no longer a system for paying respects, this practice was also abolished.
During the Han Dynasty, because Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang overthrew the Qin Dynasty in October, October was established as the beginning of the year. By the time of Emperor Wu, although the Xia dynasty calendar was adopted, every month's new moon (the first day of the tenth month) was marked by worship, and on the first day of October, a grand banquet was held. The ceremony unfolded as follows: when the clepsydra had not yet finished seven periods (about three and a half hours), the emperor would begin to receive congratulations and gifts. Dukes and marquises presented jade discs, officials with a rank of 2,000 stones offered lambs, officials with a rank of 1,000 stones presented geese, and officials below 600 stones contributed wild chickens. The three grand ministers of state would hold the jade disc and enter the hall, kneeling before the emperor's throne, facing north. The Minister of Rites would praise, "Long live the emperor!" The three grand ministers would prostrate themselves in worship. Only after the emperor took his seat did the three grand ministers approach to present the jade disc. All officials gathered to extend their congratulations, and officials above 2,000 stones entered the hall to shout "Long live!" lifting their cups in a toast. The emperor hosted a banquet, the Minister of Works served soup, and the Minister of Agriculture provided rice, while music for the banquet was played. All officials received rewards, attended the banquet, set up feasts, and played music, which resembled the New Year's Day ceremony. During the Wei and Jin periods, congratulations from local officials and dignitaries were received on the winter solstice, and a small banquet was held, although the ceremony was less grand than the New Year's Day celebrations.
In ancient times, emperors had to tour various regions. During the reign of Emperor Wen of Wei, the realm was divided into three factions, and wars were everywhere. The emperor was constantly on the move, never resting throughout the year; this was necessitated by the circumstances of the time, not following the old rules. Emperor Ming made three eastern tours, showing concern for the elderly wherever he went, empathizing with the suffering of the people, and distributing grain and cloth, which reflected the traditional practice of imperial inspections. In the first year of the Zhengshi era of King Qi, while touring Luoyang, he also distributed rewards to the elderly and hardworking farmers, with the amounts varying.
In the fourth year of Emperor Wu Di Tai Shi, the emperor ordered the governors, officials of the two-thousand-stone rank, and officials at all levels, saying: "In ancient times, emperors had to inspect the mountains and major rivers every year. Even in remote areas, the emperor could understand the situation, the suffering of the people could be reflected to the court in a timely manner, the emperor could convey his intentions, and even the elderly could receive care, in order to leave a good reputation. I have been the emperor for many years, always cautious and frugal, striving to do my best. But I always worry that the officials below are not fully committed, and there are so many things every day that I am afraid I cannot take care of them. If the people face issues, the responsibility falls entirely on me. However, there never seems to be enough time; I have never had time to inspect, and the people's issues remain unresolved. How can I be at ease? Now I am sending messengers with my intentions to go to all parts of the country, personally meet with the governors, officials of the two-thousand-stone rank, and officials at all levels, tell them my thoughts, understand the situation in various places, see how the orders are being implemented, and ask about the suffering of the people. The classics of the Zhou Dynasty record: 'It is necessary to separately write a book on the interests and harms of the people, write a book on the customs, political affairs, criminal laws, and the implementation of prohibitions in various places, write a book on riots, evil deeds, and violations of laws, write a book on disasters and poverty, write a book on peace and prosperity, and write a book on the people's peaceful and prosperous living conditions. Each place's situation must be clearly documented and then reported to the emperor.' This is the rule left by our ancestors, and you must follow it. After returning, write a detailed report so that I can understand the situation in various places, as if I had inspected them myself. All ministers, you must take this matter seriously, actively provide suggestions, be truthful with the messengers, and never hide anything."
"I will humbly await your report, and you guys need to put in the effort to meet my expectations."
Ah, this new ceremony, when the emperor tours various regions, offers sacrifices to the heavens and earth, and erects temporary palaces according to the rules. The etiquette they follow is the same as that in the court, except for the absence of raised flags. A minister called Zhi Yu remarked, "During the paying of respects, when vassals see the emperor, they must raise flags! The designs on the flags signify different titles and ranks, reflecting hierarchy and dignity. The Book of Songs states, 'When a gentleman arrives, pay attention to his flag,' so we should follow the old ritual and raise the flags again." The emperor thought he made sense and agreed. However, this rule was never put into practice until the end of the Jin Dynasty.
Speaking of the Fengshan ceremony, there are no records of it in ancient texts. In fact, this ceremony is based on the concepts of heaven, earth, and mountains. When the emperor tours famous mountains and rivers, burns offerings to honor the heavens, and reports his achievements, while this practice may appear plausible, it is rather tenuous. Prophecies dictate that the emperor must conduct the Fengshan ceremony at Mount Tai, to facilitate a change of dynasties. Both the Qin and Han Dynasties did this, and their practices are documented in historical records.
During the reign of Emperor Ming of Wei, General Jiang Ji submitted a memorial saying, "The most important matters for an emperor are royal inspections and ancestral sacrifices, especially the Fengshan ritual. Throughout history, every monarch who has ascended the throne has gone to Liangfu Mountain, climbed Mount Tai, etched their accomplishments, and recorded the relationship between heaven and man. Sima Xiangru said that since the existence of written records, seventy-two monarchs have either continued the practices of their predecessors or left behind their own teachings. Grand Historian Sima Qian said that if a monarch possesses sagacity but does not publicize it, it is the fault of his subjects. Therefore, great achievements and virtues, if not inscribed on the stones of Liangshan, cannot manifest the emperor's accomplishments and be remembered by future generations. As the saying goes, 'To become an emperor and still praise Yao and Shun is like a son praising someone else's father.' The current Great Wei Dynasty has inherited the flaws and disorder of the past hundred rulers, alleviated the hardships of the people, inherited centuries of decline, and continued the waste of generations. From Emperor Wu, Emperor Wen, to the present emperor, they have been devoted to perfecting the way of heaven and earth and regulating the relationship between humans and gods. Heaven has bestowed abundant blessings, and compared to ancient times, there are no suitable comparisons. However, the Fengshan ritual has not been held yet. Although the emperor is focused on rooting out the remaining rebels and cleansing the realm, he has temporarily overlooked this matter. However, the Sanmiao tribes are strong in the Jianghai region, and Emperor Shun abolished the ritual of eastern tours; Xu Yi rebelled in the Huaisi region, and King Cheng of Zhou ceased the ritual of ascending Mount Tai. Furthermore, last year, the rebellion in the Wu Kingdom was quelled in Jianghan, and this year, the bandits in Shu Kingdom were eliminated in Longyou. The internal strife has calmed and will not hinder the Fengshan ritual. This ritual has long been overdue and cannot be decided in haste. An edict should be issued for the officials to gather the relevant texts on rituals, choose an auspicious day, and offer sacrifices to heaven and earth to fulfill the expectations of the people. As a military man, I dare to speak up."
