Legend has it that the ancestors of Goguryeo originated from the Buyeo Kingdom. The king of Buyeo once obtained the daughter of the River God, imprisoned her in a chamber, and when sunlight shone on her, she became pregnant and laid a large egg. A boy named Jumong hatched from the egg. The officials of Buyeo believed that Jumong was not born of ordinary means and requested the king to kill him, but the king refused. When Jumong grew up, he went hunting with others and consistently brought back an abundance of game. The officials again requested the king to kill him. Jumong's mother told him about this, so Jumong fled Buyeo and ran southeast.
He reached the bank of a river that was too deep to cross. Jumong said, "I am the grandson of the River God and a child of the Sun. Now in danger with pursuers closing in on me, how can I cross?" In that moment, a miracle happened: fish and turtles came together to create a bridge, enabling Jumong to cross the river while the pursuers were left behind. Jumong later established a country and called it Goguryeo, adopting "Go" as his surname. After Jumong passed away, his son Yuri ascended to the throne. In the time of Jumong's grandson Mohe, he mustered an army and ultimately defeated the Buyeo Kingdom.
When Zhu Meng's great-grandson Wei Gong invaded Xi'an Ping during the Zhengshi era of the Wei Kingdom, he was defeated by Guanqiu Jian. Gong's great-great-grandson, Emperor Zhaolie, was later defeated by the Murong clan, and Goguryeo's capital city, Wandu, was burned down and looted before the Murong army withdrew. Emperor Zhaolie was later killed by Baekje. His great-grandson Lian sent envoys to pay tribute to the Later Wei dynasty. Lian's sixth-generation descendant Tang also sent envoys to pay tribute during the Zhou dynasty, and Emperor Wu of Zhou appointed him as Grand Marshal, Duke of Liaodong, and King of Liaodong. After the founding emperor took the throne, Tang sent envoys to the court to pay tribute and was appointed Grand General, later becoming the King of Goguryeo. Since then, Goguryeo has sent envoys to pay tribute to the court every year without fail.
Goguryeo spans two thousand li east to west and over a thousand li north to south. The capital is located in Pyongyang City, also known as Chang'an City, which measures six li from east to west, built along the mountain slopes, with its southern side bordering the Pujŏn River. In addition, there are the Inner City and Hanseong City, which are all part of the capital region, referred to as the "Three Capitals" by the Goguryeo people. They often clashed with Silla, constantly competing for territory.
Goguryeo's official ranks are divided into twelve tiers, which include Grand Elder Brother, Second Grand Elder Brother, Second Younger Brother, Second Dui Lu, Second Yi Houshe, Second Wu Zhuo, Second Grand Envoy, Second Envoy, Second Junior Envoy, Second Roushe, Second Yishu, and Second Xianren. In addition, there are internal and external evaluators, along with officials from the Five Departments. Commoners wore leather hats adorned with bird feathers. High-ranking officials wore purple hats embellished with gold and silver. Their attire included wide-sleeved shirts and wide-legged pants, with white leather belts and yellow leather shoes. Women wore skirts, jackets, and an additional garment resembling an apron called a tunic. Their weapons were akin to those used in China. They conducted hunting expeditions each spring and autumn, with the king participating personally.
The people's taxes consist of five pieces of cloth and five shis of grain per person. For the migrant population, taxes are paid every three years, with ten people sharing one piece of fine cloth. Tenants must pay one stone of grain, while middle-class families pay seven dou, and poor families pay five dou. Those who rebel will be tied to a pillar, burned alive, beheaded, and have their homes confiscated. Thieves must pay back ten times. Because punishments are severe, few people commit crimes. Their music includes instruments such as the five-stringed qin, zheng, bili, transverse flute, xiao, drums, etc., accompanied by reed pipes. At the beginning of each year, large entertainment activities are held by the river, with the king riding in a sedan chair, accompanied by a procession, to observe. After the activities, the king will throw his clothes into the water, divide everyone into two teams, and engage in water and stone throwing, shouting, and chasing games, repeating several times before ending.
Goguryeo people like to sit cross-legged, are clean, love to show themselves, and consider running around a sign of respect. They drag one leg while greeting elders, cross their hands in front of their chest when standing, and swing their arms when walking. They are cunning and suspicious. Fathers and sons bathe together in the river and sleep in the same room. Eloping among women is common, and there are many courtesans. When getting married, as long as the man and woman are in agreement, the man only needs to offer some pork and liquor, with no dowry required. Anyone who accepts a dowry is looked down upon. The deceased are kept in the house for three years before being buried on a lucky day.
When parents or husbands pass away, mourning must be observed for three years; for brothers, it is three months. Initially, there is mourning, but during the burial, there is music, dancing, and revelry. After burial, the deceased's clothing, belongings, vehicles, and horses are placed next to the grave, and attendees at the funeral will compete to take these items. They have a deep reverence for spirits and many lewd temples.
At the start of the Kaihuang era, envoys frequently came here to pay tribute. After the Chen dynasty was destroyed, Tang, a former official of the Chen dynasty, was terrified and hurriedly organized his troops, accumulated food, and prepared to resist the court's impending attack.
In the seventeenth year, the emperor granted Tang a letter, which read:
(Here pause, waiting for the original content to be supplemented in order to continue translating into modern Chinese colloquial language.)
