Ancient books say: "During the time of Tang, Yao, and Shun, they emphasized the system of rites and regulations, and the only official positions established were the Bai Guan (Hundred Officials)." Therefore, in order to guide the people and handle various political affairs well, one must refer to the ancient system. The Book of Changes says: "There are various signs in the sky, and the sage will act according to these signs." In ancient times, the law enforcement agency was situated to the right of the Southern Palace, the place for court meetings was outside the Duan Gate, and the names and symbolic meanings of various official positions are extensively documented in ancient texts, which is very worthy of our study and reference.
The Yellow Emperor established the official positions of the Three Dukes to get close to the people; Shao Hao established the names of the Nine Hu as agricultural supervisors; the Yellow Emperor also appointed Zhong Li to oversee matters of heaven and earth and appointed Rong to manage water and fire, all of which are examples that can be referred to. Yi Yin once said: "The Three Dukes are responsible for harmonizing yin and yang, the Nine Ministers are responsible for responding to the changes of cold and heat, the Dafu must understand the will of the people, and the Lishi must abandon personal desires." After Cheng Tang established the capital city of Bo, he initially appointed two prime ministers, Yi Yin and Zhong Hui, to handle all important affairs according to the king's orders.
King Wu of Zhou governed from his chariot, and King Cheng and King Kang left behind good examples. The six ministers each had their own responsibilities, the two dukes promoted education, everyone fulfilled their duties, and if they violated the system, they would not receive illusory honors. Establishing sound systems for future generations is the key principle. The Qin Dynasty changed the official system of the Zhou Dynasty, and the Han Dynasty followed the old system of the Qin Dynasty, sometimes adjusting according to actual situations, sometimes reforming according to needs. This embodies the essence of imperial governance, which seeks to achieve stability by adapting to the currents of the times.
During the Han Dynasty, four generals were appointed for military campaigns, and during the Wei Dynasty, four generals were established for pacification. The four stationed generals were tasked with pacifying remote regions, while the four generals responsible for suppressing rebellions focused on quelling uprisings. They led troops with light vehicles and strong crossbows, launched expeditions to Liaodong, crossed the Liao River and Yalu River, projected national prestige abroad and showcased military might. These official positions were often established and abolished, and they went by various names. After unifying the country and pacifying the world, military advisors were initially appointed to manage military law. In the 13th year of Jian'an, the Han Tai Si was abolished, and the position of Chancellor was established, with Cao Cao serving as Chancellor and overseeing court affairs. Sun Wu and Shu Han largely adhered to the Han Dynasty's system, and even when setting up temporary official positions, they did not violate the old regulations.
At the beginning of Emperor Wu of Wei and Jin's reign, Anping King Fu was appointed as Grand Preceptor, Zheng Chong as Grand Tutor, Wang Xiang as Grand Protector, Sima Wang as Grand Commandant, He Cheng as Grand Commandant, Xun Yi as Grand Minister of Works, Shi Bao as Grand Marshal, and Chen Qian as Grand General. They were known collectively as the "Eight Dukes in the Court," and many people wanted to attach themselves to them. They achieved great things not solely through their own efforts; they were able to handle state affairs like ten thousand leaders. Some likened their dreams to herding sheep, others compared their aspirations to fishing, some used the metaphor of empty mulberry trees to illustrate their talents, and some used wooden tablets to express their ideas. Wolong, Feihong, Qin Xi, Zheng Chan, and Chu Caijin were all remarkable talents from history, and their achievements were also notable.
After King Xuan executed Cao Shuang, he consolidated his power, sought out talented individuals from across the realm, and filled various levels of government positions. When Lan Qin was imprisoned and high-ranking officials were killed, although they appeared to pledge allegiance to the Wei Dynasty, their hearts yearned for the Jin Dynasty. When King Wen of Jin took the throne, he began establishing the official system of the Jin Dynasty, initially establishing two elite guard units, equipped with sharpshooters akin to Yang Youji; later, three departments were established with elite troops such as Xiong Qu and Ji Fei. Therefore, Emperor Wu of Jin was able to rise rapidly, much like King Wu of Zhou, who quelled ten rebellions against the Shang Dynasty and governed the people of the Shang Dynasty.
From the Taishi period to the Taikang period, the court was brimming with talent; from the Taixing period to the Jianyuan period, talents rose to prominence and held important government positions. Although they did not attain the wisdom of figures like Kui, Fu, and Long, with the development of the times, the principle of "appointing officials based on merit and governing by ability" was gradually realized.
Prime Minister and Chancellor were both official positions in the Qin Dynasty. After the Jin Dynasty inherited the Wei Dynasty, these two official positions were not created. Since Emperor Hui, the decision to establish them has remained uncertain. Those who had served as Prime Minister or Chancellor, such as Prince Zhao Lun, Prince Liang Rong, Prince Chengdu Ying, Prince Nanyang Bao, Wang Dun, and Wang Dao, wielded power far greater than ordinary ministers.
Grand Preceptor, Grand Tutor, and Grand Protector were the Three Grand Dukes of the Zhou Dynasty. In the early Wei Dynasty, only the Grand Tutor was established, with Zhong Yao having held that position; in the later Wei Dynasty, the Grand Protector was also established, with Zheng Chong serving. In the early Jin Dynasty, to avoid the posthumous name of Emperor Jing and referring to the official titles in the "Zhou Li," the title of Grand Preceptor was introduced to replace that of Grand Tutor, with the rank raised to the Three Grand Dukes, all serving as senior officials tasked with advising on governance and harmonizing yin and yang. If no suitable candidates were found, the positions remained unfilled. Prince Xian of Anping once served as Grand Preceptor. Since the Jin Dynasty crossed the Yangtze River, the titles of Grand Preceptor, Grand Tutor, and Grand Protector have remained consistent, but few individuals have held these three positions.
The positions of Grand Commandant, Minister of State, and Minister of War are all ancient official titles. From the Han Dynasty to the Wei Dynasty, these three positions were known as the Three Dukes. After the Jin Dynasty was established, these three positions continued to be used in the Jiangnan region.
The Grand Marshal is also an ancient official title. The system established during the Han Dynasty specified that the rank of Grand Marshal was higher than that of the Grand General, Cavalry General, and Charioteer General, serving in place of the Grand Commandant. Therefore, the Grand Marshal and the Grand Commandant were usually appointed alternately and did not coexist. By the time of the Wei Dynasty, there were Grand Commandants, Grand Marshals, and Grand Generals, each serving in their respective positions, all ranked above the Three Dukes. The Jin Dynasty inherited the system of the Wei Dynasty, appointing Prince Anping Fu as Chancellor, Zheng Chong as Grand Tutor, Wang Xiang as Grand Guardian, Prince Yiyang Wang as Grand Commandant, He Zeng as Minister of State, Xun Yi as Minister of War, Shi Bao as Grand Marshal, and Chen Qian as Grand General, with a total of eight high officials existing simultaneously, but there was no Chancellor. After Prince Yiyang Wang was appointed Grand Marshal, it was established that the position of Grand Marshal was ranked above the Three Dukes.
The Grand General is also an ancient official title. Established by Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, it is ranked even higher than that of the Grand Marshal and is a very important position. After the capital of the Han Dynasty was moved to Luoyang, the position of Grand General was not consistently defined, and those who held the title often held significant power in state affairs. When Emperor Jing served as Grand General, he also bore very important responsibilities. Later, after Emperor Jing's uncle Fu was appointed Grand Commandant, he petitioned the court to lower the rank of Grand General to below that of Grand Commandant. After the establishment of the Jin Dynasty, this system was maintained, with the rank of Grand General below the Three Dukes, but it was later restored to its original rank, above the Three Dukes. In the first year of Tai Kang, Prince Langya Zhu was appointed Grand General, and his rank was once more lowered to below the Three Dukes. Following Zhu's death, the original rank was restored.
It is said that the Kaifu Yitong Sansi is what kind of official is that? It is an official position in the Han Dynasty. In the first year of Emperor Shang's reign in the Han Dynasty, Deng Zhi became the General of Chariots and Cavalry and also concurrently served as the Yitong Sansi. The title of "Yitong" originated then. Later, Huang Quan of the Wei Kingdom also became the General of Chariots and Cavalry and concurrently served as the Kaifu Yitong Sansi. The title of "Kaifu" also started from that time.
Grand Generals like the Biaoqi General, Chariots and Cavalry General, Guard General, Fubo General, Fumin General, Duhu General, Zhenjun General, Zhongjun General, Sizheng General, Sizhen General, Longxiang General, Dianjun General, Shangjun General, Fuguo General, and so on, as well as the Left and Right Guanglu Dafu, Guanglu Dafu, and other high-ranking officials, if they are able to "kaifu," their official ranks are comparable to those of marquises.
Officials like the Taizai, Taifu, Taibao, Situ, and Sikong, if they can "kaifu," can be considered senior officials in the civil service, wearing a Jinxian crown and a black silk scarf underneath.
The Grand Marshal, Grand General, and Chief Minister, along with other such high-ranking military officials, if they can "kaifu," are considered senior officials in the military, wearing a Wuguan crown and a flat-topped black scarf underneath.