Emperor Ming of Wei issued a decree, saying, "After listening to Jiang Ji's words, I was drenched in sweat! Since time immemorial, there have been only a little over seventy monarchs who have held the Fengshan ceremony. Sima Qian noted that even those monarchs who were appointed by heaven had their shortcomings, so there are gaps of several hundred years, or even up to a thousand years between them. The most recent ones are also several hundred years ago, and these missing rituals cannot be verified anymore. What virtues do I possess that would allow me to dare to imitate them? Is Jiang Ji suggesting that there are no talents like Guan Zhong out there, and that I have the ambition of Duke Huan of Lu to climb Mount Tai? I wouldn't dare to deceive the heavens! Even though Jiang Ji's words sound nice, they aren't really helping me. Let the officials, attendants, secretaries, and eunuchs think for themselves; there's no need for further discussion or to reply to the decree." Even though the emperor turned down Jiang Ji's suggestion, he let Gao Tanglong draft the Fengshan ceremony. Since the world wasn't unified yet, he didn't want to hold the grand ceremony right away. Eventually, Gao Tanglong passed away, and the matter was left unresolved.
It is said that when Emperor Wu of the Western Jin extinguished the Kingdom of Wu, the realm was unified. On the day of Gengyin in September of the first year of Taikang, the Grand Minister of Ceremonies Wei Guan, the Left Prime Minister Shan Tao, the Right Prime Minister Wei Shu, Minister Liu Shi, and Minister of Works Zhang Hua together submitted a petition stating: "We have heard that since the emergence of humanity, there has been a history of expanding territories, but no one can clearly state how many years it has been. Among those who contributed to the nation, exercised benevolent rule, and then went to Mount Tai for the Fengshan ceremony, there have been seventy-four emperors in total, of which only fourteen posthumous titles have been passed down. As for those who remained obscure and left no reputation, there are even more, countless. The merits of the Jin Dynasty can be traced back to the time of the Yellow Emperor, assisting Zhuanxu, and continued through the Xia and Shang dynasties, maintaining the order of heaven and earth, which was not interrupted even during the Zhou Dynasty. Now, with the rise of the golden virtue and the ascension of a sage ruler, the Shu Han has been pacified, and the entire nation has rallied in allegiance to the great Jin. The true magnificence of military achievements arises from civil governance. Since Your Majesty ascended the throne, you have vigorously developed national affairs, and the people admire your grace. However, in the region south of the Yangtze River, there are still some fierce rebels who have never been conquered throughout the ages. Your Majesty, with your wise leadership, dispatched troops to suppress them, and soon quelled the rebellion, subduing these rebels with both benevolence and might. The realm has returned to your favor, and your teachings have resonated throughout the realm, even reaching the most remote areas. Even the expeditions of the Yellow Emperor, the flood control of Dayu, and the achievements of several generations of Zhou emperors pale in comparison to yours! Records inscribed on stone, as well as those documented in historical texts, using numbers to denote reign titles and words to describe events, even the miraculous omens of the ancient 'He Tu' and 'Luo Shu' diagrams pale in comparison to the current grandeur. Therefore, a grand ceremony should be held to pay homage to Mount Zhongyue, then ascend Mount Tai to perform the Fengshan ceremony, and announce your merits, highlighting your supreme status, enjoying the blessings of heaven, benefiting the people, engraving your achievements in stone for future generations to honor, so that descendants will know of your great accomplishments.
This is a grand undertaking of the imperial era and a shared wish of all the people!
Emperor Wu decreed, "Although the rebellion has been suppressed, the borders are still on high alert, and the people have not yet fully found peace. It's premature to declare everything perfect!" Wei Guan and others submitted another memorial, saying, "Now from the east to the sea, from the west to the shifting sands, the southern desert, everywhere has submitted to Great Jin, with a territory even broader than that opened up by Great Yu when he controlled the waters. The harmony between heaven and humanity, your accomplishments are already remarkable. You should offer sacrifices to the heavens, earth, mountains, and rivers, climb Mount Tai, and express your sincerity to heaven and earth to honor the wishes of the people and the deities. Please grant our previous request." Emperor Wu decreed, "The yin and yang are still not harmonized, the laws are still inadequate, and the people have not yet achieved peace and prosperity. How can we rush to declare success?" Therefore, Emperor Wu ultimately did not agree to their request. Wang Yi and others submitted another memorial, saying, "We have heard that every emperor has a destined period to rule; this is a matter of fate. Those who can govern the people of the world well must have noble virtues and grand ceremonies to announce to the world. Do what you should do; do not refuse what you should not refuse; this is a principle that has existed since ancient times. However, Your Majesty, you are modest and cautious, repeatedly refusing these ceremonies. Although you are highly respected, you still refuse to accept. The roles of the Three Excellencies involve heaven, earth, humanity, and the divine, and they are in charge of the country's major affairs. The major affairs of the country must be discussed with them. Therefore, when the Han emperors worshiped heaven and earth, it was not up to these officials to decide, and they were not involved in the matter. In our previous memorial, we mainly talked about the merits of our ancestors. Combined with the current destiny, Your Majesty's achievements have united the entire country; considering the past and present, this ceremony ought to take place. As for the specific date, it should be discussed by the Five Ministries together, and then reported to you." The emperor said, "Although the Jiangbei region has been pacified, it was the merit of those responsible at that time. What is there to boast about? I hope all the ministers will focus on promoting education, making the world peaceful, and the people living in peace and prosperity, and take some time to rest. This is what I think day and night; there is no need to consult with the Five Ministries again."
Wang Yi and others again submitted a memorial, saying: "We have heard that the monarchs who ruled the world in the three generations of Tang, Yao, and Shun all relied on heaven's favor and followed the will of the people. They all ascended Jieqiu and Liangfu Mountain without hesitation, as refusal was not an option. Your Majesty's accomplishments surpass those of all previous emperors, and your virtues are unparalleled. Your accomplishments are magnificent and extraordinary, and we, your subjects, cannot praise you enough. However, Your Majesty, you are humble and prudent, consistently declining recognition, refusing to accept your accomplishments, and not accepting the proper ceremonies. Doesn't this fall short of the standards established by the Tang and Yao dynasties? We dare not disobey your orders and humbly request that you follow our previous memorial." The Emperor said: "We should focus on promoting education and ensuring the well-being of the people. Let's put this matter aside for now; there's no need to trouble yourselves any further."
Ministers presented a memorial saying, "Since ancient times, wise emperors governing the world would ascend famous mountains for the sacrifice to Heaven and Earth, as recorded in the historical texts. There have been seventy-four such emperors in total. After Emperor Shun and Emperor Yu unified the world, they traveled in all directions, personally implementing their governance principles. The Book of Changes discusses understanding the people's sentiments and investigating local conditions, the Book of Rites talks about offering sacrifices to Heaven and Earth, the Book of Songs praises ascending high mountains, all of which are recorded in historical texts. King Wen assisted King Cheng of the Western Zhou in governing the Shang Dynasty, while the Duke of Zhou, in the identity of the vassal lords of the State of Lu, either performed sacrifices on Mount Qi or held ceremonies on Mount Tai, only relying on their virtuous conduct to perform these acts. Since then, there have been countless individuals who, despite their insufficient merits, have overstepped the rituals, and their posthumous titles have been passed down to this day. Not to mention our founding emperor, Emperor Xuan, who established a great enterprise that extended its reach overseas; Emperor Jing, who continued to complete the great enterprise, stabilizing the world; Emperor Wen, who was tasked with establishing the Jin Dynasty, pacifying Shu Han; Your Majesty, who rose in response to the heavenly mandate, unified the entire country, and bestowed blessings upon the people, spreading your fame far and wide. Previously, the Han Dynasty lost control, Wu and Shu confronted each other, and the war lasted for nearly a hundred years. The geographical environments and customs in different regions were all different, and the common people hoped for border stability. Now, those unruly bandits have been pacified after the efforts of two generations. If it weren't for Your Majesty's intelligence and martial prowess, and compliance with the heavenly mandate, who else could have achieved such remarkable accomplishments! We, your humble subjects, are fortunate to live in this once-in-a-millennium prosperous era, personally experiencing the benefits brought by the era of peace and prosperity. This era of peace and prosperity is so fair and beautiful, who else could possibly compare to Your Majesty? We should emulate the past dynasties, follow ancient customs, carve your achievements on Mount Tai, hold the sacrifice to Heaven and Earth, promote the system of rites and music, perfect the Three Yong ceremonies, let your legacy endure for generations, and honor your ancestors. Therefore, we humbly beseech you, at the risk of our lives, to allow us to present this petition. Please submit it to the Ministry of Rites, prepare the ceremonies, and report back to the imperial court."