I, the Heavenly Emperor, was appointed as the emperor to protect the people of the world and appointed you to govern this coastal region, hoping that you would promote the teachings of the court, so that everyone can live in peace and happiness, each in their rightful place. Although you come to pay tribute every year, claiming to be submissive to me, your sincerity falls short. Since you are my subjects, you should have the same virtues as I do, but you oppress the Mohe people and strictly prohibit the Khitan from having contact with me. Other vassals obediently pledge allegiance to me; only you—why do you hate those who are kind-hearted? Your intentions are downright malicious! Your country has many craftsmen; if you need anything, feel free to report it to the court.
In recent years, you have secretly hidden wealth, letting villains succeed, and secretly taking crossbowmen to other countries. Isn’t that secretly making weapons and plotting against me? Are you afraid of being exposed, so you steal things? I sent envoys to appease you, originally wanting to understand your situation and teach you some ways to govern the country. However, you locked the envoys in empty rooms, strictly guarded them, so they couldn't hear or see anything. What secret schemes are you hiding from everyone? Why do you still prohibit the government from investigating? You have repeatedly sent troops to attack border residents, played tricks repeatedly, spread evil rumors, and never truly regarded me.
I treat all my subjects as I would my own children, giving you land and titles, with my blessings spreading far and wide. Yet you are always distrustful and suspicious of me, often sending people to secretly gather information. How does this reflect the behavior of a loyal subject? Perhaps my teachings have been lacking, but I have already forgiven your misdeeds. From today onward, you must turn over a new leaf, follow the rituals of vassals, abide by the laws of the court, govern your own states well, and not provoke other nations. Only then can you prosper for a long time, which is also to my liking. Although your land is small and your people are few, under the heavens, you are all still my subjects. If I were to depose you, I cannot just turn a blind eye and must appoint officials to pacify the region.
If you truly repent and abide by the laws, you will be my loyal subjects. Do I really need to send someone to keep an eye on you again? Throughout history, emperors have ruled with benevolence and righteousness, rewarding the meritorious and punishing the guilty. If you have no faults, and I suddenly raise troops against you, how would the other vassals view me? You must humbly accept my words, have no doubts, and entertain no other thoughts. Previously, Chen Shubao rebelled in Jiangyin, harming the people and disturbing our borders, and plundering our border areas. I warned him many times, but he ignored my warnings, blinded by his arrogance. That's why I sent troops to eliminate this rebel. In less than a month, with just a few thousand troops, we quelled the rebellion once and for all, bringing peace to the world.
I hear you are saddened by this and are sighing. Rewards and punishments are the responsibility of the court. Punishing you is not to destroy you, rewarding you is not to protect you. Are you really fond of chaos? Do you think the width of the Liao River can compare to the Yangtze River? Can the population of Goryeo compare to that of Chen? If I were to stop tolerating you, investigate your faults, and send a general, how much effort do you think that would take? I'm just reminding you out of goodwill and urging you to turn things around. You should understand my intentions and work on building your own virtues.
Tang De was quite alarmed, so he quickly prepared to write a memorial to thank the emperor, but he died before he could finish writing it. His son Tang Yuan inherited the title. The emperor sent envoys to appoint Tang Yuan as the Chief of the Upper House and Yitong Sanqi, inheriting the title of Marquis of Liaodong County, and also bestowed upon him a set of clothes.
Tang Yuan quickly wrote a memorial to thank the emperor and also congratulated him on the auspicious omens he had received, then took the opportunity to request the emperor to grant him the title of king. The emperor readily granted Tang Yuan the title of king.
The following year, a man named Yuan led over ten thousand cavalry and the Mohe people in an attack on Western Liaoning. General Wei Chongji of Yingzhou defeated them. The emperor was enraged and immediately appointed Han Wang Liang as the marshal to lead the land and naval forces to subdue them, and issued an edict to demote Yuan. As a result, the supply lines fell short, the army had no food, and when they reached Linyu Pass, they encountered a plague, causing the army's fighting capability to plummet.
By the side of the Liao River, Yuan, now fearful, quickly sent a messenger to apologize and identified himself as "a humble servant of Liaodong, Yuan the whatever." The emperor, upon hearing this, withdrew the troops, treating him as before, and Yuan continued to pay tribute every year. Later, Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty ascended the throne, and during this period of peace and prosperity, both the King of Gaochang and the Turkic Khan came to pay tribute in person. At this time, Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty sought Yuan’s tribute once more.
Yuan was worried about making an etiquette mistake and felt very flustered. In the seventh year of the Daye era, the emperor sought to punish Yuan for his error. He personally led the troops across the Liao River, set up camp near Liaodong City, and deployed troops to launch an attack. All the troops set up camp and fortified their positions outside the city. The Goryeo army emerged to resist but suffered several defeats, so they all defended the city. The emperor ordered the siege of the city and specifically instructed the generals, saying, "If the Goryeo people surrender, they should be treated well, and soldiers were not to be allowed to plunder." As the city neared its fall, the enemy expressed a desire to surrender. The generals hesitated to act rashly and first sent a messenger to report. When the news came back, the enemy prepared for defense again and came out to resist. This occurred several times, yet the emperor remained perplexed. As a result, the army ran low on supplies, and the soldiers were utterly exhausted; logistics could not keep up, many armies were defeated, and they could only retreat. This campaign only succeeded in capturing a bandit named Wuli Luo on the west bank of the Liao River, established Liaodong County and Tongding Town before returning. Nine years later, the emperor personally led another campaign, this time granting the generals the autonomy to devise their own battle plans. The generals divided their forces to attack the city, and the enemy's strength diminished day by day. As a result, Yang Xuangan rebelled, and the rebel's letter arrived in the emperor's hands. The emperor, alarmed, immediately ordered a full retreat. Minister of War Husizheng fled to Goryeo, and upon learning the full story, Goryeo dispatched elite troops to pursue, resulting in heavy losses for the rear guard.
