Anguo, known as the Anxi Kingdom during the Han Dynasty, was governed by a king who was surnamed Zhaowu and was of the same clan as the king of Kangguo, whose courtesy name was Shelideng. His wife was the daughter of the king of Kangguo. Anguo was located south of the Misui River, which had a five-layer city wall surrounded by flowing water. The palaces all featured flat roofs. The king sat on a throne made of gold shaped like a camel's hump, about seven to eight feet high. When dealing with state affairs, he and the queen sat face to face, with three ministers on the side advising on state affairs. Anguo's customs were similar to those of Kangguo. However, they practiced a peculiar custom of fratricide among sisters and between mothers and sons, which was truly outrageous. After Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty ascended the throne, he sent the official Du Xingman to the Western Regions. Upon arriving in Anguo, he brought back some colorful salt.
To the west, about a hundred miles away, there was a country called Biguo, with over a thousand households. Biguo was governed by Anguo, lacking its own monarch. In the fifth year of the Daye era, Biguo once sent envoys to pay tribute, but later lost contact.
Shiguo was situated by the Yaosha River, with a capital that spanned over ten square miles. Their king's surname was Shi, with the name Nie. Southeast of Shiguo's city, there was a house containing a seat. Every year on the sixth day of the first month and the fifteenth day of the seventh month, they would take the ashes of the king's parents, place them in a golden urn on a bed, walk around the ashes, sprinkle floral incense and various fruits, and the king would offer sacrifices with his courtiers. After the sacrifice, the king and queen would retire to another tent, while the courtiers sat in order, celebrating with food and drink before dispersing. Shiguo cultivated rice and wheat and had many fine horses. The people were fierce and skilled in battle, having once been dependent on the Turks. Khan Shibi led troops to conquer Shiguo and appointed a man named Teqindianzhi to oversee Shiguo's affairs. Shiguo was six hundred miles from the Western Turks and six thousand miles from Guazhou. Teqindianzhi sent envoys to pay tribute in the fifth year of the Daye era, but never returned.
There was a matriarchal kingdom located south of the Cangling Mountains, where all the rulers were female. The queen at that time was named Su Pi, with the nickname Mo Jie, who had been queen for twenty years. The queen's husband was named Jin Ju, who had no role in political affairs. The men in the kingdom were solely concerned with waging wars. Their capital was built on a mountain, spanning about five or six miles, housing tens of thousands of families. The queen resided in a nine-story palace, served by hundreds of palace maids, and held court only once every five days. There was also a junior queen who, together with the queen, managed the affairs of the kingdom. The customs there revered women, held men in low regard, and women did not get jealous. People of all ages liked to adorn their faces with colorful designs, changing their designs several times a day. Everyone wore their hair loose, wore leather shoes, and tax collection was arbitrary, depending on the collector's mood. The climate was harsh, and people mainly relied on hunting for a living. They produced copper ore, cinnabar, musk, yaks, fine horses, and horses from the Shu region. Especially salt, which was abundant and often sold to India, yielding substantial profits! They frequently engaged in conflicts with India and the Tangut. After the queen died, the entire nation would engage in large-scale fundraising, then choose two beautiful girls from the deceased's family, one to be queen and the other to be a junior queen. If a high-ranking official died, their skin would be removed, and their ashes mixed with gold powder would be interred in a jar. After a year, their skin would be wrapped in iron and buried again. They worshipped the Asura deity and the tree god, offering sacrifices of humans or monkeys at the start of each year. After the sacrifice, they would pray in the mountains, and a bird resembling a hen would perch on their hand. By cutting open its belly, if grains of rice were found inside, it signified a prosperous harvest for the following year, but if sand and stones were present, it foretold disaster. This practice was known as bird divination. In the sixth year of the Kaihuang era, they dispatched envoys to present tribute, but subsequently lost contact.