These high-ranking officials in the civil and military sectors can all wear golden seals and purple ribbons and don five-time clothing. As for the Xiangguo and Chengxiang, they are required to wear ceremonial robes and a green lushi ribbon, which sets them apart from typical "noble" officials.
The ministers and officials of the government in power, who hold the highest ranks, receive a daily salary of five hu of grain. In the second year of Taikang, silk was additionally distributed, with one hundred rolls in spring and two hundred rolls in autumn, along with two hundred jin of cotton. In the first year of Yuankang, they were also allocated ten qing of vegetable land, along with ten servants to oversee the fields; if they had not started plowing by the beginning of summer, one year's salary would be deducted. Furthermore, a Grand Historian was appointed with a rank of one thousand stones; one person each for the West Pavilion sacrificial offerings, East and West Cang officials, and household grain officials; one person each for the imperial subordinate historian, East and West Cang household grain officials, gate historian, record room provincial historian, and pavilion record room book historian, as well as one person each for the East and West Cang academic affairs. They were also assigned twenty military attendants with ceremonial swords. They were provided with a carriage with four horses, a carriage with three black-eared horses, seven small white-covered carriages for the sacrificial offerings and subordinate officials, and one each of a sedan chair and a black-wheeled ox cart. From the sacrificial offerings down to the historian, they all wore dark court robes. The Grand Commandant, even if not leading troops, had his subordinate officials wear crimson robes.
The Minister of Works also added one long historian on each side, both with a rank of one thousand stones; one chief clerk, and one left West Cang official; the West Cang was referred to as right West Cang, and the number of personnel below the left West Cang historian remained the same as before. The Minister of War added one bridge guide official.
Those ministers and officials of the government in power who concurrently held military positions would have an additional military officer, with a rank of one thousand stones; two middle-ranking officers, equivalent to one thousand stones; one chief clerk and one record room supervisor; four chamberlains; and one each for armor, military officer, camp commander, secret assassin, under-camp commander, and historian. From the chief clerk down to the historian, they all wore crimson robes. The military officer's subordinates, like the Grand Historians, each had two attendants, while the chief clerk and record room supervisor each had one attendant. Other temporary allowances would be determined based on the specific circumstances at the time and would not be counted as formal systems.
Those ministers and officials in charge of the government, if they hold the position of General with Imperial Command, then the number of military officers increases to six, and positions such as Chief Historian, Military Strategist, Junior Officer, Registrar, Record Keeper, Sacrificial Officer, Aide, and Attendants are all increased according to the usual practice, just like the officials leading the troops.
The title of Special Grandee was an official rank during the Han Dynasty. During the Han and Wei-Jin periods, if one was promoted to Special Grandee, it only provided additional benefits in terms of carriages, horses, and clothing to the original official position, without the assignment of additional officials or soldiers. After resigning, the Grand Minister Yang Xiu was conferred the title of Special Grandee and simultaneously granted the title of Cavalry Attendant, without any other official position, which is why he was assigned officials, soldiers, and carriages and clothing. Others who were conferred the title of Special Grandee only received an increase in salary and official rank, without being assigned additional officials or carriages and clothing, which was stipulated later. The rank of Special Grandee is classified as second tier, positioned above all the nobles and ministers, higher than the General of the Cavalry, wearing the Jin Xian crown and the Liang crown, donning a black headscarf, wearing the five seasonal court robes, adorned with water-colored jade and without insignia, and receiving a daily salary of four hu of grain. In the second year of Tai Kang, they began granting fifty bolts of silk for spring clothing, one hundred and fifty bolts for autumn clothing, and one hundred and fifty pounds of cotton. In the first year of Yuan Kang, they also granted eight hectares of vegetable fields and eight farmers; if they had not been able to cultivate after the beginning of summer, one year's salary would be compensated. They were also assigned a Registrar, a Clerk, a Gatekeeper, and a Secretary, a coachman for the black-eared horse-drawn carriage, and a carriage with a rear door.
The Left and Right Grand Ministers are permitted to wear gold insignia and purple ribbons. The Grand Ministers who are conferred gold insignia and purple ribbons also hold a second-class rank, with all benefits such as salary, official rank, hats, carriages, clothing, jade adornments, and the assigned officers and soldiers of the Feather Forest Army being the same as those of the Special Grandee. However, if it is merely a conferred title, only the gold insignia, purple ribbons, salary, and official rank are increased, without additional carriages, clothing, and officials or soldiers being assigned. Moreover, if this official position is awarded posthumously, if the individual had held a ministerial rank during their lifetime, they would not be assigned officials and soldiers again; in other cases, assignments would be made.
Speaking of this Guanglu Dafu, he seems quite impressive. His official rank is third grade, one level lower than the General with Golden and Purple Ranks, and one level higher than other officials. During the Han Dynasty, the number of officials in this position was not fixed, mainly used to reward meritorious officials or handle some funeral matters. After the Wei Dynasty, the status of this position rose significantly, no longer regarded merely as a temporary role. Many senior officials were appointed to Guanglu Dafu; even if they held important positions in the court, they would be additionally appointed as Guanglu Dafu. Even after the establishment of the Jin Dynasty, this tradition remained unchanged, still used as a way to honor achievements. However, after these ministers retired, they were no longer appointed to this position. Some would be promoted to Senior Official, while others would retire with their original salary. In short, many senior officials in the court retired at an old age or were appointed as Guanglu Dafu in addition to their other positions. Therefore, some people were able to set up their own offices because of this position, while others were promoted to high-ranking officials wearing gold and purple robes. Guanglu Dafu thus became an important honorary position. During the Taishi period, only the Prince's Attendant Yang Yao was appointed as a Guanglu Dafu. The treatment of Guanglu Dafu was based on the standard supply of a third-grade general and remained the same until the reigns of Emperors Wu, Hui, and Xiaohuai.
Guanglu Dafu and Qing have the same rank, both are two thousand shi, wearing the Jinxian crown, black Jiezi, ceremonial attire five times a day, wearing water-colored jade, and receiving three measures of grain as daily salary. In the second year of the Taikang era, they started awarding them fifty pieces of silk in the spring, one hundred pieces of silk in autumn, and one hundred pounds of cotton. In the first year of Emperor Hui's Yuankang, they began to grant them six mu of vegetable fields, six field workers, along with a registrar, a clerk, a gatekeeper, and a doorkeeper.
Below the General of the Cavalry, as well as those who have not established a government office or held the title of Commander-in-Chief, they hold a second-class rank, with salaries equivalent to those of special promotions. They are allowed to have one Chief Clerk and one Military Secretary, both at the level of a thousand stones; in addition, there is also one Record Keeper, one Supervisor of the Door, one Registrar, one Commander of Soldiers, one Military Officer, one Spy, one Commander under the Tent, one Deputy Chief Clerk, one Gatekeeper, and one Clerk of the Door. Those appointed as Acting Commanders-in-Chief have the same accompanying personnel as those appointed as Grand Generals of the Four Expeditions, but without holding the title of Imperial Secretary.
The story goes that General Anping of the Four Conquests Town, although not having an official residence, holds the title of Commander with a special mandate, which is equivalent to a second-rank official. He has advisors, clerks, soldiers, and so on under his command, and the troops under his command are comparable to those of any other general. However, when receiving accolades at court, he is treated according to the specifications of a second-rank general. There is no fixed number of titles for Commissioner; it first appeared during the Western Han when envoys were dispatched. During the Jianwu period of Emperor Guangwu, as battles raged, the position of Inspector General was briefly established for commanding generals, but this arrangement was short-lived. It was not until the Jian'an period, when Cao Cao was Chancellor, that he began to appoint grand generals to command the troops. In 211 AD, when Cao Cao returned from campaigning against Sun Quan, Xiahou Dun commanded twenty-six armies, which was the situation at that time. In the third year of Emperor Wen of Wei's Huangchu era, the official position of Commander of Military Affairs across various provinces was officially established, and some also concurrently served as governors. Later, Cao Zhen became the Grand General of the Upper Army, overseeing military affairs both domestically and abroad, and was granted the Yellow Mace, which meant he had command over the national army! In the fourth year of the Taihe era of Emperor Ming of Wei, the emperor launched a campaign against Shu Han and conferred the title of "Grand Commander." In the second year of the Zhengyuan era of Duke Gao of Nobility, Emperor Wen of Wei also became the Commander of Military Affairs both domestically and abroad, and was later promoted to Grand Commander. After the Jin dynasty replaced the Wei state, the hierarchy of official positions changed: the highest rank was Commander of Armies, followed by Supervisor of Armies, with Inspector of Armies being the lowest; the highest was Envoy with Authority, followed by Envoy, and the lowest was Proxy Envoy. An Envoy with Authority had the power to execute officials below the rank of two thousand stones; an Envoy could execute those without official positions, but in military matters, their powers were the same as those of an Envoy with Authority; a Proxy Envoy could only execute those who violated military orders in military matters. After the Eastern Jin, the position of Commander of Military Affairs, both domestically and abroad, gained even greater significance, with only powerful individuals like Wang Dao being able to hold it.