The Emperor said, "What you said is indeed the grand events of past generations, but now is not the time." He then rejected their request.
The emperor took the throne and wanted to upgrade the title of Empress Zhang. Huan Wen suggested she should be referred to as Grand Matriarch.
(Note: The elevation of titles in this context reflects the importance of status and respect within the imperial court, highlighting the cultural significance of such designations in historical China.)
The Minister of Revenue, Jiang Xun, presented a different opinion: "Yu Shun was filial, kind, and fulfilled all the duties of serving his parents. Even though he was the emperor and possessed vast territories, his father, Gu Sou, did not even have a place to stand, nor did he receive the lowest noble title. Shun's filial piety moved heaven and earth; how could he bear to let his father be so lowly? Failing to bestow a prominent title on him contradicts the principle that 'sons should honor their fathers with titles.' Isn't this principle logical and morally acceptable? The 'Spring and Autumn Annals' records that 'Ji Jiang returned to the capital,' and the 'Spring and Autumn Commentary' explains that 'parents, even the emperor's wife, are called my Ji Jiang,' meaning that children's status should not exceed that of their parents. Some people believe that children's status should not exceed that of their parents; then why did King Wu posthumously title Tai Wang, Wang Ji, and Wen Wang? The three emperors of the Zhou Dynasty had virtues that harmonized with heaven and earth, and the prosperity of the royal business started with them. Thus, King Wu followed the precedents set by his predecessors and adhered to the will of heaven, posthumously honoring his ancestors, which precisely shows that the status of children should not exceed that of their parents! The 'Book of Rites' states that 'the young should not praise the old, and the lowly should not praise the noble'; young and low-ranking people should not praise the old and high-ranking people, let alone dare to use noble titles to praise them! Emperor Gaozu of Han accepted the family's advice and honored the Duke of Tai as the Grand Emperor. Xun Yue believed that there was no greater filial piety than respecting one's father, and elevating parents' nobility through the status of their children is misguided. During the reign of Emperor Xiaozhang, there was no use of titles to honor Lady Jia, only lavish rewards of gold, silver, treasures, and silks, not due to a lack of filial piety, but because sacred decrees must not be violated! During the Spring and Autumn period, the illegitimate son inherited the throne, and his mother could be titled as a lady. I don't know if this is directly conferred by the son to the mother, or if the ancestral temple should be informed first, to confer in the name of the late father? Upon careful review of the edict, it states that a noblewoman is to be conferred as the Empress Dowager at court. Now the emperor issues an edict to confer a noblewoman; this represents the son conferring a title upon his mother. The noblewoman bows in acceptance of the conferment; this is the mother submitting to the son. With heaven above and earth below, the status and position have been determined; the mother is noble and the son is humble, the natural order of familial relations is thrown into disarray. Although the intention was to elevate the noblewoman's status, in reality, it makes her inferior; although the intention was to demonstrate the national traditions, in reality, it abandons the national traditions. And the actions of the monarch will definitely be recorded by the court historians. If recorded in the historical records and passed down to future generations, wouldn't that violate etiquette and propriety? I believe the ancestral temple should be notified first, to explain that the noblewoman is kind and virtuous, and should be given special treatment to repay her nurturing grace. Following the ancestors' commands, this matter should not be decided solely by the emperor. Although the title of concubine is for spouses, from below the concubines, there are nine consorts, but there is no title of 'concubine.' Duke Huan said that she should be promoted to Grand Madam; this statement is also correct. If the title of Grand Madam is considered too low, it could be referred to as Empress Grand Madam. 'Empress' signifies the monarch; 'Monarch Grand Madam,' this title adheres to established norms of status and etiquette."
There is no Simplified Chinese text to translate. Please provide the text for translation.
The emperor ultimately issued an edict, bestowing the title of Grand Empress Dowager on Empress Dowager Zhang. On the 13th day of the 3rd month, Wang Tian, who concurrently served as Grand Guardian, was sent to deliver the imperial seal, ribbon, and ceremonial robes, all of which were of the same standard as those of the Empress Dowager. The emperor then issued a decree asking, "Should the court officials perform grand ceremonies for the Empress Dowager?" The Minister of Rites, Jiang Yu, argued, "Her title is not of the highest rank, so grand ceremonies are unnecessary."
Emperor Xiaowu wanted to posthumously confer the title of Empress Dowager Jianwen upon the Zheng family of Kuaiji and inquired whether her tomb should be opened. Wang Xun said, "Based on the practice of posthumously conferring titles on ancestors over three generations and the Empress Dowager Jing during the reign of Emperor Zhong, the tombs were not opened; only the burial site was renovated, and the burial rites were enhanced."
During Empress Chu's regency, there was a debate regarding the proper etiquette for Chu Pou's audience with the Empress Dowager. Cai Mo and Wang Biaozhi both argued, "Even Yu Shun and Emperor Gaozu of Han followed the etiquette of father and son, let alone addressing the Empress Dowager! Sons do not perform the kowtow ritual to their fathers." Eight high-ranking officials of the Secretariat argued, "If we strictly adhere to the etiquette between ruler and subject, we risk neglecting the virtues of benevolence; if we strictly adhere to the etiquette between father and son, we neglect filial piety. In the court, we should treat the Empress Dowager with the etiquette of a subject, but in private meetings, the etiquette of a stern father to his son is more appropriate."
The custom in the Han and Wei dynasties was for the crown prince to address the emperor as "Your Majesty." In the newly revised etiquette, it was considered illogical for the crown prince to simultaneously hold the titles of "son" and "subject," so the practice of the crown prince addressing the emperor as "Your Majesty" was abolished. Nonetheless, Zhi Yu contended, "The 'Classic of Filial Piety' states to serve the ruler in the same way as one serves their father, encompassing both the roles of subject and son. Therefore, it is not inappropriate for the crown prince to address the emperor as 'Your Majesty.' The old practice ought to be reinstated, allowing the crown prince to continue addressing the emperor as 'Your Majesty.' The emperor accepted his suggestion."