Ten years later, the emperor once again mobilized the national army, but was met with rampant banditry. The people fled, and the roads were blocked, causing many armies to miss their deadlines. By the Liao River, Goryeo was exhausted and sent envoys to surrender, even handing over Hosik to the Sui Dynasty as an act of atonement. The emperor agreed and stationed himself in Huaiyuan Town, accepted Goryeo's surrender and sent back the captives and troops. Upon returning to the capital, Goryeo's envoys reported to the ancestral temple but were detained by the emperor. The emperor ordered the Yuan to pay tribute, but they ultimately did not come. The emperor ordered the army to prepare for future campaigns, but chaos ensued, and they ultimately never marched again.
According to legend, the ancestors of Baekje originated from Goryeo. The king of Goryeo had a servant girl who suddenly became pregnant. The king wanted to kill her; however, the servant girl replied, "There was something that looked like an egg entrusted to me, which is why I became pregnant." The king spared her. Later, the servant girl gave birth to a boy, whom she threw into the toilet, but the child miraculously survived. People thought the child had divine powers, so they raised him and named him Dongming.
When Dongming grew up, the king of Goryeo grew fearful of him. Dongming, afraid, fled to Yan River (modern Yalu River). The Buyeo people hailed him as their leader. Among Dongming's descendants was a man named Qiutai, renowned for his benevolence and integrity. He founded a kingdom in the former Fang territory. The Han Dynasty's Liaodong Prefect Gongsun Du married his daughter to him. Baekje gradually grew stronger and emerged as a powerful kingdom in the eastern regions. Initially, they crossed the sea using hundreds of ships, which is how Baekje got its name.
Baekje went through more than ten generations of kings, all of whom paid tribute to China. These events were recorded in detail in historical books. During the Kaihuang era of the Sui Dynasty, King Yuchang of Baekje sent envoys to offer various tributes, and Emperor Wen of Sui granted him the title of Shangkaifu, Daifang Jun Gong, and King of Baekje.
It is said that this country is 450 miles long from east to west and over 900 miles long from north to south. It is bordered by Silla to the south and Goryeo to the north. Its capital is called Jubacheong.
There are a total of sixteen levels of officials, with the highest being the Left Minister, followed by Grand Commander, Benevolent Commander, Virtuous Commander, Assistant Commander, Commander Nai, and Commander Jiang. All these officials wear purple belts; below them are Shi De, who wear black belts; Gu De, who wear red belts; Li De, who wear green belts; officials below Li De wear yellow belts; then there are Wen Du, Wu Du, Zuo Jun, Zhen Wu, and Ke Yu, who wear white belts. Their hats are all the same style; only officials above Nai Shuai have silver flowers on their hats. The position of Changshi is rotated every three years.
The area surrounding the capital is divided into five districts, each of which contains five neighborhoods where the residents live. Each district is managed by a Fang Ling and his two deputies. Each district is divided into ten counties, each with a county magistrate. The population of this country is ethnically diverse, including Silla people, Goryeo people, Japanese people, and Chinese people. Their clothing resembles that of the Goryeo people. Women do not wear makeup, and young girls wear a single braid that hangs down their backs, which is divided into two braids after marriage and coiled on top of the head.
They enjoy horseback riding and archery, along with reading historical texts, managing political affairs, and practicing medicine, divination, and fortune-telling. When they bow, they support themselves with both hands on the ground. This country is home to both monks and nuns, along with numerous temples and pagodas. They play various musical instruments, including drums, horns, harps, zithers, flutes, and pipes, and enjoy games such as throwing pots, chess, backgammon, spear-holding, and playing with beads. They follow the Yuanjia calendar from the Song Dynasty, starting the year in the first month.
There are eight major surnames in this country, namely Sha, Yan, Dao, Xie, Zhen, Guo, Mu, and Miao. Their marriage customs are similar to those in the Central Plains, whereas their funeral customs resemble those of Goryeo. They grow grains, raise cattle, pigs, and chickens, but many of the foods they consume are eaten raw. Their fields are relatively wet, so most people live in the mountains. There is also a type of very large chestnut. Every mid-month of each season, the king offers sacrifices to the spirits of heaven, earth, and the Five Emperors. They also built a temple in the capital to worship their ancestors, and they conduct sacrifices four times a year.
To the southwest of the country, there are fifteen islands on the sea, all of which are inhabited and have cities. During the year when the Sui Dynasty pacified the Chen Dynasty, a warship drifted to the kingdom of Moro in the East China Sea. Later, the ship surprisingly returned on its own, passing through Baekje. King Chang of Baekje treated the crew of the ship very well and even sent envoys to congratulate the Sui Dynasty on pacifying the Chen Dynasty. Emperor Wen of Sui held King Chang of Baekje in high regard and issued a decree saying, "King Chang of Baekje heard that we have pacified the Chen Dynasty and specially sent envoys to congratulate us. The journey was long and arduous, and there could have been damage to people and ships in case of storms. I appreciate King Chang's goodwill, and although the journey is long, our intentions are as clear as if we were speaking face to face. There is no need to send envoys back and forth every year. From now on, you no longer need to send tribute every year, and I will no longer send envoys either. Just keep this in mind." After that, he let the envoys return happily.