Next, let's discuss the Kingdom of Yanqi. Its capital city lies seventy miles south of the White Mountain, which has existed since the Han Dynasty. The king's surname is Long, with the courtesy name Tuqi. The capital city spans approximately two miles. The country has nine cities and over a thousand elite soldiers. The governance is chaotic and lacks strict regulations. The people there follow Buddhism, somewhat akin to Brahmanism. Their marriage customs resemble those of the Central Plains. Upon death, individuals are cremated, and mourning lasts for seven days. Men all shave their heads. The region is rich in fish, salt, and reeds. To the east lies Gaochang, 900 miles away, and to the west lies Kucha, also 900 miles away, both through deserts and wastelands. To the southeast, it is 2,200 miles to Guazhou. During the Dali era, they also sent envoys to offer tribute to the east and west.
As for the Kingdom of Kucha, it lies 170 miles south of the White Mountain, and it is an ancient kingdom dating back to the Han Dynasty. The king's surname is Bai, with the courtesy name Sunidie. The capital city is a square with sides measuring six miles. They have strong and well-trained soldiers, numbering in the thousands. The customs dictate a life for a life in cases of murder, and robbery is punished by amputating one arm and one leg. These customs bear similarities to those of the Kingdom of Yanqi. The king wears a colorful ribbon tied at the back of his head and sits on a throne made of golden lions. The region is abundant in rice, millet, soybeans, wheat, as well as copper, iron, lead, deer hides, woolen blankets, turquoise, green salt, realgar, white lead, frankincense, fine horses, and fat cattle. To the east, it is 900 miles to Yanqi, to the south, it is 1,400 miles to Yutian, to the west, it is 1,500 miles to Shule, to the northwest, it is over 600 miles to the Tujue tribe, and to the southeast, it is 3,100 miles to Guazhou. During the Dali era of the Sui Dynasty, the Kingdom of Kucha also dispatched envoys to present tributes of local specialties.
The Kingdom of Shule, also located more than a hundred miles south of Baishan, was an ancient kingdom during the Han Dynasty. The king's name was Amijue. The people there all have six fingers on both hands and feet. If a child is born without six fingers, they are unlikely to live long. The capital is a square city, each side measuring five miles. The kingdom has twelve large cities and dozens of smaller ones, along with two thousand elite soldiers. The king wears a hat adorned with golden lions. The region is abundant in rice, millet, hemp, wheat, copper, iron, brocade, and orpiment, and pays tribute to the Turks annually. To the south of the Kingdom of Shule lies the Yellow River, to the west lies the Congling Mountains, to the east, Kucha is 1,500 miles away, to the west, the Kingdom of Persia is 1,000 miles away, to the south, Zhu Jubo is 800 to 900 miles away, to the northeast, the Turks are over 1,000 miles away, and to the southeast, Guazhou is 4,600 miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, the Kingdom of Shule also sent envoys to present local products as tribute.
Khotan is located about 200 miles north of the Onion Mountains. The king, surnamed Wang, is styled Beishi Bilian. The capital city has a circumference of about eight or nine miles. There are five large cities in the country, along with several dozen small cities, and only a few thousand soldiers. The common people practice Buddhism, with a large number of monks and nuns, and the king frequently eats vegetarian meals and recites scriptures. Fifty miles south of the city lies Zhamo Temple, said to have been built by an Arhat named Biluzhan, and the temple features traces of the Buddha's barefoot steps on its stones. The name "Zhamo Temple" is pronounced as in the original text. Five hundred miles west of the city lies another Bi Mo Temple, believed to be where Laozi journeyed west to convert the Hu people to Buddhism. The locals are known for their lack of morals, with many thieves and bandits, living recklessly. The king dons a brocade hat and a golden rat crown, while his wife adorns herself with a golden flower. The king's hair is not to be seen by others, as the locals say that if his hair is seen, it will be a bad year. This region produces hemp, wheat, millet, rice, a variety of fruits, and numerous gardens, and is also rich in beautiful jade from the mountains. To the east lies Shanshan, 1,500 miles away, to the south is the country of women, 3,000 miles away, to the west is Zhujubo, 1,000 miles away, to the north is Kucha, 1,400 miles away, and to the northeast is Guazhou, 2,800 miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, Khotan frequently sent envoys to pay tribute.