In the third year of Tai Ning, on the Wu Chen day in March, the Ming Emperor appointed his son Yan as Crown Prince. On the Gui Si day in March, the Ming Emperor issued an edict stating: "There is no inherent nobility in rituals, so the sons of ancient emperors are the same as ordinary scholars. However, since the Han to the Wei dynasties, there has been a particular reverence for the heir apparent, requiring all officials to bow to the Crown Prince and for court officials to pay their respects, which is quite inappropriate. During my time in the Eastern Palace, I didn't have the chance to reform this system. Now that Yan is still young, he should be made to observe the rituals of subjects towards their sovereign. Over time, he will come to see this as a matter of course, which simply can't happen! Ritual officials, you need to discuss this with the nobles and ministers to formulate a plan that aligns with the rituals." The Minister of Personnel, Bian Zhuan, believed that in the "Rites of Zhou," it is stipulated that the Empress and the Crown Prince are not required to bow to each other, indicating that their rituals are equivalent to those of the sovereign, meant to honor the heir apparent and distinguish him from ordinary legitimate sons. If the Crown Prince is treated like the sovereign, then court officials would have to bow to him. If the Crown Prince is humble and courteous, he should return the bow. I believe the establishment of the Crown Prince should be announced to heaven and earth, formally confirming his status, and shouldn't be compared to the ordinary greetings exchanged between princes! I believe we should adhere to the old customs of the Han and Wei dynasties, that all court officials should bow to the Crown Prince. The Emperor concurred with this view.
In the Taiyuan era of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, a high-ranking official inquired about the appropriate attire and etiquette for ministers when meeting the Crown Prince. Che Yin, the supervisor of education, and the national scholar discussed that court officials ought to wear red attire, wear a cap, perform a bow, and then the Crown Prince would return the gesture. However, they were unable to find any clear rules in the ancient texts. They mentioned how in the past, the Grand Tutor Yang Hu congratulated the Crown Prince and even said, "kowtow to atone for a serious offense," which proved the existence of such ceremonies. Che Yin also mentioned that during the third year of the Taining period, the court discussed this matter, and Minister Bian Rong believed that they should follow the old practices of the Han and Wei dynasties, where all ministers would bow together. Regarding red attire and coronets, those were privileges reserved solely for the Emperor, so the Crown Prince should just wear a cap. Everyone agreed with Che Yin's opinion.
After a few years, in the twelfth year of the Taiyuan period, the issue of seating order between the Prince of Chenliu and the Crown Prince during formal occasions was revisited. Some officials argued that the Prince of Chenliu, being a distinguished guest of the state, should take precedence over the Crown Prince, who was still a subject despite being the heir apparent. However, the Prince of Chenliu, Sima Mai, submitted a request to resign due to poor health. The Emperor then summoned the ceremonial officials and scholars to discuss this matter. Scholar Cao Dan mentioned that since the Prince of Chenliu did not have specific sacrificial dates, his situation should be treated like Meng Zhi and Mu Zi (referring to two feudal lords of the Spring and Autumn period). However, scholar Wang Biao disagreed, asserting that the order of precedence between the two princes should not be altered lightly. He argued that historical records did not show any precedent of a ruler voluntarily abdicating due to illness, so there was no such rule in ancient times. The circumstances of Meng Zhi and Mu Zi, who were on the verge of ascension to rulership, were entirely different from those of the Prince of Chenliu.
In the fourth year of the Xian Kang era, the emperor personally took to the throne and sent envoys to greet the three regents—the Grand Tutor, the Grand Marshal, and the Minister of Works. According to established ceremonial customs, music should be played in the palace courtyard. However, someone submitted a petition arguing that music should only be played during sacrifices and banquets.
Cai Mo, the official in charge of rituals, expressed his views: "Whenever something is valued, appropriate rituals must be prepared. When rituals are complete, there should be music. The purpose of music is to convey the importance of events and emphasize the significance of rituals, not merely for entertainment. Thus, even regular coronation ceremonies include music, not just banquets. Music at banquets also serves to honor the guests. For instance, when Xie Zhi was sent to the State of Chu, the King of Chu threw a banquet for him, and Xie Zhi said: 'We must not forget the friendship of the former monarch and express it with grand rituals, accompanied by magnificent music.' This statement highlights that the music at banquets holds significance. Nobles and ministers are highly valued by the monarch, so the monarch would stand up to greet them, and when they are in the carriage, he would perform the dismounting ceremony, addressing them as 'Uncle.' The Zuo Zhuan states, 'The national lords are the monarch's right-hand men,' so sending envoys to pay respects to the regents this time, with the emperor personally attending the throne and officials lining up to accompany him, shows how important this is. In ancient times, when the Son of Heaven welcomed envoys from lower states, and when appointing generals or sending out envoys, music would be played. The preface of the Book of Songs states: 'The "Huang Huang Zhe Hua" describes the monarch sending envoys.' It also mentions: 'The "Cai Wei" is a farewell song for soldiers, the "Chu Che" is a song to reward returning troops, and the "Di Du" is a song to celebrate the soldiers' triumph.' These songs were all performed with music. Now, sending envoys to pay respects to the regents is far more important than receiving envoys from lower states; if it can be done simply with music, it should definitely be done with even grander music for important occasions. So, I think that when the emperor personally takes to the throne to send out envoys, it should definitely include grand musical performances." The emperor accepted his suggestion.
During the Han and Wei periods, when the concubines of nobles and ministers visited the legitimate wives, the legitimate wives would not return the courtesy. New ceremonial regulations stated that courtesies should be reciprocated, thus requiring the concubines and the wives of nobles to return the courtesies of the concubines. However, Zhi Yu believed that "in terms of etiquette, a concubine serves the mistress just as a daughter-in-law serves her mother-in-law; the concubine must serve the mistress, and if the mistress fails to return the courtesy, it is even more degrading for the concubine than for a daughter-in-law. Their statuses are different, and there is no need for them to reciprocate courtesies. The statement 'courtesies should be reciprocated' does not apply in this situation. The sages clearly distinguished between legitimate and illegitimate offspring to avoid situations of overstepping boundaries. Even with strict precautions, there will still be instances of overstepping boundaries. Therefore, the old customs should be maintained." The emperor agreed with his opinion.
Among the five types of etiquette, the fourth type is military etiquette, which aims to stabilize internal and external matters, strengthen the state, and safeguard its accomplishments. However, since warfare is perilous, ancient practices often involved hunting as a means to rehearse military etiquette.
According to the customs of the Han Dynasty, on the day of the beginning of autumn, after the suburban sacrificial ceremony, the display of military might would begin. Livestock for sacrifice would be slaughtered at the eastern gate, and then the offerings would be sent to the mausoleum for worship. The ceremony unfolded as follows: the emperor rode in a majestic royal carriage pulled by a white horse with a red mane, and personally fired a crossbow at a sacrificial lamb. The Grand Minister and the ceremonial officials each dispatched an attendant in special vehicles to quickly deliver the offerings to the mausoleum. Upon returning to the palace, the emperor sent envoys with silk to reward the military officials. The military officials then took the opportunity to train the army and practice various formations. This livestock slaughtering ceremony was known as "Zhao Liu." All military officials learned the sixty-four formations from Sun Wu's military strategy.