A third-rank general, with an official rank above two thousand shi, wears a military cap and a black scarf in everyday situations. During court meetings, they wear court attire appropriate for the fifth watch and wear a green jade pendant. Their salary, seasonal rewards of cloth, silk, vegetable plots, fields, and horse attendants are all the same as those of high-ranking officials such as the Guanglu Daifu. They have one Chief Clerk and one Master of Records, both holding the rank of a thousand shi, along with a Chief Clerk, a Minister of Works, a Commander of the Imperial Guard, a Recorder, a Soldier in Armor, a Bandit Recorder, a Camp Soldier, an Assassin Catcher, a Commander of the Imperial Guard, a Book Assistant, a Gatekeeper, and a Gatekeeper's Clerk.
In the past, during the time of Emperor Wu of Han, the officials handling memorials, known as the Secretariat staff, worked separately. Only those who understood the court's secrets could become the Secretariat Director, in charge of the entire Secretariat's work. Figures like Zhang Anshi, Huo Guang, Wang Feng, and Shi Dan, although generals, have all served as Secretariat Directors. During the reign of Emperor Zhang of Eastern Han, the Grand Tutor Zhao Xi and the Grand Commandant Mou Rong were jointly responsible for handling the affairs of the Secretariat. The title "Recorder of the Secretariat" originated with Zhao Xi and Mou Rong. This is akin to the ancient official known as the Great Lu during the times of Yao and Shun.
Later, during the reign of Emperor He of Han, Grand Commandant Deng Biao was promoted to Grand Tutor and also took on the responsibility of "recording Secretariat affairs," a rank higher than the Three Excellencies, making it a very prestigious position. From then on, a precedent was set in the Han Dynasty: whenever the emperor was still a minor, a Grand Tutor was appointed to manage the Secretariat's affairs, somewhat akin to the ancient Prime Minister overseeing state affairs. When the Grand Tutor passed away, the position was also abolished. In the Wei and Jin dynasties, high-ranking officials with significant power were appointed to this position.
The position of the Director of the Imperial Secretariat is a high-ranking official position with a salary equivalent to one thousand shi, as well as a bronze seal and a black silk ribbon. They don the Inheritance Crown, wear the Five Times Court Attire, and wear a Water Cangyu jade. They also receive a monthly salary of fifty hu. When appointed by the Emperor, a grand ceremony is held to announce the appointment with a decree, as the position of the Director of the Imperial Secretariat is held in high esteem and holds a prominent position in the court. In the second year of the Taikang period, the court began distributing cloth to the Director of the Imperial Secretariat, thirty pieces in spring and seventy pieces in autumn, along with seventy jin of cotton. In the first year of the Yuankang era, they also started allocating six plots of vegetable fields and six servants to manage them for the Director of the Imperial Secretariat. If they have not started cultivating after the beginning of summer, they will forfeit their salary for that year. The earliest Director of the Imperial Secretariat, Jia Chong, due to vision issues, petitioned the court to appoint four officials to assist him in handling affairs, thus establishing the 'simplified affairs' system. The clothing, salary, seal, and ribbon of the Director of the Imperial Secretariat are identical to those of the Left Director. Initially, the Han Dynasty only had one Director of the Imperial Secretariat, but in the fourth year of the Jian'an era under Emperor Xian of Han, Rong He was appointed as the Left Director of the Imperial Secretariat, dividing the position into left and right. During the Wei and Jin dynasties, and even into the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the establishment of the Director of the Imperial Secretariat was quite unstable, sometimes having two, simply referred to as the Left and Right Directors of the Imperial Secretariat, and sometimes having only one, simply referred to as the Director of the Imperial Secretariat. If the position of the Director of the Imperial Secretariat is vacant, the Left Director of the Imperial Secretariat is responsible for the affairs of the Secretariat; if both the left and right positions are vacant, a Director of the Imperial Secretariat is appointed to handle the affairs of the left section of the Secretariat. The position of the Director of the Imperial Secretariat was originally inherited by the Han Dynasty from the Qin Dynasty. Later, during the reign of Emperor Wu, eunuchs were appointed to manage the affairs of the Imperial Secretariat, with Sima Qian serving in this capacity. However, this position was eventually abolished.
In the fourth year of Emperor Cheng's reign, the eunuchs were expelled from the Zhongshu Sheng, and five officials were reestablished, one of whom was called the *Pushe*, while the other four were responsible for different affairs, collectively known as the "Four Caos," primarily responsible for handling various documents and memorials. These four Caos were: the Changshi Cao, which managed affairs concerning the Chancellor, Censor, and other senior officials; the Erqianshi Cao, which was responsible for handling matters related to regional governors and county magistrates; the Min Cao, which handled petitions from the common people; and the Zhuke Cao, which managed affairs related to foreign countries and ethnic minorities. Later, Emperor Cheng added a San Gong Cao, specifically responsible for adjudicating cases, thus evolving into the "Five Caos."
During the Guangwu Emperor's period in the Eastern Han, the San Gong Cao was changed to a department responsible for the year-end assessments of provinces and counties, the Changshi Cao was renamed to Libu Cao, responsible for the selection of officials and sacrifices; the Min Cao was responsible for construction projects, salt pools, and gardens; the Ke Cao was responsible for receiving foreign envoys; the Erqianshi Cao was responsible for handling litigation cases; and a new Zhongdu Official Cao was established to deal with disasters like floods, fires, and thefts, thus becoming the Six Caos. In addition to the two *Pushe*, there were a total of eight officials, referred to as the "Eight Seats." Although the Shangshu had different Cao names, they did not initially formally use the Cao names as official titles. It was not until the reign of Emperor Ling that the Chamberlain Liang Hu was appointed as the Shangshu of the Selection Department, marking the formal adoption of Cao names.
During the Wei dynasty, the Selection Department was renamed as the Libu, responsible for selecting officials, along with the Left Min Cao, Ke Cao, Wubing Cao, and Duzhi Cao, totaling five Shangshu, plus two *Pushe* and one Ling, still totaling eight seats. By the Jin dynasty, it was changed to Libu, San Gong, Ke Cao, Jiabu, Tuntian, and Duzhi, six Caos, with the Wubing Cao eliminated. In the second year of Xian Ning, the Jiabu Shangshu was abolished; four years later, one *Pushe* was abolished, and then the Jiabu Shangshu was reestablished. During the Taikang period, it again became Libu, Dianzhong, Wubing, Tiancao, Duzhi, and Left Min, with Jiabu, San Gong, and Ke Cao eliminated again. During the reign of Emperor Hui, a *Right Min Shangshu* appeared, still six Caos, but it remains unclear which specific Cao was abolished.
After the Southern Migration, there were only five shangshu left: the Ministry of Personnel, the Ministry of Rites, the Ministry of War, the Ministry of Works, and the Ministry of Revenue. The duties of the Ministry of Rites were similar to those of the Right Minister, and this position was not always established. Usually, it was concurrently held by the Right Minister, and if the Right Minister was absent, it would be taken over by the Ministry of Rites.
It is said that the positions of Left and Right Ministers of the Shangshu were established from the fourth year of the Jianyuan reign of Emperor Wu of Han. At that time, there were four ministers under the Shangshu, but later Emperor Guangwu felt that there were too many people, so it was reduced to just two, the Left and Right Ministers. Therefore, the position of Left and Right Minister was established at that time. From the Han Dynasty to the Jin Dynasty, this position remained unchanged.
In the Jin Dynasty, the Left Minister was mainly responsible for affairs within the palace, such as imperial palace decrees, ancestral sacrifices, court ceremonial systems, the selection and appointment of officials, and handling emergencies. The Right Minister, on the other hand, was mainly in charge of the palace's warehouses, houses, various objects, as well as the management of food, cloth, tools, weapons, and the management of official documents and memorials sent from various regions.
The newly appointed shangguan officials all followed the established customs of the Han Dynasty and had to visit the capital to pay their respects. When they were promoted or left office, they also had to go to the capital to handle the handover procedures.
In the Western Han Dynasty, there were only four shangshu officials, each in charge of different tasks. One was in charge of the affairs of the Xiongnu Chanyu's camp, another was in charge of the people and officials of the Qiang and Yi tribes, one was in charge of household registration and land cultivation, and the last one was in charge of finances and material transportation.
Later, Emperor Guangwu divided the Shangshu into six departments, increasing the number of shangshu officials to thirty-four, with a rank equivalent to four hundred stones, plus the Left and Right Ministers totaling thirty-six people. These shangshu officials were mainly responsible for drafting documents, rotating duty every five days and being on duty inside the Jianli Gate. Those who were newly appointed as shangshu officials had to take exams in three departments first, and only those who passed the assessment could take up their positions. After serving for a period of time, those who excelled could be promoted to shangshu officials, and it took an additional three years to be promoted to shi lang. When selecting shangshu officials, preference was given to capable candidates.
During the Wei Dynasty, the number of departments under the Shangshu Lang increased, including the Hall of State, Personnel, Chariot Department, Treasury, Censorate, Comparison, Southern Host, Ancestral Hall, Revenue, Warehouse, Agriculture, Water, Ceremonial, Three Dukes, Granary, Civil Affairs, Two Thousand Stones, Central Army, External Army, Capital Army, Separate Army, Examination, and Fixed Tax, totaling twenty-three departments. In the second year of the Qinglong era, Shangshu Chen Jiao suggested establishing two more departments, the Capital Office and Cavalry, bringing the total to twenty-five departments. Each department that lacked personnel would select five candidates from the Filial and Incorrupt Officials, who would then take an exam. Those who passed would have their names reported for appointment.