Qaghan, located 500 miles west of the Onion Mountains, was formerly known as Qusou. The king, surnamed Zhaowu, is styled Aliqi. The capital city has a circumference of four miles, with a few thousand soldiers. The king sits on a chair made of golden sheep, and his wife wears a golden flower. This region is abundant in cinnabar, gold, and iron. To the east lies Shule, 1,000 miles away, to the west is the country of Sufengshana, 500 miles away, to the northwest is the country of Shiguo, 500 miles away, to the northeast is the Tujue Yurt, over 2,000 miles away, and to the east is Guazhou, 5,500 miles away. During the Deyuan period, they also dispatched envoys to present some local specialties as tribute.
Tuhuoluo lies 500 miles west of Congling, bordering Yida. Its capital city measures just two miles across, but they have 100,000 well-trained soldiers, all of whom are combat experts. They also follow Buddhism. A unique custom here is that brothers share a wife, taking turns to sleep with her. The person whose turn it is hangs their clothes outside the door as a signal. Any children born are considered the responsibility of the eldest brother. In the caves in their mountains, there are divine horses residing, and every spring, when mares are placed in the caves, they produce fine foals. It is 1,700 miles south to Cao country and 5,800 miles east to Guazhou. During the Daye period of the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to present tributes.
Yida lies more than 200 miles south of the Wuhu River and is descended from the Yuezhi. They have five to six thousand elite soldiers, renowned for their fierce combat skills. Historically, during times of unrest, the Turks sent envoys to exert control over the country. Their capital covers about ten square miles, with many temples and pagodas adorned with gold. They have a custom of brothers sharing wives, and if a woman has only one husband, she wears a single-horned hat; if the husband has many brothers, the number of horns on the hat increases. Yida is 1,500 miles from Cao country and 6,500 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period of the Sui Dynasty, they regularly offered tributes of local goods.
Migu lies west of the Namishi River, formerly part of the Kangju territory. They have no king; the city is governed by individuals with the surname Zhaowu, a branch of the royal family of Kang, known as Bizhuo. Their capital city is only two miles in size, with just a few hundred elite troops. Migu is 100 miles from Kang country, 500 miles from Suduoshana country, 200 miles from Siguo, and 6,400 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they frequently presented tributes of local products.
Shiguo, located ten li south of the Dumo River, was also the territory of the Kangju in the past. Their king's surname was Zhaowu, with the courtesy name Tizhe, and he was a collateral relative of the Kangju king. Their capital city was only two li in size, with more than a thousand elite troops. Their customs were similar to those of Kangju. Shiguo was 240 miles away from Kangju, 500 miles away from the Tuhuolu, 200 miles away from the Nasebo Kingdom, 200 miles away from the Miguo, and 6,500 miles away from Guazhou. During the Daye era, they also dispatched envoys to present tributes of local specialties.
Cao Guo, located a few li south of the Nami River, was also the territory of the Kangju in the past. This country had no ruler of its own, and it was governed by the son of the Kangju king, named Wujian. Their capital city was three li in size, with more than a thousand elite troops. Inside Cao Guo, there was a deity worshipped, and people from many lands east of the Western Sea come to pay their respects to it. The golden statue of this deity was five feet wide, with harmonious proportions. Every day, five camels, ten horses, and one hundred sheep were sacrificed to it, and the leftovers were too much for over a thousand people to finish. Cao Guo was 100 miles away from Kangju, 150 miles away from the Heguo, and 6,600 miles away from Guazhou. During the Daye era, they also dispatched envoys to present tributes of local specialties.
Heguó, located a few li south of the Nami River, was also the territory of the Kangju in the past. Their king's surname was Zhaowu, also a relative of the Kangju king, with the courtesy name Dun. Their capital city was only two li in size, with a thousand elite troops. Their king sat on a throne made of gold in the shape of a sheep. Heguó was 150 miles away from Cao Guo, 300 miles away from the Xiaogan, and 6,750 miles away from Guazhou. During the Daye era, they also dispatched envoys to present tributes of local specialties.