After the ceremony, officials below the rank of court nobles gathered in front of the streets of Luoyang to wait. When the emperor's carriage arrived, the officials knelt down to pay their respects. Only after the emperor got off the carriage could the officials see the emperor's face, and then the emperor would return to the palace. There's an old saying: "Get off the carriage under the carriage," referring to this occasion. The Han Dynasty consistently followed this practice. Until the 21st year of Jian'an during the reign of Emperor Xian, the Wei court reported: "In ancient times, military drills were held throughout the year, carried out during the farming off-season. The Han Dynasty in the western capital followed the Qin system, conducting drills only three times a year, with large-scale exercises held only in October. Now that the war has just ended and the soldiers are familiar with the drills, it's no longer necessary to drill year-round. It is sufficient to select an auspicious day on the day of the beginning of autumn to hold a grand military review, which is both in accordance with etiquette and follows the Han system." The memorial was approved. That winter, a military review was held, with the King of Wei personally leading the troops with a golden drum.
In the first year of Yankan, Wei Wendi became the King of Wei. In June of that year, on the day of the beginning of autumn, a military review was held in the eastern suburbs, with the officials lined up according to etiquette, and the King of Wei personally directing the golden drum from a covered carriage. In October of the first year of Taihe during the reign of Emperor Ming, another military review was held. In September of the fourth year of Taishi, the first year of Xianning, the fourth year of Taikang, and the winter of the sixth year, he personally inspected the troops at Xuanwu View, but he merely observed and did not direct the troops' movements himself. After Emperor Hui, this ceremony was discontinued. In the fourth year of Taixing during the reign of Emperor Yuan, an order was issued for the left and right guards and various battalions to conduct large-scale drills using goose feather flags. During the years of Xianhe under Emperor Cheng, orders were given for the internal and external armies to conduct military exercises in the southern suburbs, which led to the area being known as 'Douchang' (the fighting ground). After that, local garrisons, like those commanded by Huan Wen and Yu Liang, frequently conducted military drills, but the court no longer held such ceremonies.
During the Han and Wei dynasties, when generals were sent out on military expeditions, the bearer of the seal would confer the seal and baton to the generals in the court. Later, the new etiquette formulated by Xun Yi and others was that when sending out generals on expeditions, the emperor would be seated on the throne, and the Minister of Rites would receive the seal and baton, following the ancient practice of kneeling to recommend generals as outlined in ancient military texts. Among the ancient Five Rites, there was one called "Jia Li," mainly referring to banquets, weddings, and other ceremonies. By the end of the Zhou dynasty, as the country declined, many rituals were lost, and there were many changes in the rituals surrounding crowning, marriage, mourning, and sacrifices.
"The Book of Rites" recorded various ceremonial attire and headwear but did not specify the exact ceremony for the emperor's coronation. It is mentioned that the coronation ceremony for feudal lords first appeared in the late Xia dynasty. Some believe that during the chaotic late Xia dynasty, with frequent incidents of usurpation and regicide, the coronation ceremony for feudal lords was established, indicating that there is, in fact, no clear record of the emperor's coronation ceremony. Officials also did not have a coronation ceremony, as, in ancient times, one could only receive a title upon reaching the age of fifty, so where would officials have a coronation ceremony? In the Zhou dynasty, if a person at the age of fifty had talent, they would temporarily serve as an official, but in practice, they would still follow the scholar's etiquette for crowning. Therefore, selecting an auspicious date, choosing guests, crowning at the ancestral hall to show inheritance, conducting purification rites at the guest seating area, and crowning three times to show respect, these are all the etiquette of a scholar.
However, after the Han dynasty, emperors and feudal lords also began to adopt these rituals. If the first or third day of the lunar new year was auspicious, a coronation ceremony could be held, with the ceremony also drawing from the coronation rituals. When Emperor Shun of the Han dynasty was crowned, he also combined Cao Bao's new etiquette, first crowning with black cloth at the Gao Temple, then sequentially wearing the rank cap, military cap, and the sky-reaching crown, and finally paying respects at the Gao Temple to the ancestral shrine. For officials and below, only the initial crowning with black cloth was required. According to these records, the initial crowning with black cloth adhered to ancient customs, and crowning at the ancestral shrine was also an age-old practice.
The emperor of the Wei dynasty was crowned only once. Some explain that: "The ceremony of crowning a scholar is performed three times, and the three crowning ceremonies symbolize the completion of rituals. However, there are no specified times for the coronation of emperors and feudal lords, because of their noble status and complete virtue, so they do not need to follow the same process as scholars." The crown prince of the Wei dynasty was crowned twice, while princes, dukes, and heirs were crowned three times. Sun Yu believes that having one or two coronations is incorrect.
The "Book of Rites" states: "Auspicious months and auspicious days, at the beginning of the year, according to the order of the month." However, Duke Xiang of Lu was crowned in winter, and Emperor Hui of Han was crowned in March, indicating that there was no fixed month for the coronation. After the Eastern Han, emperors were crowned in the first month. It wasn't until the second year of Xian Ning in the autumn of the intercalary ninth month that an envoy was sent to crown King Jian of Runan, indicating that the coronation does not necessarily have to occur at the beginning of the year.
The coronation ceremony generally takes place in the ancestral shrine, but when Emperor Wu and Emperor Hui crowned the crown prince, the crown prince performed the rites directly in the ancestral shrine, which can also be seen as a variation of the coronation ceremony held in the ancestral shrine. When Emperor Mu and Emperor Xiao Wu were crowned, they first offered sacrifices to the ancestral shrine and then performed the rites there.
Legend has it that when Emperor Hui was still the crown prince and was about to undergo the coronation ceremony, Emperor Wu personally presided over the event in the hall, allowing Minister Gao Yang, Wang Gui, to crown him, while the Grand Master of the Horse, Tuan Qi, Xiaowei Hua Xiang, assisted him from the side.
The emperors in Jiangnan hold their coronation ceremonies with great grandeur. They have all the gold, jade, and jewels ready in advance, as well as various ceremonial items. Both civil and military officials stand by. A large bed is also set up in the hall, and the official in charge of the crown, headdress, hairpin, and ceremonial robe presents them to the Grand Preceptor and the Palace Attendant. The Grand Preceptor puts on the headdress, while the Grand Guardian puts on the crown. As the time to put on the crown approaches, the Grand Preceptor kneels to recite a blessing: "On this auspicious day of the month, the emperor is solemnly adorned, thinking of the grand duties. Revering the heavens like the ancient times, following the ancestors, everlasting and boundless. May his eyebrows be blessed with longevity, and may he be blessed with enduring fortune." After putting on the crown, the Palace Attendant ties a dark sash around the emperor's head, removes the emperor's red silk clothes, and replaces them with the ceremonial robe and crown. After the ceremony, the Grand Guardian leads the officials in toasting and wishing the emperor long life, and only after three cheers of "Long live the emperor" can the officials below the rank of prince retire. However, according to the "Rites of Zhou," only the headdress and crown are necessary.
In the tenth year of the Taishi era, the Southern Palace King, now fifteen, was also due for his coronation ceremony. After discussions in the relevant departments, it was reported that, "According to ceremonial rules, fifteen years old is considered an adult, and if the monarch has a child at fifteen, it means he can also perform the coronation ceremony. Moreover, during the Han and Wei dynasties, envoys were sent to perform the coronation ceremony for the princes, but there’s no historical evidence to support this practice." Therefore, it was decided that the princes should perform the coronation ceremony at the age of fifteen without the need for envoys.
According to Wang Biaozhi, the "Book of Rites" and its commentaries specify that the coronation ceremony must take place in the ancestral temple. After Emperor Cheng completed the coronation ceremony, he also went to the ancestral temple to pay respects, which can be regarded as completing the coronation ceremony. This was probably an imitation of the ceremony held in the ancestral temple.