During the Jin Dynasty, Emperor Wu abolished the Agriculture and Fixed Tax departments, while establishing new ones such as the Office of Direct Affairs, Hall of State, Ancestral Hall, Ceremonial, Personnel, Three Dukes, Comparison, Treasury, Granary, Revenue, Capital Office, Two Thousand Stones, Left and Right Civil Affairs, Censorate, Ministry of Garrison, Water, Left and Right Hosts, Chariot Department, Warehouse, Left and Right Central Army, Left and Right External Army, Separate Army, Capital Army, Cavalry, Left and Right Scholars, Northern Host, Southern Host, totaling thirty-four departments. Later, the Transportation Office was added, making a total of thirty-five departments, with twenty-three Shangshu Langs, who had hierarchical relationships among them.
During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, some departments were abolished, including the Office of Direct Affairs, Right Civil Affairs, Ministry of Garrison, Chariot Department, Separate Army, Capital Army, Cavalry, Left and Right Scholars, and Transportation Office. After the Kangmu era, the Shangshu Lang positions for Censorate and Two Thousand Stones were also abolished, leaving only Shangshu Langs for the Hall of State, Ancestral Hall, Personnel, Ceremonial, Three Dukes, Comparison, Treasury, Granary, Revenue, Capital Office, Left Civil Affairs, Ministry of Works, Water, Host Department, Warehouse, Central Army, External Army, totaling eighteen departments. Later, the Host Department, Ministry of Works, and Water departments were also abolished, leaving only fifteen departments remaining.
First, let's discuss the official title "Shizhong." It can be traced back to the time of the Yellow Emperor, when it was already referred to as Shizhong. By the Zhou Dynasty, this position was changed to "Chancellor." The Qin Dynasty continued to use this name, and the Han Dynasty followed suit. During the Qin and Han periods, the position of Shizhong did not have a set number of positions and was generally held by those with exceptional merits, functioning similar to a deputy. It was not until the Wei and Jin periods that it was changed to four positions, and if additional officials were added, the number could vary. The main responsibilities of the Shizhong were to oversee the ceremonies and processions in the royal palace. When the emperor traveled, the Shizhong would take turns on duty to safeguard the emperor. One Shizhong was responsible for keeping the emperor's seal and staying by the emperor's side, but was prohibited from carrying a sword, while the other Shizhong would ride alongside. When the emperor entered the throne room, the Shizhong would assist the emperor alongside the Sanqi Changshi, with the Shizhong on the left and the Sanqi Changshi on the right. The Shizhong was also expected to report to the emperor regularly, offer suggestions, and promptly remedy any issues that arose. In the fourth year of Emperor Ai's reign during the Eastern Jin, Huan Wen suggested reducing the number of Shizhong positions by two, but this was later restored to its original number.
Next, let's look at the official title "Ge Shi Huangmen Shilang," which also existed during the Qin Dynasty. It remained in use after the Han Dynasty and, along with the Shizhong, managed various palace affairs, also without a fixed quota. It wasn't until the Jin Dynasty that the number of positions was set to four.
"The Cavalry Attendant" was an official position in the Qin Dynasty. In addition to the Cavalry Attendant, there was also the Court Attendant. The Cavalry Attendant was tasked with accompanying the emperor's chariot, while the Court Attendant could enter the inner court of the imperial palace. These two positions did not have fixed quotas and were often used for promotions. In the early Han Dynasty, the position of Cavalry Attendant was abolished, and the Court Attendant was typically held by eunuchs. During the Huangchu era under Emperor Wen of Wei, the position of Cavalry Attendant was reinstated and merged with the Court Attendant, jointly advising the emperor without being involved in specific affairs. They were dressed in sable fur and adorned with jade ornaments, riding horses following the emperor, a tradition that persisted until the Jin Dynasty. It wasn't until the Yuan Kang era of the Jin Dynasty that Emperor Hui appointed a eunuch named Dong Meng as the Court Attendant for the first time, after which this position was thereafter no longer held by eunuchs. In short, the Cavalry Attendant has always been a very important official position.
"The Court Attendant" was also an official position in the Qin Dynasty. Those who held this position could sometimes be granted titles like Daifu, Boshi, or Yilang. Their main job was to provide advice and suggestions to the emperor, ranking below the Court Attendant. This position was adopted in the Han Dynasty, abolished in the early Han Dynasty, reinstated in the Wei Dynasty, and remained unchanged until the Jin Dynasty. This position also did not have fixed quotas, ranking below the Cavalry Attendant but above the Yellow Gate Attendant.
The position of "General Cavalry Attendant" appeared in the late Wei Dynasty when some individuals in the Cavalry Attendant role were not officially recognized. In the tenth year of the Taishi era, Emperor Wu allowed two of them to participate in duty just like the officially recognized Cavalry Attendant, hence the title "General Cavalry Attendant." During the Eastern Jin period, there were four available positions for this role.
The "Senior Court Attendant" was also established in the late Wei Dynasty, without any fixed quotas.
Finally, there is Sanqi Shilang (散骑侍郎), established during the early Wei dynasty, with four available positions. From the Wei dynasty to the Jin dynasty, the Sanqi Changshi, Sanqi Shilang, Shizhong, and Huangmen Shilang were responsible for reviewing memorials submitted to the emperor through the Shangshu. This function was abolished during the Eastern Jin.
Initially, the emperor established the position of Yuanwai Sanqi Shilang (员外散骑侍郎). In the first year of the Taixing era, Emperor Yuan appointed two individuals to assist the Sanqi Shilang in managing official affairs, and they were thus referred to as Tongzhi Sanqi Shilang (通直散骑侍郎), and later the number increased to four. The Yuanwai Sanqi Shilang was established by Emperor Wu, but there were no fixed quotas for this position.
Fengchaoqing (奉朝请), essentially a nominal position without an official rank, was held by many high officials, relatives of the emperor, and nobles in the capital during the Han dynasty. Those who served as Fengchaoqing merely appeared when summoned to court. Emperor Wu also appointed some royal family members and nobles to the positions of Fengche Duwi (奉车都尉), Fuma Duwi (驸马都尉), and Qidu Duwi (骑都尉), while also serving as Fengchaoqing. When Emperor Yuan held the title of Prince of Jin, he appointed army advisors as Fengche Duwi, clerks as Fuma Duwi, and those serving as army advisors as Qidu Duwi; these individuals also held the position of Fengchaoqing concurrently. Later, the positions of Fengche Duwi and Qidu Duwi were abolished, leaving only the Fuma Duwi to still concurrently serve as Fengchaoqing. Individuals like Liu Tan and Huan Wen, who married princesses, have all served in this role.
The positions of Chief of the Imperial Secretariat and Prefect of the Imperial Secretariat can be traced back to the time when Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty was reveling in the imperial palace. He started to let eunuchs handle the affairs of the imperial secretariat, calling them the Attendants of the Imperial Secretariat, and also established the positions of Prefect of the Imperial Secretariat and Supervisor of the Imperial Secretariat. During the reign of Emperor Cheng, the title of Prefect of the Secretariat Attendants was changed to Prefect of the Attendants, and the position of Supervisor of the Imperial Secretariat was abolished. In the Eastern Capital of the Han Dynasty, there was a Prefect of the Attendants, but there was also an Official Prefect of the Attendants, which were distinct positions. When Emperor Wu of Wei, at that time the King of Wei, established the position of Secretary Prefect to handle the memorials of the imperial secretariat. During the reign of Emperor Wen in the Huangchu period, the Secretary Prefect was changed to the Chief of the Imperial Secretariat, and the positions of Chief and Prefect of the Imperial Secretariat were established. The Secretary of the Left, Liu Fang, became the Chief of the Imperial Secretariat, and the Secretary of the Right, Sun Zi, became the Prefect of the Imperial Secretariat. The positions of Chief and Prefect of the Imperial Secretariat likely originated at this time. The Jin Dynasty continued this system, with only one person appointed to each position.
During the reign of Emperor Wen of Wei in the Huangchu period, after the establishment of the Chief of the Imperial Secretariat and Prefect of the Imperial Secretariat in the Imperial Secretariat, the positions of Attendant Gentleman and Palace Gentleman were created, where the Palace Gentleman first handled official affairs, followed by the Attendant Gentleman signing off. After handling the affairs, the memorials were presented to the emperor for review and deemed complete only after his approval. In the Jin Dynasty, the Attendant Gentleman was renamed as the Secretary of the Imperial Secretariat, with a total of four positions established. The position of Secretary of the Imperial Secretariat was first renamed Attendant Gentleman, but was later reverted back to its original title.
At the beginning of the Jin Dynasty, the positions of Gentleman and Secretary were each established with one appointee. In the Jiangzuo region, the positions of Gentleman and Secretary were combined into one, called the Gentleman Secretary, tasked with presenting memorials and official documents. This position was later abolished, with a Secretary of the Imperial Secretariat appointed to manage Western Province affairs and convey imperial decrees.