The Wu Na He Kingdom, with its capital built on the west side of the Wu Hu River, was previously part of the former Anxi Kingdom. The king's surname was Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang Kingdom, whose courtesy name was Foshi. The capital city had walls that extended two li in length, with only a few hundred troops. The king's seat was a sheep-shaped chair made of gold. Traveling northeast for four hundred li will take you to the An Kingdom, and traveling northwest for over two hundred li will bring you to the Mu Kingdom, while traveling east for seven thousand five hundred li will lead you to Gua State. During the reign of Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty, they sent envoys to offer local specialties as tribute.
The Mu Kingdom, with its capital also on the west side of the Wu Hu River, was also part of the former Anxi Kingdom and a neighbor to the Wu Na He Kingdom. Their king's surname was also Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang Kingdom, whose courtesy name was Alanmi. The capital city had walls that extended three li in length, with a force of two thousand troops. Traveling northeast for five hundred li will take you to the An Kingdom, while heading east for over two hundred li will reach the Wu Na He Kingdom, and traveling west for over four thousand li will lead to the Persian Empire, while heading east for seven thousand seven hundred li will bring you to Gua State. During the reign of Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to offer local specialties as tribute.
Now, about the Persian Empire, it was located in the city of Sulind in the west of the Da He River, the ancient city known as Tiaozhi. Their king was named Kusahe. The capital was approximately ten li in diameter. The army had over twenty thousand soldiers, who rode elephants into battle. In this country, there was no death penalty; the harshest punishments included amputating hands and feet, confiscating property, shaving off beards, or wearing a sign around the neck as a public display. Everyone over the age of three was required to pay four coins in annual taxes. They also practiced the custom of marrying their sisters. When someone died, their body was placed on a mountain, and family members had to observe mourning for a month. The king wore a crown adorned with golden flowers, sat on a throne made of golden lions, and even applied gold powder to his beard. He wore a brocade robe and decorated himself with jade ornaments.
This place produces good horses, large donkeys, lions, white elephants, as well as large bird eggs, pearls, poli (a type of gem), shoupo (a type of gem), coral, glass, agate, crystal, sese (a type of gem), huluoji (a type of gem), luteng (a type of gem), huoqi (a type of gem), diamonds, gold, silver, various jade stones, copper, bintie (a type of steel), tin, brocade, fine cloth, various blankets, various leather, huna (a fabric), yuenobu (a fabric), sandalwood, fabric woven with gold thread, red deer skin, cinnabar, mercury, and various spices such as aloeswood, saffron, benzoin, agarwood, pepper, bibo (a spice), honey, semi-honey (a type of sugar), thousand-year jujubes, aconite (a medicinal herb), helele (a medicinal herb), wushizi (a medicinal herb), green vitriol, realgar, and so on. The Turks were unable to defeat them, so they could only maintain a form of control over them. The Persian Empire often sent envoys to pay tribute. To the west of Persia, there is the sea a few hundred miles away; traveling east for over four thousand miles leads to the Mu Kingdom, while traveling northwest for four thousand five hundred miles reaches Fulin (the Byzantine Empire), and heading east for eleven thousand seven hundred miles brings one to Guazhou. Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty sent Li Yu, a cloud cavalry officer, to Persia, and later sent someone to accompany Li Yu to present some local specialties as tribute. The Cao Kingdom, north of the Congling Mountains, was called Jibin during the Han Dynasty. In retrospect, this place was quite powerful, and it had some connection with our Han Dynasty. Their king's surname was Zhaowu, with the courtesy name Shunda, and he was a relative of the King of Kang. The capital was surrounded by walls measuring one li on each side, totaling about four square li. Their military was formidable, with over ten thousand elite soldiers. Their laws were strict, with death penalties for murder, arson, theft, and so on. However, they had a peculiar custom of venerating various chaotic deities.