In the fourth year of the Zhengshi era of the Wei Qi King, Lady Zhen was proclaimed as the empress, but the specific records of the ceremony have been lost.
In the second year of the Xianning era of Emperor Wu, in the hall, the Grand Preceptor Jia Chong officiated the enthronement of Lady Yang as the empress, in a posthumous tribute to the late empress. He also issued a general amnesty and granted rewards to officials of various ranks, each receiving different honors. All officials came to pay their respects and congratulate the emperor.
In the year 288 AD, someone reported to the emperor: "According to the rules, when the emperor gets married, the betrothal gifts should include black and red silk fabrics, along with a jade tablet, as well as two sets of four horses each. The betrothal gifts for nobles should include black and red silk fabrics, along with a jade disc and horses. The betrothal gifts for officials should include black and red silk fabrics, along with sheep. In ancient times, when the emperor got married, the courtyard would be adorned with leather and horses, with the emperor receiving a jade tablet and nobles receiving a jade zhang. We can follow the etiquette of the Zhou Dynasty and change the jade disc to jade zhang, while keeping the rest, including sheep, geese, wine, rice, and black and red silk fabrics, unchanged. When nobles get married, the three stages of betrothal, engagement, and welcoming should include an additional five pieces of cloth, and during the betrothal, an additional four horses, all to be prepared by the groom. Only jade zhang will be provided by the court."
The official in charge of documents, Zhu Zheng, offered his opinion: "Drawing on the old customs of the Wei Kingdom, the etiquette for the emperor marrying concubines and for princesses' weddings requires the display of leather and horses in the courtyard, with the emperor receiving a jade tablet and nobles receiving a jade zhang. When Emperor Gaozu of Han married his empress, the betrothal gifts included 200 catties of gold and twelve horses. For common women getting married, the betrothal gifts included 50 catties of gold and four horses. When the emperor of the Wei Kingdom married concubines and princesses, 190 pieces of silk were used. After the establishment of the Jin Dynasty, weddings required 300 pieces of silk."
The emperor ordered: "For princesses getting married, the betrothal gifts should be prepared by the groom, without the court needing to provide them. Instead, a sum of money will be granted, allowing them to prepare everything themselves. Only jade zhang will be provided by the court, while all other arrangements should follow previous customs."
In the year 342 AD, Emperor Cheng dispatched messengers holding the emperor's tokens, along with Zhuge Hui, who was the Grand Preceptor and General of the Army, and Kong Yu, who was the Grand Commandant and General of the Guard, to go and welcome Empress Du with all the traditional marriage gifts. On that day, Empress Du entered the palace, and the emperor received her in the Taiji Hall, where all the court officials came to offer their congratulations. However, these congratulations were actually not in accordance with proper etiquette. In ancient times, the ceremonial practices for imperial weddings were not yet fully established. The "Spring and Autumn Annals" record "sacrificing to the Duke to welcome the Queen in Jiguo," but the accounts in the "Guliang Commentary," "Zuoshi Commentary," and "Gongyang Commentary" offer differing accounts. Furthermore, the old precedents from the Han Dynasty to the Wei Dynasty are absent when the Emperors Wu and Hui welcomed their empresses, and there were no relevant ceremonial records in the Eastern Jin court. Therefore, when the emperor was to welcome Empress Du, the Minister of Rites, Hua Heng, consulted with scholars to determine the wedding ceremony. According to Du Yu's annotation of the "Zuoshi Commentary," the main officiant was responsible only for funding the wedding. In addition, when King Ling of Zhou sought a marriage alliance with the state of Qi, the Marquis of Qi asked Yan Huanzi what to do, and Yan Huanzi replied, "If the couple has children who look human, their relatives might refer to them as 'the late Lord's daughter.'" This indicates that the emperor's orders could be passed down, and subjects could report their responses directly. Ancient scholars believed that Qiu Ming detailed this event in order to standardize the royal wedding ceremonies. Thus, while the emperor sent messengers to welcome the empress as per his orders, the specific ceremonial records remained incomplete.
In the year 344 AD, when Emperor Kang married Empress Chu, the procession welcoming the empress did not have the horsehair standard. The imperial censor reported: "When welcoming the empress, we should follow the ceremonial procedures used when welcoming Empress Chenggong into the palace. However, the Rites (《仪注》) state that the emperor should wear ceremonial attire when entering the hall, but it does not specify whether the horsehair standard should be used. Moreover, when welcoming Empress Chenggong in the past, only a blue dragon flag was used, while the rest were items the emperor typically used. Now, messengers are being sent to welcome the empress in the palace, but they are now required to carry five oxen flags, horsehair standards, and military weapons, causing a shortage of supplies." The emperor decreed: "The reason for wearing formal attire and going to the Taiji Hall for the welcome is to emphasize the importance of the event, hence the need for complete ceremonial preparations. How can we omit essential items and reduce the ceremonial ones? Furthermore, when Empress Chenggong's spirit tablet was enshrined in the temple, the late emperor decreed that the empress's ceremonies were not to include five oxen flags. Why are they being used now? If we don't use five oxen flags, then it will be easier to prepare the horsehair standards and military weapons." The emperor further decreed: "The old system is not a suitable standard, and it is not appropriate to fully prepare now. Funds from the national treasury should be allocated for military expenses. Ceremonial attire and procession supplies should be prepared simply, and all other auxiliary items should be omitted."
In the year 361 AD, the emperor wanted to marry Lady He as his empress. The official in charge of ceremonial affairs, Wang Biao Zhi, was known for his strictness. He searched through various classics and historical stories to finalize the ceremonial procedures for the wedding. He believed that according to the Gongyang Commentary (《公羊传》), the emperor should not be referred to as "the host" during the wedding.
He also said, "The emperor is the ruler of the realm, and all under heaven are his loyal subjects. Even his own parents, brothers, teachers, and friends are considered his subjects. This is the fundamental principle behind the 'Three Bonds and Five Constants,' which is meant to regulate societal order. How could the emperor's father officiate a wedding as a subject? And how could a subject organize such a grand wedding in the name of the emperor? When searching through ancient rites, no emperor has ever done such a thing; in flipping through historical records, no similar example can be found. This is illogical and goes against etiquette. Back in the second year of Xianning, during his marriage to the late Empress Dao, Empress Dowager Hongxun presided over the court and did not allow the emperor's relatives and friends to officiate the wedding as subjects. Looking back at the practices before the Jin Dynasty, during the Xianning era, the wedding did not use terms such as 'father, brother, teacher, friend,' which is why the wedding procedures from the Xiankang and Huaheng eras align with these old customs. I believe we should follow the Xiankang era etiquette when welcoming the empress." The emperor listened to his words and adopted his suggestion.
The etiquette of the Xiankang era was established based on the old customs of the Han Dynasty and the existing practices of the Jin Dynasty, so Wang Biaozhi referred to the etiquette of the Xiankang era. However, during Xiankang era weddings, the bride's family would refrain from celebrations for three days, yet all the court officials of the Xiankang era came to congratulate, which was somewhat inappropriate according to etiquette. Therefore, this wedding will strictly adhere to the etiquette of the Xianning era, without any celebrations. As for the six ritual documents for ancestral sacrifices and other ceremonial procedures, all of which were established by Wang Biaozhi.