Speaking of the Secretariat, it was first established in the second year of the Han Dynasty's Emperor Huan, but later abolished. When Cao Cao became the King of Wei, he established the positions of Secretariat Director and Deputy Director. During the reign of Emperor Wen of Wei in the Huangchu era, the position of Director of the Central Secretariat was created to oversee the memorials submitted to the Imperial Secretariat, and at the same time, the Secretariat Director was changed to the Secretariat. Later on, He Zhen became the Secretariat Deputy, but since the Secretariat already had a Right Deputy, he was given the position of Right Deputy of the Secretariat. After the establishment of the Jin Dynasty, Emperor Wu merged the Secretariat and the Central Secretariat, but the organization responsible for writing remained intact. During the reign of Emperor Hui of Jin Dynasty in the Yongping era, the Secretariat was re-established, with officials such as Deputy and Lang subordinate to it, and also overseeing the Department of Writing.
The position of Writing Lang actually evolved from the Left Historian during the Zhou Dynasty. During the Han Dynasty, important classics were stored in the Dongguan, so some renowned scholars were permitted to write and lecture in the Dongguan. Although this title existed, the official position was not formally established. It was not until the Tahe era of Emperor Ming of Wei that the position of Writing Lang was officially established and belonged to the Central Secretariat. After the establishment of the Jin Dynasty, Emperor Wu appointed Miao Zheng as the Writing Lang of the Central Secretariat. In the second year of Yuankang, the emperor decreed, "The position of Writing Lang was previously part of the Central Secretariat, but the Secretariat also manages the classics, so now the Writing Lang of the Central Secretariat is transferred to the Secretariat." So the Writing Lang was under the management of the Secretariat. Later, the Department of Writing was established independently, but still under the jurisdiction of the Secretariat. There was only one Writing Lang, called the Grand Writing Lang, who was specifically tasked with the responsibilities of historiographers, and there were also eight Assistant Writing Langs to assist. After taking office, the Writing Lang must first write a biography of a famous minister.
The Grand Minister of Ceremonies, the Grand Herald, and the Guard Commander, the Grand Coachman, the Minister of Justice, the Chief of the Imperial Clan, the Grand Minister of Agriculture, the Minister Steward, the Grand Architect, the Three Equerries to the Empress Dowager, and the Grand Chamberlain, these are all officials of the court, with each department having officials such as Deputy, Chief Clerk, and various other ranks.
The Taichang Temple is staffed with officials such as Bo Shi and Xie Lu Xiaowei, who also oversee the Bo Shi, Jiu Jiu, Tai Shi, Tai Miao, Tai Yue, Gu Chui, Ling Qin, and other departments in the Tai Xue. Under the Tai Shi Ling, there is also a Ling Tai Cheng.
The Taichang Bo Shi is an official position established by the Wei Kingdom during the reign of Emperor Wen of Wei and continued during the Jin Dynasty. Their responsibility is to escort the emperor's chariot. Below the royal family, if there is a need to confer a posthumous title, it must be decided by the Taichang Bo Shi.
The position of Xie Lu Xiaowei evolved from the Han Dynasty's Xie Lu Du Wei and was held by Du Kui during the Wei Kingdom. By the Jin Dynasty, it was renamed Xie Lu Xiaowei.
At the beginning of the Jin Dynasty, following the system of the Wei Kingdom, nineteen Bo Shi were appointed. By the fourth year of Xianning, Emperor Wu had just established the Guozi School and decided to appoint one Guozi Jiu Jiu and one Taichang Bo Shi, as well as fifteen assistants, to teach the students. The selection criteria for the Bo Shi were exceptionally rigorous, requiring individuals of upright character and proficiency in classics. Only high-ranking officials such as Sanqi Changshi, Zhongshu Shilang, and Taizi Zhongzhuzi were qualified to take the exam. By the early Eastern Jin period, the number of Bo Shi had decreased to nine. In the later years of Emperor Yuan, one Bo Shi each for the "Yi Li" and "Chun Qiu Gong Yang" were added, totaling eleven. This later increased to sixteen, no longer managing the Five Classics separately, but collectively referred to as Tai Xue Bo Shi. In the tenth year of Emperor Xiaowu's Taiyuan reign, the number of Guozi assistants decreased to ten.
The official position of Guanglu Xun oversees various offices including Lingjun Jiang, Yulin Jiang, Rongcong Pushe, Yulin Zuojian, and Wuguan Zuoyou Zhonglangjiang. In the second year of Emperor Ai's Xingning reign, the Guanglu Xun was abolished and incorporated into the Situ. In the first year of Emperor Xiaowu's Ningkang reign, the Guanglu Xun was reinstated.
The Chief Guardian was in charge of the armory, official carriages, guards, various metallurgical offices, as well as the left and right commanders and supervisors of metallurgical affairs in the north, south, east, and west. After the Eastern Jin Dynasty crossed the Yangtze River, this official position was abolished.
The Grand Master of the Horse was in charge of the records of the Director of Agriculture, Director of the Imperial Guards, Deputy Director of the Imperial Guards, left and right Central Directors of Animal Husbandry, Director of the Chariot Bureau, stables for yellow horses, stables for fine horses, stables for dragon horses, and other offices. An additional Deputy Director of Animal Husbandry was also appointed. The position of Grand Master of the Horse was occasionally abolished and reinstated after Emperor Yuan crossed the Yangtze River. After the Grand Master of the Horse was abolished, the stables for fine horses fell under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Rites.
The Minister of Justice was responsible for criminal law and litigation, with subordinates including officials responsible for law enforcement, supervision, and evaluation, as well as legal scholars.
The Grand Herald was in charge of the records of the Grand Herald, Director of Guests, imperial gardens, Hualin Garden, and the imperial guard, as well as the Deputy Director of the Blue Palace and the Xuanwu Garden in Ye. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, this official position was temporarily established when needed and abolished when not.
The Chief of Lineage was in charge of the household registration records of the imperial family and also oversaw the records of the Chief Imperial Physician and the officials of the Ministry of Agriculture. After the Eastern Jin Dynasty crossed the Yangtze River, Emperor Ai abolished the Chief of Lineage and merged it into the Ministry of Rites, while the Chief Imperial Physician fell under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Rites.
The Grand Minister of Agriculture was in charge of the records of the Granary Director, land registry, and administrative officials, as well as the Chief Water Manager in Xiangguo and supervisors of grain transportation in the east, west, north, and south. After the Eastern Jin Dynasty crossed the Yangtze River, Emperor Ai abolished the Grand Minister of Agriculture and merged it into the water management department, but Emperor Xiaowu later reinstated it.
The Palace Steward department oversaw many officials, including the Chief Steward, three Directors of the Imperial Workshops, left and right Directors of the Imperial Treasury, inspectors, assessors, and other senior officials, as well as deputy directors such as the left inspector, Directors of the Imperial Treasury in Ye, and officials in charge of oil. After the Eastern Jin Dynasty crossed the Yangtze River, Emperor Ai abolished the Intendant of Danyang, but Emperor Xiaowu later reinstated it. However, after crossing the river, only one Director of the Imperial Workshops was retained, and the imperial household was abolished.
The Director of Works was established only when needed and abolished when not.
The Three Officials of the Empress Dowager, namely the Grand Minister of War, the Minor Official, and the Grand Master of Ceremonies, were positions that existed during the Han Dynasty and followed the Empress Dowager into her palace. These positions were ranked above other officials of the same level. If there was no Empress Dowager, these three positions would remain unfilled. The Wei Dynasty changed the Han system, placing these three positions below the Nine Ministers. In the Jin Dynasty, the old system was restored, and they were again placed above other officials of the same level.
The Grand Autumn Minister is an official who serves beside the Empress; this position is established when there is an Empress and abolished when there is none.
The Deputy Censor-in-Chief is an office that existed since the Qin Dynasty. During the Qin Dynasty, the Censor-in-Chief had two deputies, one called the Deputy Censor and the other the Deputy Censor-in-Chief. The Deputy Censor-in-Chief supervised local inspectors externally and managed the aides to the Censor internally, responsible for receiving memorials from officials and handling impeachment and cases. The Han Dynasty inherited this system, and in the first year of Emperor Cheng's reign, the title of Censor-in-Chief was renamed as Grand Minister of Works, and a Chief Clerk was established, but the duties of the Deputy Censor-in-Chief remained unchanged. In the second year of Emperor Ai's reign, the title was changed back to Censor-in-Chief. In the second year of the Yuan Shou era, it was changed back to Grand Minister of Works, and the Deputy Censor-in-Chief was appointed as the head of the Censorate. From the Han Dynasty to the Jin Dynasty, this system continued, allowing the Deputy Censor-in-Chief to serve as the head of the Censorate.