On Congling Mountain, there is a temple dedicated to the worship of the God of Heaven. The grandeur is truly astonishing, with everything crafted from gold, silver, and bronze. The whole temple is adorned with gold, silver, and bronze, and even the ground is covered with silver! Every day, there are at least a thousand people who come to worship. In front of the temple stands a fish spine with a hole in the center, through which one can ride a horse in and out. It’s quite miraculous just to think about it! The king wears a hat shaped like a gold fish head and sits on a throne crafted from a golden horse; the grandeur is astounding.
This region produces rice, millet, beans, wheat, as well as elephants and horses, a type of cattle known as Fengniu, including gold, silver, bintie (a type of high-quality steel), carpets, cinnabar, indigo, sandalwood, and various spices, honey, semi-honey (likely a honey product), black salt, asafoetida, myrrh, and white aconite. From Cao Country to the north, reaching Fanyan, it’s a distance of seven hundred li; to the east, reaching Jue Country, it’s a distance of six hundred li; to the northeast, reaching Guazhou, it’s a full six thousand six hundred li! During the Sui Dynasty, they even sent envoys to present various local products as tribute.
It is said that in the state of Fu, over two thousand li to the northwest of Shu County, is the territory of the southwestern tribes during the Han Dynasty. There is a tribe called Jialiang Yi to the east of Fu; they govern themselves, with customs similar to those of the state of Fu, though their language varies and lacks standardization. The people here do not have surnames. The king of Fu goes by the name Yi Zeng. Their country is eight hundred li long from north to south and one thousand five hundred li wide from southeast to northwest; they live in areas near river valleys and mountains without city walls. The people there are known for seeking revenge, so they construct "stone nests" from stacked stones to hide from their enemies. These "stone nests" reach heights of over ten zhang, some as short as five or six zhang, each layer about one zhang high, separated by wooden planks. The base is about three or four steps in diameter, tapering to a width of two or three steps at the top, resembling a pagoda. There is a small door on the ground floor, and it must be closed at night to keep thieves out. There are over twenty thousand households in this country, all following the king's orders. The Jialiang Yi tribe listens to their chieftain, with severe crimes punishable by death and minor offenses punished with the loss of an ox. They are all agile and skilled in sword fighting. They use lacquered leather armor, bows six chi long with strings made of bamboo. They also practice polyandry, marrying multiple wives and sisters-in-law; if a brother dies, the elder brother will marry the younger brother's widow. They enjoy singing and dancing, using drums, reed instruments, and flutes. When someone dies, they do not hold elaborate funeral rites. The body is placed on a high bed, cleaned, and then dressed, covered in lacquered armor, and wrapped in animal skins. Children and grandchildren do not cry; instead, they don armor, dance with swords, and shout, "My father has been taken by ghosts; I will avenge and kill the ghosts!" Other relatives cry out three times before falling silent. Women must cover their faces while crying. The deceased's family slaughters a cow, while relatives offer pork and wine, and everyone drinks and eats together before burying the deceased. A grand burial takes place ten years later, inviting relatives and friends, sacrificing at least dozens of horses. They also honor their ancestors with spirit tablets. They wear hats made of leather, round and bowl-shaped, some with face masks. Most wear fur and leather clothing, and boots crafted from whole cowhide. They wear iron chains around their necks and iron bracelets on their wrists. The king and chieftain wear gold jewelry, including a gold flower pendant about three inches in diameter on their chests. The region features high terrain, a cool climate, strong winds, and little rainfall. The land is well-suited for cultivating wheat and barley. The mountains are rich in gold and silver mines and are home to many white pheasants. The rivers are also home to excellent fish, reaching lengths of four feet, with fine scales.
Next is a more detailed description of the customs and lifestyle of the people of Fu Guo. They live in stone dwellings of varying heights, all very sturdy, reflecting their efforts for safety. Their clothing and burial customs reflect their unique culture and way of life, as well as their reverence for ancestors. They value martial prowess and are skilled in fencing, which is also evident in their funeral customs. Resources such as gold, silver, white pheasants, and fine fish indicate the land's rich resources.