The document for the betrothal is as follows: "The Emperor addresses He Qi, the former military advisor to the Grand Commandant: At the dawn of heaven and earth, the foundation of human relationships was established, which leads to the union of husband and wife, honoring heaven, earth, the ancestral temple, and the state. We have consulted with the nobles and ministers, and everyone agrees that we should follow the old customs. Now, we specially dispatch an envoy with the imperial edict, the Grand Minister Wang Biao and the Chief of the Clan, to conduct the betrothal according to the rites." He Qi replied: "Thanks to the Emperor's grace for visiting my humble abode to select a good match for me. My daughter is the great-granddaughter of my great-grandfather, He Zhun, the former Gentleman of the Imperial Guard, and she has not yet received a proper education; her attire is rather plain. We respectfully follow the old regulations and humbly carry out the rites. He Qi, the former military advisor to the Grand Commandant and Duke of the Countryside, bows deeply and sincerely follows the imperial decree."
The document for the inquiry of names is as follows: "The Emperor decrees: Inform a certain official of a certain surname. The harmony of yin and yang, under heaven's governance, the position of the Empress must be filled by someone from a prominent family to reaffirm traditional customs. Now, we specially dispatch an envoy with the imperial edict, the Grand Minister and the Chief of the Clan, to conduct the inquiry of names according to the rites." He Qi replied: "Thanks to the Emperor's grace, the envoy arrives to read the imperial decree and inquires about our family lineage. My daughter's parents are: the great-granddaughter of the former Gentleman of the Imperial Court, the Marquis of Yulou He Zhen, the great-granddaughter of the former Governor of Yuzhou, the Marquis of Guanzhong He Yun, the granddaughter of the former Governor of Anfeng, the Marquis of Guanzhong He Rui, and the daughter of the former Gentleman of the Imperial Guard He Zhun. Her maternal grandfather is the great-grandson of the former Minister of the Left Kong Zhou, and her maternal grandmother is the granddaughter of the former Chamberlain, the Marquis of Guannai He Yi. She is seventeen years old this year. We respectfully follow the old regulations and humbly carry out the rites."
The document for the auspicious omen is as follows: "The Emperor says: Inform a certain official of a certain surname. The divination of auspicious and inauspicious omens indicates a favorable outcome, and we respectfully follow the rites. Now, we specially dispatch an envoy with the imperial edict, the Grand Minister and the Chief of the Clan, to conduct the auspicious omen according to the rites." He Qi replied: "Thanks to the Emperor's grace, the envoy arrives to read the imperial decree, and the divination also shows a favorable omen. Our family is of humble means, and we are filled with anxiety and trepidation. We respectfully follow the old regulations and humbly carry out the rites."
The document for the betrothal reads as follows: "The Emperor says: This is to inform the daughter of a certain official of a certain surname. She possesses the virtues of a mother, a graceful appearance, as magnificent as the mountains and rivers, suitable for offering sacrifices to the ancestral temple, forever carrying the blessings of the royal family. We present Xuanxun silk, horses, sheep, and coins as tokens of our sincerity. We have now specially appointed the Minister of Works and the Grand Minister of Ceremonies to conduct the betrothal according to the rituals." He Qi replied: "We are grateful for the Emperor's grace in allowing our daughter to be betrothed to you. This is a tremendous honor for us, conducted with the utmost solemnity. We will follow the old rules and carry out the ceremony respectfully."
The document for the engagement reads as follows: "The Emperor says: This is to inform a certain official of a certain surname. We have sought the opinions of the court officials, selected an auspicious day through divination, showing no ill omens, and will follow the rituals. We have now specially appointed the Grand Minister of Ceremonies and the Grand Minister of the Imperial Clan to conduct the engagement according to the rituals." He Qi replied: "We are grateful for the Emperor's grace, with the arrival of the messengers announcing the imperial decree, a certain day has been chosen as an auspicious day for the wedding. We will follow the old rules and carry out the ceremony respectfully."
The document for the wedding reads as follows: "The Emperor says: This is to inform a certain official of a certain surname. The auspicious year and month, with a specific day chosen for the wedding, will be conducted according to the rituals. We have now specially appointed the Grand Tutor and the Grand Commandant to conduct the wedding according to the rituals." He Qi replied: "We are grateful for the Emperor's grace, with the arrival of the messengers announcing the imperial decree, the auspicious month and day have been prepared for the wedding. The officials and clan members have arrived, accompanied by a hundred carriages of attendants. Our family is humble, and we are both honored and anxious to receive such a great favor. We will follow the old rules and carry out the ceremony respectfully." He Qi kowtowed to accept the imperial decree, responding as stated above.
Legend has it that Emperor Xiaowudi took Empress Wang as his wife, and the wedding's arrangements were quite elaborate. The process involved several steps: betrothal gifts, inquiring about the bride's name, presenting auspicious gifts, setting the wedding date, and welcoming the bride, with each step requiring a white goose and a white ram, along with twelve hu of wine and rice prepared for each step. However, during the betrothal gifts, only one ram was needed, along with three pieces of black and red silk, two hundred bolts of silk, two animal skins, two million coins, one jade bi, six horses, and twelve hu of wine and rice each. This slightly differed from Zheng Xuan's "Five Geese Six Etiquettes." The ceremonial specifications and quantities of items, like jade gui and horses, also varied from those reported during the Taikang period.
In ancient times, weddings and coronation ceremonies included sacrificial rituals, for which Zheng Xuan authored three texts.
In the eighth year of Shengping, when the court ordered inquiries about whether music should be played during the empress's wedding, scholar Hu Ne argued that the ceremonial regulations did not mention music, raising flags, or ringing bells. However, Wang Biaozhi from the Ministry of Rites contended that weddings were not meant for musical performances, and that the term "music" in the regulations encompassed various forms of music, so it was not included in the regulations as it followed the customs of weddings. Ultimately, it was decided to prepare musical instruments but refrain from playing them, in accordance with Wang Biaozhi's suggestion.
In the second year of the Yonghe era, when marrying the empress, there was a debate over whether to hold a celebratory ceremony. Wang Shu said: Marriage is a joyous occasion, as noted in the "Spring and Autumn Annals": "Marrying a wife is a matter of great fortune and brings great auspiciousness." The "Spring and Autumn Annals" also records: "When Zheng Zihan went to the Jin state, he celebrated for his wife." If neighboring states celebrate with one another, how can we, as subjects, not join in the celebration? Therefore, we should celebrate, but it doesn’t necessarily have to happen within three days. Now, it is quite appropriate to celebrate after the sacrificial ceremony. However, Wang Biao Zhi countered: "The 'Rites' clearly stipulate that there should be no music or celebrations during weddings. The 'Spring and Autumn Annals' mentions Zihan going to the Jin state to celebrate for his wife, but there is no textual basis for this, nor does it say it was done according to the rites. The 'Rites' stipulate that no music should be played within three days of marrying a wife, indicating that music may only be played after three days. As for celebrations, there's no rule against celebrating within the first three days, but there's also no obligation to celebrate afterward." He further stated: "The 'Book of Rites' mentions celebrating marriage because there are feasts and celebratory words. I believe there are no specific rites for celebration, but there is the significance of giving gifts and celebrating together, which is what everyone is currently doing." In the end, everyone decided not to hold a celebration ceremony. The emperor wanted to bring the empress into the palace in September, but September is considered a taboo month. Fan Wang asked Wang Biao Zhi about this issue, and Wang Biao Zhi replied: "There is no regulation in the rites that specifies which month is taboo; one can’t claim it doesn’t exist just because they haven't encountered it." Doctors Cao Dan and Xun Ne also agreed that there's no record of any month being considered taboo, so there should be no hindrance. Wang Qia added: "If there really is a taboo month, should there also be taboo years as well?"