In the 18th year of the Kaihuang reign, King Chang of Baekje sent his chief official Wang Bian Na to present tributes. Just as the Sui Dynasty was planning to attack Goguryeo, Baekje also sent envoys to congratulate and offer to serve as guides. The Emperor decreed, "In recent years, Goguryeo did not offer tributes and did not follow the proper vassal etiquette, so I sent troops to attack them. The King and officials of Goguryeo were frightened and confessed their wrongdoings. I have already pardoned them, so there is no need for war." The Emperor received the envoys from Baekje warmly and then sent them back. Goguryeo learned of this and began invading Baekje's borders.
Later, King Chang of Baekje died, and his son, Yu Xuan, succeeded him. After Yu Xuan's death, his son, Yu Zhang, took the throne. In the third year of the Daye reign of the Sui Dynasty, Yu Zhang sent an envoy, Yan Wen, to present tributes. In the same year, he sent another envoy, Wang Xiaolin, to present tributes and requested the Sui Dynasty to attack Goguryeo. Emperor Yang of Sui agreed, instructing them to first assess the situation in Goguryeo. However, Yu Zhang secretly conspired with Goguryeo, employing deceitful tactics to gather intelligence on China's military capabilities. In the seventh year of the Daye era, Emperor Yang personally led troops to attack Goguryeo, and Yu Zhang sent his official Guo Zhimou to inquire about the timing of the attack. Emperor Yang was pleased and rewarded him generously with gifts, and also sent the official Xilv to Baekje to establish friendly relations.
The following year, the Sui army successfully crossed the Liao River, and Yu Zhang also positioned his troops at the border, claiming to support the Sui army while actually playing both sides. Before long, Baekje and Silla were in conflict again, frequently clashing. In the tenth year of the Daye era, Baekje sent envoys to present tributes. Later, chaos erupted throughout the land, and Baekje's envoys never returned.
Regarding the South Sea, a three-month journey south leads to the country of Moro, which stretches over a thousand li from north to south and hundreds of li from east to west. It is rich in deer and serves as a vassal state of Baekje. "Baekje is three days' travel west to reach the country of Mo."
Silla was located in the southeast of Goryeo, which corresponds to the territory of the Han Dynasty's Lelang Commandery, sometimes referred to as Silo. Previously, the Wei general Muqiu Jian defeated the Goryeo people, and they fled to Waju. Later, some of them returned to their hometown, and those who stayed there became the people of Silla. Therefore, the bloodline of the people of Silla is very mixed, with descendants of Han, Goryeo, and Baekje, as well as people from Waju, Bunai, and Hanheuk. The king of Silla was originally from Baekje, fleeing to Silla by sea and later becoming king. During the reign of King Jin Jinping, in the 14th year of the Sui Dynasty's Kaihuang era, he sent envoys to pay tribute. Emperor Wen of Sui appointed him as Shangkaifu, Duke of Lelang Commandery, and King of Silla.
Initially, Silla was a vassal state of Baekje, but later Baekje attacked Goryeo, and the Goryeo people could no longer endure the hardships of war, so they fled to Silla one after another, which ultimately strengthened Silla. Later, Silla followed the example of Baekje and became a vassal state of Gaya.
Silla's official positions were categorized into seventeen ranks, with the highest rank being Yibagan, which was equivalent to that of a prime minister; followed by Yichigan, Yinggan, Pomigan, Daachigan, Achigan, Yijigan, Shadougan, Jifugan, Danaimogan, Naimo, Dashe, Xiaoshe, Jitu, Dauwu, Xiaowu, and Zhaowei. In addition to these ranks, there were also local counties. Their script and weaponry closely resembled those of China. Silla recruited strong young men for military service, and there were dedicated military units responsible for beacon towers, border outposts, and patrols. Their customs, legal systems, and attire were comparable to those of Goryeo and Baekje.
On the first day of the lunar new year, people visit one another to exchange New Year's wishes. The king hosts a banquet for his ministers, rewarding them with gifts. On this day, offerings are made to the deities of the sun and moon. On the fifteenth day of the eighth month, a banquet is held during which officials compete in archery, and those who win are rewarded with horses and textiles. During significant events, all officials are called together to discuss and make decisions. The Silla people prefer to wear simple clothing. Women style their hair in braids, adorned with colorful threads and beads. Wedding ceremonies are straightforward, centered around feasting and toasting, with the scale varying according to the family's means. On the wedding night, the bride first pays respects to her parents-in-law, then to her husband. When someone passes away, they are prepared for burial, and a tomb is constructed. The king, along with the parents and wife, observes a year of mourning. Silla's land is fertile, suitable for both wet and dry agriculture. The crops, fruits, vegetables, and wildlife are comparable to those found in China. Since the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, Silla has paid tribute annually. Silla's landscape is rugged, and despite their conflicts with Baekje, Baekje cannot do anything about it.