The origin of the position of Censorate Clerk is as follows: Emperor Xuan of Han liked to handle state affairs in the Xuanshi Chamber, so he had two aides in the Censorate handle documents beside him. Later, this position was specifically established and called Censorate Clerk, which is its origin. In the Wei Dynasty, the position of Legal Censorate Clerk was established, responsible for processing memorials and handling impeachments, while the Censorate Clerk was responsible for managing laws and regulations, and both positions coexisted. In the Jin Dynasty, only the Censorate Clerk was retained, with a staff of four. In the fourth year of the Taishi era, a Huangsha Prison Censorate Clerk was established, ranked the same as the Deputy Censor-in-Chief, responsible for handling edict prisons and improperly handled cases by the Court of Judicial Review. Later, when Henan was merged, the position of Huangsha Prison Censorate Clerk was eliminated. During the Taikang era, the two positions of Censorate Clerk were also eliminated.
In ancient times, the Imperial Censors managed several departments. During the Han Dynasty, there were five departments: the first was the Department of Law, responsible for laws and regulations; the second was the Department of Seals, responsible for producing seals; the third was the Department of Sacrifices, responsible for overseeing sacrificial activities; the fourth was the Weimacao, responsible for managing stables; and the fifth was the Chengcao, responsible for the emperor's security during public appearances. During the Wei Dynasty, eight Imperial Censors were established, and by the Jin Dynasty, this number increased to nine, with the same rank as the Zhishu Shiyushi, but the departments grew to thirteen: Licao (Department of Personnel), Kedi Cao (Department of Examinations), Zhishi Cao (Department of Affairs), Yincao (Department of Seals), Zhongduducao (Department of Central Command), Waiduducao (Department of External Command), Meicao (Department of Mediation), Fujie Cao (Department of Talismans), Shuicao (Department of Water), Zhongleicao (Department of Central Defense), Yingjun Cao (Department of Military Affairs), Facao (Department of Law), and Suancao (Department of Accounting). In the Jiangnan region, initially, the Kedi Cao was abolished, and the Kucao was established to manage stables, cattle, and taxes, which was later divided into Wailuokucao and Naluokucao.
The Dianzhong Shiyushi can be traced back to the Wei Dynasty, when two Lantai censors were stationed in the palace specifically to monitor illegal activities. During the Jin Dynasty, four Dianzhong Shiyushi were established, while two were set up in the Jiangnan region. In the Wei and Jin periods, there was also a Censor for Prohibitions, a seventh-rank official. During the Taiyuan years of Emperor Xiaowu, a person named Wu Kun served as the Jianxiao Yushi, indicating that these two positions were included in the jurisdiction of Lantai.
The position of Fujie Yushi evolved from the Fuxi Ling during the Qin Dynasty. The Han Dynasty continued to use this position, which ranked below the Yushi Zhongcheng. By the Wei Dynasty, the Fujie Yushi became an independent department, with a rank similar to that of the Yushi Zhongcheng, primarily responsible for issuing talismans, copper military insignia, and bamboo messenger tokens. In the ninth year of the Taishi era of the Wei Dynasty, Emperor Wu merged the Lantai and established the Fujie Yushi to manage these responsibilities.
The Colonel of the Inspectorate was an official position established during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. At that time, the country was divided into thirteen provinces, each with a governor, and a Colonel of the Inspectorate was also appointed to supervise the seven commanderies of Sanfu, Sanhe, and Hongnong. This system was used in the eastern regions of the Han Dynasty and continued into the Wei and Jin Dynasties. The Colonel of the Inspectorate had a staff of one hundred civil officials and thirty-two military officers under him, including clerks, court officials, department officials, officials of the military and counties, chief clerks, recorders, secretaries, provincial officials, secretaries of archives, officials in charge of various departments, and military commanders, etc. Later, when it reached the southern regions, the position of the Colonel of the Inspectorate was abolished, and its responsibilities were taken over by the Governor of Yangzhou.
The Chief Attendant was an official position that existed since the Qin Dynasty and was used continuously from the Han Dynasty to the Wei Dynasty. The Wei Dynasty established the Chief Attendant, responsible for managing ceremonial visits, appointments, and the ranking of officials, overseeing ten attendants. Later, Emperor Wu abolished the Chief Attendant and merged the responsibilities of the attendants into the Lan Terrace. The Jiangzuo region later re-established the Chief Attendant, only to abolish it again.
The Commissioner of Waterways is essentially an official responsible for overseeing water conservancy projects along the Han River. During the Han Dynasty, there was also a Chief Water Commissioner, mainly in charge of the construction and maintenance of water conservancy projects, under the authority of the Minister of Rites. The Eastern Capital during the Han Dynasty also had a Waterways Official, as well as a River Embankment Attendant, a system which the Wei Dynasty adopted. Later, Emperor Wu streamlined the organization, leaving only one Commissioner of Waterways and merging the River Embankment Attendant into the Waterways Official. By the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the River Embankment Attendant was once again abolished, and six attendants were established instead.
General of the Central Army, this was an official position in the Wei Dynasty. In the fourth year of Jian'an during the Han Dynasty, when Cao Cao was serving as Chancellor, he established this position himself. Later, after conquering Hanzhong, he appointed Cao Xiu as General of the Central Army. After Emperor Wen of Wei ascended the throne, the position of General of the Central Army was officially established, still held by Cao Xiu, who was primarily responsible for the troops of the Five Schools, the Central Garrison, and the Military Guard. During the early period of Emperor Wu's reign, institutional reforms were carried out, allowing General Yang Hu of the Central Army to lead the two Guards and the camps of the Front, Rear, Left, Right, and the Elite Guard, which essentially mirrored the responsibilities of the General of the Central Army. By the time of Emperor Huai during the Yongjia period, the Central Army was renamed the Central General. In the first year of Yongchang, it was renamed the Northern Army Central General, but soon reverted to the title of General of the Central Army. During the reign of Emperor Cheng, it was changed back to Central General, and later reverted to General of the Central Army.
The General of the Guard, a position that can be traced back to the Qin Dynasty's Commander of the Guard. The Han Dynasty continued to use this position, with Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang appointing Chen Ping as the Central Lieutenant of the Guard, and Emperor Wu later changing it to Commander of the Guard, under the Grand Marshal. When Cao Cao was Chancellor, he appointed Han Hao as General of the Guard and Shi Huan as General of the Central Army, which differed from the official system of the Han Dynasty. In the twelfth year of Jian'an, the title of General of the Guard was changed to Central General of the Guard, and the General of the Central Army was renamed Central General of the Central Army, with the addition of the positions of Chief Clerk and Military Officer. In the early Wei Dynasty, the position of the General of the Guard was retained, primarily responsible for the selection of military officials, under the authority of the General of the Central Army. By the Jin Dynasty, it was no longer under the General of the Central Army. In the first year of Yongchang during the reign of Emperor Yuan, the position of General of the Guard was abolished and merged into the General of the Central Army. In the second year of Emperor Ming's reign, the positions of General of the Central Army and General of the Guard were restored, each overseeing their respective troops. After the Eastern Jin period, the General of the Central Army no longer independently commanded troops, primarily responsible for overseeing the two Guards, Elite Cavalry, Material Officials, and other camps, while the General of the Guard continued to command its own independent troops. Those with more experience would serve as Generals of the Central Army or Generals of the Guard, while those with less experience would serve as Central Generals of the Central Army or Central Generals of the Guard. Subordinate officials included Chief Clerk, Military Officer, Achievement Officer, Chief Registrar, and Five Officials, and if military campaigns were needed, additional military advisors would be assigned.
Left and Right Guard Generals were established during the reign of Emperor Wen and were initially referred to as the Central Guard and the Guard. After Emperor Wu ascended the throne, they were divided into the Left and Right Guards, with Yang Xiu as the Left Guard General and Zhao Xu as the Right Guard General. There were also officials like the Chief Clerk, Marshal, Registrar, and others. During the Eastern Jin dynasty, the position of Chief Clerk was abolished.
In ancient armies, there were various titles, including the Valiant Cavalry General, Guerrilla General, and other assorted titles, all of which originated from the Han dynasty. During the Wei dynasty, these generals were placed under the Central Military. By the time of the Jin dynasty, the military organization changed again with the introduction of the "Six Armies" system, consisting of the Leading Army, Guarding Army, Left and Right Guard Armies, Valiant Cavalry Army, and Guerrilla Army.
Furthermore, the titles of Front, Rear, Left, and Right Army Generals have a long history. Records show that during the reign of Emperor Ming of Wei, there was already a General of the Left Army, a title that persisted into the Jin dynasty. In the early period of Emperor Wu of Jin, the titles of General of the Front and Right Armies were added, and in the eighth year of the Taishi era, the title of General of the Rear Army was established, forming the "Four Armies."
There were also the positions of Commandant of the Garrison Cavalry, Commandant of the Infantry, Commandant of the Cavalry, Commandant of the Chariots, and Commandant of the Archers, collectively known as the "Five Commandants," which are ancient titles that date back to the Han dynasty. From the Wei to the Jin dynasties, and into the Eastern Jin dynasty, these Commandants were responsible for overseeing the troops in their camps, with the assistance of Marshals, Registrars, and Chief Clerks. Later on, in order to streamline the organization, the titles of General of the Left, Right, Front, and Rear Armies were abolished and replaced by the Garrison Guard, though the Commandants of the Left and Right Camps were retained and placed under the Central Leading Army's command.