In the twelfth year of the Taiyuan era, a person submitted an inquiry through a memorial: "The Crown Prince has already made offerings at the ancestral temple, and all court officials have gone to congratulate him. Should we still bow to the Crown Prince?" Che Yin, a national scholar, said: "All officials and courtiers have participated in the grand sacrificial ceremony, expressed their respect, and bowed, so there's no need to bow to the Crown Prince again. Only local officials who did not witness the grand ceremony should bow to the Crown Prince if they do not offer wine and meat tributes to express their sincerity. It's similar to the New Year celebration, where local officials always bow to the Emperor, while court officials only offer jade bi." Yu Hongzhi, a scholar from the Imperial Academy, stated, "According to historical records, in the third year of Xianning, when Prince Shi Ping and Prince Puyang were newly enfeoffed, the relevant authorities proposed, in line with tradition, to allow officials and princes and princesses near the capital to congratulate them first, and then bow to the newly enfeoffed princes. Now that the Crown Prince is the heir to the nation, officially enthroned, and the whole nation is celebrating, we should bow to him in congratulations." Xu Mai also agreed with this statement, citing the saying, "When there is Yuanliang, the celebration follows," believing that since there is precedent for bowing to princes and new palaces in the past, and everyone has already expressed their respect and offered wine for blessings, there shouldn’t be any issue now.
Since the time of Jiang Zuo, when the crown prince gets married, the gift-giving ritual includes a piece of jade and two pieces of animal hides. The exact reasons for this remain unclear. Some suggest that animal hides are used for their fierce appearance and vibrant colors, while jade is used because it symbolizes virtue and smoothness. The search for jade gui and jade zhang is also driven by the beauty of jade; leopard hides are brightly colored and likened to the virtues of a gentleman. Wang Su stated in the text of presenting gifts, "Dark silk and white silk are bound together, along with pairs of animal hides, geese, and sheep." During the Western Han Dynasty, when a queen was married, two hundred catties of gold and twelve horses were used, with no mention of sheep. The "Zheng Shi's Praise of Wedding Items" states, "Sheep symbolize auspiciousness," so the practice of using sheep in weddings only began at the end of the Han Dynasty. The six rites of the ancient royal family did not incorporate sheep. Therefore, during the Tai Kang period, a report was made, "When the crown prince gets married, during the gift-giving ceremony, dark and white silk should be bound together, along with sheep and two horses."
In 274 AD, Emperor Wu of Jin sought to confer titles on three consorts and nine concubines. The relevant authorities reported, "According to the ritual, the empress is conferred with a gu gui, and there is no provision for giving gifts to concubines and female officials." Emperor Wu ordered, "The conferment ceremony can follow the old customs of the Wei Kingdom." So Emperor Wu, in the palace, sent messengers with ceremonial staffs; the Grand Minister of Ceremonies was in charge of conferring titles on the three consorts, and the Chief Imperial Secretary was in charge of conferring titles on the nine concubines.
During the Han and Wei dynasties, the etiquette dictated that princesses resided in their own mansions, and the groom had to go to the princess's mansion to complete the marriage. Wang Lang, the Minister of Works, believed this was inappropriate, and later this practice was abolished. During the reign of Emperor Wu of Jin, when princesses received betrothal gifts, each set included animal hides. Doesn't this suggest that weddings do not differentiate between noble ranks? Thus, the use of animal hides elevates the significance of this ritual!
The "Book of Rites" records the ancient system of elderly care and the establishment of schools by the three dynasties, as well as the rituals of sacrifices, archery, and drinking, which were later abolished during the Zhou Dynasty. In the year 59 AD, Emperor Ming of Han led his officials in a sacrificial ceremony at the Piyong Hall on the first day of the third month, personally caring for the three elders and five officials, and held a grand archery ceremony. In every prefecture, state, county, and township, local drinking ceremonies took place at schools, and sacrifices were made to the ancient sages and teachers, Duke Zhou and Confucius, offering the finest livestock. The same was done in early winter. In the second year of the reign of the Duke of Wei, the emperor personally led the officials in the elderly care ceremony. At that time, Wang Xiang served as the three elders, and Zheng Xiaotong served as the five officials. Although detailed records of those rituals have been lost, the ritual system of the Han Dynasty remained.
In December of 270 AD, Emperor Wu of Jin held a local drinking ceremony at the Piyong Hall. The emperor decreed, "The rituals have been abolished for a long time, and now they are being restored and studied according to ancient codes." He also rewarded the Grand Minister with one hundred bolts of silk and granted cattle and wine to the Chancellor, scholars, and students. In 277 AD and 299 AD, Emperor Hui of Jin also held this ceremony again.
During the Zhengshi period of Wei, the King of Qi would have the Grand Minister go to the Taixue to offer sacrifices to the ancient sages after each lecture of the scriptures, while he never attended. When Emperor Hui and Emperor Ming were still princes, they personally went to the Taixue to offer sacrifices after the lectures, with the prince conferring titles to the ancient teachers and the Middle Officials conferring titles to Yan Hui. Emperors Cheng, Mu, and Xiaowu all personally participated in the sacrifices as well. During the reign of Emperor Xiaowu, because the Taixue was located by the water in the south, which was remote, the relevant authorities discussed the temporary establishment of the Taixue in the palace's main hall according to the method from the first year of the Shengping era (276 AD). At that time, there were no students enrolled in the National Academy, and the relevant authorities submitted a proposal saying, "We should restore the quota of one hundred and twenty students of the National Academy. Sixty students of the Taixue should be selected from those who passed the exams, and sixty students of the National Academy should be temporarily chosen from the sons of ministers, and after the event, this should be canceled." The proposal was approved by the emperor. Following the sacrificial ceremony, officials ranked sixth and above participated in a banquet.
During the Han Dynasty, on the third day of the spring season (Shangsi Festival), officials and commoners would go to the flowing waters to the east to perform purification rituals, washing away impurities and dispelling bad luck. However, starting from the Wei Dynasty, the ceremony was shortened to three days and was no longer exclusively held on the day of the Shangsi Festival. During the Jin Dynasty, from the court officials to the common people, everyone held purification rituals by the Luo River. After Zhao Luan usurped the throne, banquets were held at Tianquan Pool for three days, which culminated in the execution of Zhang Lin. Emperor Huai also held a banquet at Tianquan Pool and composed a poem. Lu Ji said, "To the south of Tianquan Pool, the water of the imperial ditch is led by a stone ditch, and to the west of the pool, stones are piled up to make a purification hall." At that time, wine cups were floated down the stream for drinking, without the tradition of "floating cups and flowing wine." Emperor Yuan later ordered the cancellation of the items used for three days of festivities. Haixi established the floating cups and flowing wine activity at Zhongshan, inviting officials to participate. On the ninth day of the ninth month, horse archery activities were held. Some explained, "Autumn is associated with metal," conducting military exercises and archery activities symbolize the autumnal rituals.