The Mohe inhabit the northern regions of Goryeo, with each village led by its own chief, lacking a unified leadership. There are a total of seven tribes: the first is the Sumo clan, bordering Goryeo, boasting several thousand elite warriors who frequently raid Goryeo. The second is the Bodeo tribe, north of Sumo, with seven thousand elite soldiers. The third is the Anchegu tribe, northeast of Bodeo. The fourth is the Pungnye tribe, east of Bodeo. The fifth is the Haosit tribe, east of Pungnye. The sixth is the Heishui tribe, northwest of Anchegu. The seventh is the Baishan tribe, southeast of Sumo. The total military strength of these tribes is under thirty thousand, but the Heishui tribe stands out as particularly formidable. East of Pungnye, they utilize stone-tipped arrows, similar to the ancient Sushen tribe. They mostly live in mountainous areas near water, and their leader, Damofuman, is regarded as a powerful figure among the eastern tribes.
They have a place called Taishan, and the locals deeply revere it. Although there are bears, leopards, and wolves on the mountain, they pose no threat to people, and in turn, people do not harm them. The terrain there is low-lying and moist, so they construct earthen embankments and live in dugouts with the entrances facing upwards, accessed by ladders. They cultivate the land together, primarily growing millet, wheat, and sorghum. The water there is salty, and salt will form on tree bark. They primarily raise pigs. They chew rice to brew wine, and it can intoxicate them. Women wear cloth clothes, and men wear pigskin and dogskin clothes. They wash their hands and faces with urine, and among all the barbarian tribes, they are regarded as the least hygienic. Their customs are quite licentious, and women are notably jealous. If a woman's husband discovers she is having an affair and if someone tells him, he will kill his wife, then regret it and kill the informant as well, so this kind of adultery will never be exposed.
They mainly rely on hunting for a living, using bows three feet long and arrows one foot two inches long. They usually make poison in July and August, apply it to arrowheads, and shoot birds and animals. Animals struck by poisoned arrows die instantly.
At the onset of the Kaihuang era, the leaders of those (Turkic) tribes sent envoys to pay tribute. Emperor Wen of Sui received the envoys and said to them, "I have heard that the people in your place are all brave and good at war. Now that you have come to see me, it truly meets my expectations. I regard you as my own children, so you should respect me as you would your father." The envoys replied, "We live in a remote place, and the journey is far. We have heard that your country has a wise and noble monarch, so we have come to pay our respects. Now that we have received your grace and seen your holy face, we are profoundly grateful and honored to become your subjects for all time."
Their country borders the Khitan in the northwest, and they often raid each other. Later, when these envoys came to pay their respects, Emperor Wen of Sui admonished them, saying, "I have compassion for both the Khitan and you, as you are not different. You should each defend your own territories, so you can all live and work in peace. Why do you always attack each other? This is contrary to my wishes!" The envoys quickly apologized. Emperor Wen of Sui then treated them well, permitting them to feast and drink in the palace. The envoys and their followers stood up and danced, most of their dance movements mimicking scenes of battle. Emperor Wen of Sui watched them and said to his attendants, "Is there really such a thing in the world? (referring to the dance) Always thinking about fighting, this is too much!" However, their homeland was quite distant from the Sui Dynasty, with only the Su Mo River and Baishan being relatively close.
When Emperor Yang of Sui first fought with Goguryeo, he suffered repeated defeats. The Goguryeo general Du Deji surrendered with his troops. Emperor Yang of Sui appointed him as the Right Guanglu Dafu, permitting him to reside in Liucheng and engage with the local populace. Du Deji liked Chinese customs and requested to wear Hanfu. Emperor Yang of Sui was very pleased and bestowed upon him considerable favor, rewarding him with a lot of silk and satin. During the Liaodong campaign, Du Deji led his subordinates to follow Emperor Yang of Sui on expeditions, achieving victories each time and receiving numerous rewards from the emperor. When Emperor Yang of Sui was in power for thirteen years, he once traveled to Jiangdu and later returned Du Deji to Liucheng. While returning to Liucheng, he encountered the rebellion led by Li Mi. Li Mi sent troops to intercept him, and after engaging in over ten battles, Du Deji barely managed to escape. When he reached Gaoyang, he was taken prisoner by Wang Xuba. Not long after, he managed to escape once more and sought refuge with Luo Yi.
Liuqiu is located on an island to the east of Jian'an County, a five-day boat ride away. It's a land filled with caves. The king, surnamed Huansi, is named Keladou, and how many generations have passed since their country was founded is unknown. Locals refer to the king as Kelao Yang and the queen as Duobatu. They live in a place called Bolotan Cave, encircled by three moats and fences, with a stream flowing outside, and fences crafted from branches and thorns. The king's residence is quite large, featuring sixteen rooms adorned with carvings of birds and beasts. The island is home to many trees resembling orange trees, with thick foliage and branches that droop like hair. The country has four or five generals, each responsible for different caves, and each cave has its own small king. Each cave also has a village, with a leader chosen from the most skilled warriors to oversee village matters. Both men and women wrap their hair in white hemp ropes, wrapping from the nape to the forehead. Men wear feathered hats decorated with beads, shells, and red plumes, each sporting a unique style. Women don square hats made from simple white fabric.
The clothes they wear are made of bark from trees resembling orange trees, hemp fabric in various colors, and animal fur, woven in a variety of styles. The clothes are also decorated with hanging feathers and shells of various colors, as well as some hanging shells, producing sounds like jade, adorned with earrings, bracelets, and hanging beads around their necks. They weave hats from rattan, decorated with feathers on top. They have weapons such as knives, spears, bows, arrows, swords, and halberds. Iron is scarce in the region, and knives and swords are thin and lightweight, mostly reinforced with bone and horn. They weave armor with hemp, some also using bear and leopard skins. The king sits in a beast-shaped wooden carriage, carried by people on the left and right, followed by only a few dozen people. The young king rides in a wooden carriage carved to resemble a beast.