In the year 608 AD, during the fourth year of the Sui Yang Emperor's Daye reign, their king sent Su Fu and seven others to the court to pay tribute. The following year, his student Yi Lin was sent with sixty people from Jia Liang Yi to pay tribute. They wanted to offer good horses, but due to the rugged terrain, they were unable to traverse, so they requested the Sui Yang Emperor to open a mountain road to facilitate future tributes. The Sui Yang Emperor found it too troublesome and did not agree.
In Jia Liang, there is a river that is sixty to seventy yards wide; Fu Guo also has a river that is more than a hundred yards wide, both flowing south. The locals use animal skins to make boats to cross the river.
To the south of Fu Guo is a place called Bao Yuan Yi, whose customs are similar to those of Fu Guo. To the west of Fu Guo is a matriarchal society. To the northeast of Fu Guo, there is a continuous mountain range that stretches for thousands of miles, extending to the Dangxiang region. In the mountains, there are Qiang tribal communities such as Da Zuofeng, Xiao Zuofeng, Xi Wei, Ge Yan, Bai Gou, Xiang Ren, Wang Zu, Lin Tai, Chun Sang, Li Dou, Mi Sang, Bi Yao, Da Xia, Bai Lan, Chi Li Mo Tu, Na E, Dang Mi, Qu Bu, Sang Wu, Qian Diao, and so on. These tribes live in deep mountain gorges, lacking a central chief to govern them. Their customs are similar to those of the Dangxiang people, with some tribes subordinate to Tuyuhun, while others are attached to Fu Guo. During the Daye period of the Sui Yang Emperor, these tribes all paid tribute to the court. To manage these areas, the Sui Dynasty established several general offices on the southwestern border for overseeing these regions.
The history books say: throughout history, to open up remote areas and establish connections with the border regions, it requires visionary and strong rulers, as well as loyal subjects ready to serve the nation. Zhang Qian opened the road to the Western Territories in his time, and Ban Chao later joined the military to continue the expansion of the Western Territories. They either used treasures to make friends or used force to intimidate, sacrificing their lives to strive for short-lived glory, all because the emperor valued the connection with the border regions, and the subjects were willing to go through fire and water for the country. Therefore, what those in power favor, those beneath them will embrace even more eagerly.
Emperor Yang of Sui was obsessed with grand accomplishments; his extravagance exceeded that of the Qin and Han dynasties, and Pei Ju presented the "Record of the Western Regions" to cater to his thoughts. So Emperor Yang of Sui personally led an expedition to Yumen Pass, established Yiwu, Qiemo, and other places, resulting in significant suffering and resentment from Guanzhong to the desolate regions. If the northern nomadic tribes posed no threat and good news came from the eastern barbarian areas, Emperor Yang of Sui would definitely continue to build guard posts at Luntai, construct cities at Wulei, and try to obtain pearls from Daqin and bird eggs from Tiaozhi for transport back and forth. Wouldn't this exhaust the country? Wise emperors of ancient times typically governed within a radius of five thousand li, focused on stabilizing the Central Plains, and did not bother with those remote and desolate areas. Is it because their prestige was not powerful enough, or their virtues were not widely recognized? No, it is because they did not want to burden the people of the Central Plains with the burden of the barbarians in distant lands, or damage useful matters with useless ones. Therefore, the Qin Dynasty guarded the Five Ridges, the Han Dynasty managed the three borders, leading to either fields littered with corpses or a drastic population decline. The Sui Dynasty, with its strong power, ultimately found itself in dire straits in Qinghai. All of this was because the rulers lost their direction, leading to the suffering of countless people.
If Emperor Yang of Sui could give serious thought to the concept of "pacifying the borders" and turn down the proposals to set up protectorates, send back the horses that were brought from far away, and decline the tribute of white wolves, then perhaps even without achievements in Liaodong, he could have avoided the tragic fate in Jiangdu.