At the beginning, the guard was initially divided into three divisions, each led by the Sima Commander, the Deputy Sima Commander, and the Strong Crossbow Sima Commander, with each division having an inspector. The Left Guard was commanded by Xiong Qu Wuben, and the Right Guard was commanded by Chi Fei Wuben. Each of the two guards had five inspectors responsible for supervision. Then, under their command, the Wuben, Xiaoqi, and Youji each commanded a contingent of troops. In addition, four departments were created: Wuben, Yulin, Shangqi, and Yili, all directly under the Emperor's command, with a total of five inspectors. The guard and the four military units functioned like five military academies, each unit having one thousand men.
Subsequently, the position of General in the Hall was established, with the ranks of Middle General, Colonel, and Sima being equivalent to that of Xiaoqi. The Wuben soldiers, armed with large hammers and axes, were part of the left and right guards, respectively. The Wuben of the Wei Zhong, those equipped with short weapons (daggers), and the Yulin Sima had different numbers of accompanying personnel. Emperor Wu placed great importance on the selection of military officials, so most positions in the military academies were occupied by highly esteemed officials in the court.
Earlier, Chen Xie was valued by Emperor Wen for his talent and profound understanding of military commands. Following the fall of Shu Han, the Emperor had Chen Xie study Zhuge Liang's formations, military strategies, and tactics, as well as various army insignia and identification systems. Chen Xie diligently studied and mastered these subjects. As a result, Emperor Wu appointed Chen Xie as the Middle General of the Hall Guards, and later promoted him to General.
A long time had passed. Every time Emperor Wu went out, Chen Xie would hold a white beast-head flag and serve as an attendant on the left and right of the emperor's carriage, with the procession orderly and solemn. In the later years of the Taikang period, Emperor Wu went out hunting and shooting pheasants. Chen Xie, who was already serving as the envoy to the capital, participated in this event as an attendant. By the time the emperor returned to the palace, it was quite late, almost midnight, and it was time to close the palace gates. However, the gates would not close, so the emperor ordered Chen Xie to handle it. Chen Xie raised the white beast-head flag and signaled, and soon the gates were closed. Everyone praised Chen Xie for his expertise in such matters, and Emperor Wu trusted him greatly.
The titles of Grand Tutor and Tutor are ancient official positions. These two positions were established during the third year of the Taishi reign of Emperor Wu of the Western Jin Dynasty, with only one person appointed to each position. At that time, the Grand Preceptor position had not yet been established, so all major and minor affairs were handled by the two tutors, who were assisted by subordinates such as secretaries, registrars, and other officials. The salary for the Grand Tutor and Tutor was both two thousand shi. Regarding the education of the crown prince, the Grand Tutor took precedence, followed by the Tutor; the crown prince would first bow to the teachers, who would then return the gesture. Later, Emperor Wu felt that the crown prince's status was too elevated, so he appointed some senior officials to serve as the Grand Tutor and Tutor; some held multiple positions, while others held the title without actual duties. At that time, the trusted and respected official Ren Kai was appointed either as Grand Tutor or Tutor by Emperor Wu, as this was a temporary arrangement.
In the first year of Xianning, Emperor Wu appointed Yang Yao, Attendant of the Yellow Gate, as the Zhanshi, in charge of palace affairs, with the Grand Tutor and Junior Tutor no longer overseeing subordinate officials. When Yang Yao was promoted to Wei General and also held the position of Junior Tutor, the position of Zhanshi was abolished. Afterwards, the court placed greater emphasis on the education of the crown prince, appointing Jia Chong as Grand Preceptor and Wang You as Grand Tutor, with their subordinate officials reinstated. The Grand Tutor and Junior Tutor dressed elegantly in double-beam hats, black silk robes, ceremonial attire, and adorned with jade ornaments, receiving a daily salary of three shi of grain. In the second year of Taikang, the court began to grant the Grand Tutor and Junior Tutor fifty pieces of silk in spring, one hundred pieces of silk in autumn, and one hundred jin of cotton. Subsequently, Ruanan Wang Liang, Yang Jun, Wei Guan, Shi Jian, and others served as Grand Tutor or Grand Preceptor, but the position of Zhanshi was never reinstated until after Emperor Wu's death.
In the first year of Yuankang of Emperor Hui, the Zhanshi position was established again, and the Grand Tutor and Junior Tutor were allocated six qing of vegetable fields along with six laborers. If they had not started farming after the beginning of summer, they would forfeit their annual salary. The Zhanshi Office also included a Cheng, who received a salary of one thousand shi; a chief clerk, five officials, a historian, a chief historian of the gate, a recorder, a household law clerk, a treasury clerk, a criminal clerk, a functionary clerk, a doorkeeper, a doorkeeper clerk, and a provincial officer, along with a red-eared peace carriage. During the reign of Emperor Minhuai, six Fu titles were created, namely three Grand Tutors and three Junior Tutors. Because the name of Emperor Jing contained the character "teacher," the title of Grand Preceptor was renamed Grand Tutor. The Grand Tutor could oversee the affairs of the Ministry of Personnel, and the documents of the Zhanshi Office were managed by the six Fu. However, from the Yuan Kang period onwards, the number of Grand Tutors and Junior Tutors fluctuated, at times as few as two and at other times as many as six; during the Yongkang period, the Zhanshi position was once again abolished. The Zhanshi position was not reestablished until the Taian period, lasting until the reign of Emperor Xiaohuai. After crossing the Yangtze River, although there were Grand Tutors and Junior Tutors, the titles of Grand Preceptor and Grand Tutor were no longer established.
Finally, there are four Zhong Shuzi, whose responsibilities are similar to those of the Shizhong. In the palace, there are four Zhong Sheren positions, which were established in the fourth year of the Xianning era. They are specifically selected to be talented and refined scholars. They are responsible for handling documents along with the Zhong Shuzi, with a position similar to that of the Huangmen Shilang, but one level lower than the Zhong Shuzi, and are also known as "Xima."
Next, there is a Shiguan Ling, whose position is similar to that of the Taiguan Ling, responsible for the palace's food and drink services. There are also four Shuzi, equivalent to the Sanqi Changshi and Zhongshu Jianling. There are sixteen Sheren, whose rank is similar to that of the Sanqi Shilang and Zhongshu Shilang. There are eight Xima, whose responsibilities are similar to those of the Ye Zhe and Mi Shu, mainly in charge of the palace's books and archives. They are responsible for arranging everything for ceremonies or lectures; when leaving the palace, they lead the way and ensure the order of the procession.
Then there is the Shuageng Ling, in charge of the palace gates and rewards and punishments, with a position similar to that of the Guanglu Xun and Wei Wei. There is also a Jialing, responsible for the palace's prisons, food, finances, and drink, with a position similar to that of the Sinong and Shaofu. However, during the Han Dynasty, the Shiguan Ling in the Eastern Capital was under the jurisdiction of the Jialing, but during the Jin Dynasty, the Shiguan Ling became an independent position and was no longer under the Jialing.
Next is the Pu, responsible for the palace's ceremonial chariots and horses and the affairs of the imperial family, with a position similar to that of the Taifu and Zongzheng. As for the Zuoyou Wei Shuai, this position was established when Emperor Wu established the Dong Palace, originally known as Zhong Wei Shuai. In the fifth year of Taishi, it was divided into the Left and Right Guards, each leading a military force. During the reign of Emperor Hui, when the Crown Prince was in the East Palace, the Front and Rear Shuai were added. Later in Jiangzuo, the Front and Rear Shuai were abolished, but were reestablished during the reign of Emperor Xiaowu in the Taiyuan period.
Finally, let's talk about the system of officials under the kings (referring to feudal kings). Each king has one mentor, one friend, and one literature official under his command. Because Emperor Jing's name contains the character "teacher," the "teacher" position was changed to "tutor." The "friend" position is derived from the concept of the four friends of King Wen and Confucius. The kings also changed the position of the governor to that of an interior minister, eliminating the positions of prime minister and steward. Under the kings, there are three high-ranking officials: the chief of staff, the chief of military affairs, and the chief of agriculture. The kings of the great states also have a left and right attendant each, eliminating the chief physician position and establishing two attendants, as well as a bookkeeper, a temple overseer, a guard keeper, a school official, and a deputy bookkeeper, with four scribes, a lieutenant general, a deputy crown prince, a temple overseer, and four emissaries, six junior officers, ten attendants, and an official each.
In the third year of Xianning, which is 277 AD, General Wei Yangyao and the Imperial Secretary Xun Xu felt that Prince Qi Sima You was quite powerful and were worried that he might pose a threat to Emperor Hui in the future. They remembered the five-rank feudal system proposed by the Minister of Works Pei Xiu in the past, so they took the opportunity to discuss this matter with Emperor Wu, saying, "In ancient times, the establishment of feudal kings was to protect the safety of the imperial family. Now that the state of Wu has not been eliminated, border defense is tight, and the various kings are acting as generals and managing their fiefdoms, acting independently without contributing to the country's welfare. Furthermore, the generals of other surnames are all stationed on the borders, so it would be appropriate to use members of the imperial family to balance the situation. But now all the kings and dukes are in the capital, unable to fulfill their role of guarding the borders, which poses a long-term threat to national security." Emperor Wu did not take it seriously at the time and ordered everyone to discuss this proposal.