The people of Liuqiu enjoy fighting among themselves, each one strong, fast, hard to kill, and highly resilient. Each mountain cave fights independently, without mutual rescue. When the two armies face each other, three to five brave men rush to the front, shouting and jumping, cursing each other, and then start shooting arrows at each other. If they lose, the whole army will run away, send someone to apologize and then reconcile. The dead are gathered and consumed together, then their skulls are presented to the king. The king will reward them with hats and make them captains. They do not impose taxes and share responsibilities equally. Their punishments lack fixed standards and are determined on the spot. Crimes are judged by the bird leader; if there is a disagreement, they report it to the king, and the king lets the ministers decide together. The prison lacks shackles, using only ropes instead. The death penalty is carried out with an iron awl, as thick as chopsticks, more than a foot long, stabbing through the top of the head to deliver death. Minor offenses are punished with caning. They have no writing, relying on the phases of the moon to track the seasons and observing the growth and decay of plants to keep track of the years.
It is said that the people in this place have sunken eyes, high noses, and resemble the Hu people somewhat, but they are also quite intelligent. They do not have hierarchical norms of respect, nor do they practice kneeling rituals. Fathers and sons may even share a bed. Men shave their beards and eyebrows, and remove all body hair. Women tattoo their hands, typically with designs of insects and snakes. When getting married, they offer wine, food, and pearls as betrothal gifts, or if a man and woman are in love, they become husband and wife. After childbirth, women are required to consume the placenta, heat their bodies over a fire, sweat it out, and fully recover within five days. They use wooden troughs to evaporate seawater to produce salt, tree sap to make vinegar, and ferment rice and wheat into wine, although the wine has a rather mild flavor. They eat with their hands, and when they encounter something good, they always present it to their elders first. During banquets, the person serving the wine must wait for the host to call their name before pouring, even when toasting the king, they must call the king's name. When drinking together, much like the Turks, they sing and dance while stomping their feet. One person sings while everyone else joins in, resulting in a melancholic atmosphere. When someone is nearing death, the body is carried to the courtyard, where relatives and friends gather to mourn. The body is then washed, wrapped in cloth, and then covered with reeds before being buried on the spot without a grave marker. Sons observe mourning for their fathers by refraining from meat for several months. In the south, the customs differ slightly - when someone dies, the villagers will collectively consume the deceased's body.
There are many bears, bears, jackals, and wolves in this place, as well as many pigs and chickens, but there are no cows, sheep, donkeys, or horses. This land is fertile, and before cultivation, it is burned with fire and then irrigated with water. They use a long wooden plow with a stone blade attached to the end to plow the land, which is about one foot long and a few inches wide. This area produces rice, sorghum, foxtail millet, broomcorn millet, hemp, beans, as well as adzuki beans, mung beans, black beans, and more. There are maple trees, catalpa trees, camphor trees, pine trees, parasol trees, Nanmu trees, cedar trees, bamboo, vines, various fruit trees, and medicinal herbs, similar to the areas south of the Yangtze River in terms of climate and customs.
The locals worship mountain gods and sea gods, offering wine and food during sacrifices. After killing in battles, they also sacrifice the slain to the spirits. Some people build small houses in dense forests, some hang skulls on trees and shoot arrows at them, and some pile up stones with flags, treating them as idols for worship. The king's residence is filled with skulls at the base of the walls, which they consider a good thing. Every household is required to hang the skulls and horns of animals on their doors.
In the first year of the Daye era of the Sui Dynasty, Commander He Man and his crew, during the clear and calm weather of spring and autumn, would look eastward as if they saw mist on the horizon, not knowing how far away it was. After three years, Emperor Yang of Sui sent Captain Zhu Kuan of the Feathered Cavalry to sail out to find these exotic people. He Man mentioned this, and they went together, eventually arriving at the country of Liuqiu. Because of the language barrier, they captured someone and brought him back.
In the second year, the emperor again sent Zhu Kuan to pacify them. Since the Liuchiu kingdom refused, Zhu Kuan seized some of their cloth armor and returned. Meanwhile, envoys from Japan arrived to pay tribute, and when they saw the cloth armor, they said, "These are things used by the people of Liuchiu." So the emperor dispatched the military commander Chen Leng and the court official Zhang Zhenzhou to lead troops from Yian, sailing to attack Liuchiu. Upon reaching Gaohua Island, they traveled east for two days to reach Xibiyu Island, and after another day they arrived at Liuchiu. Initially, Chen Leng brought soldiers from various southern states to join the fight. Among them, there were Kunlun people who were more proficient in the Liuchiu language, so they were sent to persuade them. However, Liuchiu refused to comply and resisted the imperial forces. Chen Leng defeated them, entered the capital of Liuchiu, won numerous battles, burned their palace, captured thousands of men and women, and returned with the spoils. From that point on, Liuchiu severed ties with the Sui Dynasty.
The Wa Kingdom is located to the southeast of Baekje and Silla, approximately three thousand miles by sea, nestled among mountains and islands in the vast ocean. During the Wei Dynasty, the Wa Kingdom and China were already able to communicate with each other. The Wa Kingdom consists of more than thirty countries, each of which claims to have its own king. The people of the Wa Kingdom do not measure distances precisely; they calculate travel time in days. Their territory extends east to west for a journey of five months and north to south for three months, reaching the coast. The terrain is elevated in the east and lower in the west. Their capital is located at Yamadai, referred to as Yamatai in the "Records of Wei." Ancient texts state that the Wa Kingdom is twelve thousand miles away from Lelang Commandery and Daifang Commandery, to the east of Kuaiji, and almost as far as Dan'er. During the reign of Emperor Guangwu of Han, the Wa Kingdom sent envoys to pay tribute, referring to themselves as nobles. During the reign of Emperor An of Han, the Wa Kingdom again sent envoys to pay tribute, referring to themselves as the Wa Slave Kingdom. During the reigns of Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling of Han, the Wa Kingdom experienced significant turmoil, with internal conflicts and no king for many years. Later, there was a woman named Himiko, who could enchant the people through her shamanistic powers, so the entire nation recognized her as queen. She had a brother who helped her govern the country. This queen had over a thousand attendants, and very few had ever seen her face; only two men were tasked with delivering her food and messages. The queen's palace, pavilions, city walls, and fences were all guarded by soldiers, and the laws were strictly enforced. From the Wei Dynasty to the Qi Dynasty and the Liang Dynasty, the Wa Kingdom maintained contact with China. In the twentieth year of the Kaihuang era, which is in the year 590 AD, the king of Japan, surnamed Amo, whose personal name was Tali Sibei and title was A Beiji Mi, sent envoys to meet the emperor. The emperor directed the relevant departments to investigate the customs of Japan.
The envoy reported that the Wokou king considered the sky as his elder brother and the sun as his younger brother. He would sit cross-legged and handle state affairs before sunrise, and as soon as the sun rose, he would stop working, saying he would "hand over state affairs to my younger brother." Emperor Gaozu immediately said, "This is unreasonable!" and ordered the Wokou king to change this habit. The Wokou king's wife was named Jima, and he had six to seven hundred women in his harem. The Wokou crown prince was named Ige Midofuri. At that time, Japan did not have city walls or fortifications. Their official ranks were divided into twelve levels: the first rank was called Dade, the second Xiaode, and so forth, including Darenn, Xiaoren, Dayi, Xiaoyi, Dali, Xiaoli, Dazhi, Xiaozhi, Daxin, and Xiaxin, with the number of people in each rank varying. They also had officials similar to Chinese village heads, called Junni, numbering 120. Eighty households were overseen by an Iniyi, equivalent to a present-day village head. Ten Iniyi were under the jurisdiction of a Junni. Japanese men wore long shirts with short sleeves, shoes similar to Chinese straw sandals with colored lacquered uppers tied to their feet. Most commoners went barefoot and were forbidden from using gold or silver for decoration. Their clothing was made of horizontally cut fabric without seams. They did not wear hats, and their hair was left loose beside their ears. Their kings only began wearing hats made of brocade adorned with gold and silver filigree during the Sui Dynasty. Women tied their hair behind their heads, wore long shirts with short sleeves, and pleated skirts. They used bamboo combs, grass mats, and animal skin coats edged with patterned leather. Their weapons included bows, arrows, knives, spears, crossbows, axes, and armor made of lacquered leather with bone arrowheads. Despite having an army, they seldom engaged in warfare. During royal gatherings, they always had a ceremonial procession and performed their traditional music. The population of Japan was approximately one hundred thousand households.
Speaking of the customs of this place, if someone commits murder, robbery, or adultery, it can cost you your life! Thieves have to pay back the value of what they stole, and if they can't pay, they end up as slaves. For lesser offenses, they might be exiled or get a good beating.
During interrogations, if someone won't confess, they might have their knees crushed with wood or a large bowstring tightened around their necks. More severe methods include throwing small stones into boiling water and making the parties fish them out—whoever burns their hand is the one at fault; or putting a snake in a jar and making the parties catch it—whoever gets bitten is guilty.
Therefore, the people there are pretty honest, rarely go to court, and theft is pretty rare. They love playing instruments like the five-stringed qin and flute. Everyone, young and old, loves to get tattoos on their arms and faces, go fishing, and keep records by carving notches in wood and tying knots.
Eventually, they embraced Buddhism and got their scriptures from Baekje, which helped them develop a written language. They also practiced divination and had a strong belief in shamans. Every New Year's Day, they shoot arrows, drink up, and have a good time, and their other customs are pretty similar to ours. They also enjoy playing chess, dice games, and chupu.
The weather there is warm, with lush greenery, fertile land, and abundant water. They use little rings to loop around cormorants' necks to help catch fish, with each bird catching more than a hundred fish daily! They don’t use plates or utensils; they just eat off tree leaves with their hands.
The people there are pretty straightforward and have a refined taste. There are more women than men, and you can't marry someone with the same last name. As long as a guy and a girl like each other, they can tie the knot. When a woman gets married, she has to step over a dog before she can see her husband. The women there aren't promiscuous or jealous at all.
When a person dies, the deceased is buried in a coffin, and relatives and friends sing and dance next to the body. The spouse, children, and siblings wear white mourning attire. Nobles and officials must keep the body for three years before burial, while commoners choose an auspicious date for burial. During the burial, the body is placed on a boat and pulled along the land, or transported by a small cart.