Then, the relevant departments submitted a report that the fiefdoms of the various kings should be readjusted, with all military forces being governed by the Commandant. The fiefdoms of Pingyuan, Runan, Langye, Fufeng, and Qi were designated as major states, while Liang, Zhao, Le'an, Yan, Anping, and Yiyang were designated as secondary states, and the rest as minor states. The population of each fiefdom was required to be adjusted to at least ten thousand households. The system of county dukes was established, similar to that of minor states, with military forces under the jurisdiction of the Commandant. If the fiefdom of a county marquis did not reach five thousand households, a military force of one thousand one hundred men would be assigned, also under the jurisdiction of the Commandant. At that time, the State of Lu was the only one to increase its population, posthumously ennobled the former Minister of Works, Boling Gong, to the title of county duke, and granted the title of Marquis of Nancheng to Hou Hu of Juping. There were also Wang Sima Cheng of Nangong and Wang Sima Wan of Sui, who were ennobled as county kings during the Taishi era with only a thousand households, which was now increased to three thousand households, with a system similar to that of county marquises, and also assigned a military force.
From then on, except for the emperor's sons, no one else could be ennobled as a king. The collateral descendants of the various kings were considered close relatives of the imperial family and could also be ennobled based on their rank. The sons of the first enfeoffed kings of major and secondary states were ennobled as dukes, the sons who inherited the throne were ennobled as marquises, and the sons who inherited the throne were ennobled as earls. If the population of a minor state exceeded five thousand households, the sons of the first enfeoffed king were ennobled as viscounts; if the population was less than five thousand households, the sons of the first enfeoffed king, as well as the sons of dukes and marquises, were ennobled as barons. Other than that, no one else could be ennobled. The system for dukes was the same as that for countries with five thousand households, while the system for marquises was the same as that for countries with less than five thousand households, both assigned a military force of one thousand men under the jurisdiction of the Commandant. The privileges for earls, viscounts, and barons varied, but none were assigned military forces. The grandsons of the first enfeoffed kings of major states had their lower army units removed, and their great-grandsons had their upper army units removed; the descendants of the first enfeoffed kings of secondary states had their lower army units removed; the rest were left with only one military force. The military forces of major states consisted of two thousand men in the central military, and one thousand five hundred men in the upper and lower armies each; the military forces of secondary states consisted of two thousand men in the upper army and one thousand men in the lower army. Those without fiefdoms were allocated a garrison of one hundred men in major states, eighty men in secondary states, and sixty men in minor states, with county dukes and county kings treated the same as minor states.
After the implementation of these measures, everyone followed the directives of the memorial and returned to their own fiefdoms. However, many princes and nobles were reluctant to leave the capital, departing in tears. It was only after the fall of the Wu Kingdom that Prince Sima You of Qi finally went to his fiefdom.
The central government's establishment placed the position of Dianshu Ling ranked below Changshi and above Shilang. After crossing the river, Shilang was ranked higher than Changshi, and Dianshu Ling was ranked after the three armies. In the feudal states, there were no positions such as Zhongwei, Changshi, and Sanjun, and there were no Daren, Shilang, Bo, Zi, or Nan titles. Only Dianshu Ling and positions below it existed, and there were no positions like Xueguan or Lingshi, all of which were in descending order. The ranks of officials below the public and marquis varied by the size of the state, and the establishment of other positions also differed. Famous mountains and great rivers were not considered fiefdoms, and salt, iron, gold, silver, copper, and tin, as well as the bamboo grove of Shiping and the palace gardens of Biedu, did not belong to the feudal states. Those serving in the central government, like their counterparts in the feudal states, could select civil or military officials. Those who served as Qingshi, if their eldest son had come of age, would be sent to serve in the feudal states. Below the princes, the rituals of the Maoshe, seals, flags, clothing, and the beginning of the Taishi period were all the same.
Provinces were governed by governors and other officials, including Beijia, Zhongzhong, and Gesao. Each county in provinces that governed counties and above, as well as Jiangyang County and Zhuti County, had a department official, even in smaller counties. There were also chief clerks, gatekeepers, recorders, secretaries, assistants in various departments, guards, and military assistants. Each province had a total of forty-one officials and twenty soldiers. In remote provinces or those featuring difficult terrain, close to bandits and barbarians, over fifty archers and cavalry were appointed. Xuzhou also appointed an official for Huaihai, Liangzhou appointed an official for Hejin, and each province appointed a Doushui official, one for each province. Liangzhou and Yizhou together appointed eighty-five officials and twenty soldiers. Jingzhou appointed one supervisor.
Each county has appointed magistrates, with Henan County as the location of the capital. The official title of the magistrate is 'Yin.' In the vassal states, the Neishi oversees the responsibilities of the magistrates and appoints officials such as:
- Chief Clerk
- Chief Recorder
- Menxia Zeicao
- Yisheng
- Menxia Shi
- Jishishi
- Lushi Shi
- Shuzuo
- Xunxing
- Gan
- Xiaoshi
- Wuguan Yuan
- Gongcao Shi
- Gongcao Shuzuo
- Xunxing Xiaoshi
- Wuguan Yuan
For counties with a population of less than 5,000, there are fifty duty officials and thirteen scattered officials; for counties with more than 5,000 households, there are sixty-three duty officials and twenty-one scattered officials; for counties with more than 10,000 households, there are sixty-nine duty officials and thirty-nine scattered officials. Each county is assigned one literary officer.
If the population is large, a county magistrate is appointed; if it is small, a county head is assigned. In addition, there are officials such as:
- Chief Clerk
- Lushi Shi
- Chief Recorder
- Menxia Shuzuo
- Gan
- Youjiao
- Yisheng
- Xunxing Gongcao Shi
- Xiaoshi
- Ting Yuan
- Gongcao Shi
- Xiaoshi Shuzuo Gan
- Hucao Yuan Shi Gan
- Facao Mengan
- Jincang Zeicao Yuan Shi
- Bing Cao Shi
- Li Cao Shi
- Yu Xiaoshi
- Yu Menting Chang
- Du Ting Chang
- Zeibuyuan
For counties with a population of less than 300, there are eighteen duty officials and four scattered officials; for counties with more than 300 households, there are twenty-eight duty officials and six scattered officials; for counties with more than 500 households, there are forty duty officials and eight scattered officials; for counties with more than 1,000 households, there are fifty-three duty officials and twelve scattered officials; for counties with more than 1,500 households, there are sixty-eight duty officials and eighteen scattered officials; for counties with more than 3,000 households, there are eighty-eight duty officials and twenty-six scattered officials. Just look at the number of officials; as the population increases, it skyrockets!
Counties and districts allocate personnel according to the number of households during the busy farming season each year, with scattered officials primarily tasked with encouraging agricultural production. In addition, counties with more than five hundred households have townships, those with more than three thousand households have two townships, those with more than five thousand households have three townships, and those with more than ten thousand households have four townships, each township having a frugal officer. Townships with fewer than one thousand households appoint a scribe; those with more than one thousand households have a historian and an assistant, in addition to a chief official; and those with more than five thousand five hundred households have a historian and two assistants. Each county appoints a neighborhood official for every hundred households, and if the area is large and sparsely populated, the number of neighborhood officials may be adjusted based on local conditions, but not to fewer than fifty households. Counties with over one thousand households must also appoint a school official. Each county employs four strategic officials. Luoyang County is staffed with six department officers. In the Jiangzuo region, Jiankang is also staffed with six department officers; other large counties have two, medium-sized counties have one, and small counties also have one. The official structure in Ye City and Chang'an mirrors that of counties with over three thousand households. Four Zhonglang generals exist, a title established during the Eastern Han Dynasty that persisted until the Wei and Jin periods, and in the Jiangzuo region, their authority grew even further. The Protector of Qiang and the Conqueror of Yi and Man date back to the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, with the establishment of the Southern Barbarian Protector in Xiangyang, the Western Rong Protector in Chang'an, and the Southern Yi Protector in Ningzhou. During the Yuankang period, the title of Protector of Qiang was changed to Governor of Liangzhou, the Western Rong Protector was changed to Governor of Yongzhou, and the Southern Barbarian Protector was changed to Governor of Jingzhou. In the early Jiangzuo period, the Southern Barbarian Protector was abolished, only to be reestablished later in Jiangling, and the Southern Yi Protector was renamed the Town Barbarian Protector. Under Emperor An, the Ning Barbarian Protector was established in Xiangyang. During Emperor Wu's reign, several Zhonglang generals were appointed to guard the borders, each responsible for the Xiongnu, Qiang, Rong, Barbarian, Yi, and Yue regions. Some of these Zhonglang generals also held the title of governor, while others directly held the emperor's seal, representing the emperor in managing the regions. Emperor Wu of Han specifically appointed a Pingyue Zhonglang general stationed in Guangzhou, primarily responsible for safeguarding the Nan Yue region, a crucial strategic location.
In simple terms, Emperor Wu of Han established a series of positions of Zhonglangjiang to strengthen border defense, some responsible for the northern minority regions and others for the southern regions, wielding significant power, and some even concurrently managed local administration. The Pingyue Zhonglangjiang directly governed Nanyue, which highlights Emperor Wu's focus on the southern frontier.