There is a mountain called Mount Asu in that place, where stones inexplicably catch fire, with flames soaring into the sky. The locals find this phenomenon miraculous and hold ritual ceremonies. There is also a type of wish-fulfilling gem, blue in color and the size of an egg, that glows at night. It is said to be the essence of a fish's eye.
Silla and Baekje both regarded Wa (Japan) as a powerful nation, believing that it possessed many treasures, and they greatly respected Wa, often sending envoys back and forth.
In the year 607 AD, the King of Goryeo sent envoys to the Sui Dynasty. The envoys said, "We heard that the Bodhisattva Emperor of the Western Sea (referring to Emperor Yang of Sui) vigorously promotes Buddhism, so we specially sent me to pay respects and brought dozens of monks to learn Buddhism." The Goryeo's official letter read, "The Emperor of the East sends a letter to the Emperor of the West at sunrise, wishing the Emperor of the West well at sunset, and so forth." Emperor Yang of Sui was quite displeased after reading it and told his Minister of Rites, "If there are any disrespectful parts in the letters from the barbarians, do not let me know about them again."
The following year, Emperor Yang of Sui sent the Scholar of the Imperial Library, Pei Qing, to Wa (Japan). Pei Qing first passed through Baekje, arrived at Jukdo Island, saw the country of Goguryeo to the south, and then passed through Doshma Country, all of which were in the middle of the sea. Continuing east, he arrived at Iki Country, then at Tsushima Country, and further east to the Kingdom of Qin, where the people were similar to those from the Central Plains. They were considered a barbarous land, but its status was still uncertain. He passed through more than ten countries before reaching the coast of Wa. From Tsushima Country to the east, these countries were all subject to Wa. The Wa King sent Xiao Deabi Tai to lead a contingent of hundreds, with ceremonial guards, to welcome Pei Qing. Ten days later, the Wa King sent Da Li Gedopi to lead more than two hundred cavalry to welcome Pei Qing on the outskirts.
After arriving in the capital of Japan, the Japanese king was very pleased to meet Pei Qing. He said, "I have heard that in the west, there is a great Sui Dynasty, known for its etiquette, which is why we sent people to pay tribute. We, the so-called 'barbarians,' live in remote coastal areas and do not understand etiquette, so we delayed in receiving the envoys right away. Now I have specially cleaned the roads and decorated the buildings to welcome the ambassador, hoping to learn from your country's advanced culture." Pei Qing replied, "The emperor's virtue extends throughout the universe, and his grace reaches across the seas. Because the king admires the culture of the great Sui Dynasty, he sent me here to promote education." Then the Japanese king arranged for Pei Qing to stay in the building.
Later, Pei Qing sent someone to inform the Japanese king, "The court's decree has been conveyed; please arrange for the envoys to return home as soon as possible." So, the Japanese king held a banquet for Pei Qing and sent envoys to follow him to present tribute items. From then on, the exchanges between Japan and the Sui Dynasty came to an end.
Historical records say: the valleys and rivers each have their own unique geographical environments, and the people living there possess diverse customs, preferences, desires, and languages. The sages formulated educational policies based on the situation at the time, so that they could fulfill their wishes and align their customs and habits with those of the Central Plains. The places where the nine barbarians live are very far from the Central Plains, but they are naturally kind and gentle, without a violent and cruel atmosphere. Although separated by distant mountains, rivers, and seas, it is very easy to govern them through education. During the Xia and Yin Dynasties, they sometimes came to pay homage to the emperor. It was not until Ji Zi fled to Korea that the "Eight Prohibitions" were implemented, which were concise and easy to implement, and could be carried out for a long time. The impact of education endured for thousands of years.
Now in various countries in Liaodong, some wear attire and headwear similar to those of the Central Plains, and some have dining utensils like those of the Central Plains. They enjoy studying classics and historical texts, and those who come to the capital to study are numerous; even if some die far from home, they cannot return. If it weren't for the virtuous traditions established by ancient sages, how could such a situation exist? Therefore, Confucius said, "Speak with loyalty and integrity, act with respect and caution, even in the land of barbarians." This is truly a profound truth! Their customs and habits worth learning from, is it just about offering crude arrows as tribute?
Since Emperor Gaozu of Han unified the remaining areas of the Zhou Dynasty, the blessings spread throughout the land. By the end of the Kaihuang period, the campaign to conquer Liaodong began, but the timing was not on their side, and the army did not achieve any results. The two Sui emperors were ambitious and sought to conquer the world, launching multiple military campaigns against the Korean Peninsula and launching powerful crossbow bolts several times. Those small countries feared extinction and fought back desperately like cornered beasts; the wars continued without end, plunging the world into chaos, ultimately resulting in their collapse and annihilation. The art of war says, "Countries that focus on developing morality prosper, countries that focus on expanding territory perish." However, the Liaodong region has long remained outside the jurisdiction of counties. Those countries pay tribute on time every year without interruption. The two Sui emperors grew proud and complacent as a result, thinking that no one in the world was more powerful than themselves, unable to pacify them through civil governance, but instead easily resorting to the use of force. Domestically, they relied on their strength and wealth, and externally they wanted to expand their territory, inviting resentment through pride and provoking war through anger. No country has ever survived under such circumstances in history. Therefore, shouldn't we take a hard look at the lessons learned from the barbarians?
