Kucha, situated 170 li south of the White Mountains, was an ancient country during the Han Dynasty. The king's surname was Bai, with the style name Suni Die. The capital city was six li long, with just a few thousand soldiers. The local customs were strict: murderers faced the death penalty, and robbers would lose one arm and one leg. Their customs resembled those of Yanqi. The king wore a colorful ribbon tied around his head, trailing down the back, and sat on a throne made of golden lions. The region was rich in rice, millet, soybeans, wheat, copper, iron, lead, deer hides, carpets, cinnabar, green vitriol, orpiment, vermilion, fine horses, and plump cattle. From Kucha, it was nine hundred li to Yanqi in the east, fourteen hundred li to Yutian in the south, fifteen hundred li to Shule in the west, over six hundred li to the Tujue Ya in the northwest, and thirty-one hundred li to Guazhou in the southeast. During the Sui Dynasty, Kucha also dispatched envoys to present local specialties.
Shule, also located over a hundred li south of the White Mountains, was an ancient country during the Han Dynasty. The king's name was Amijue. The inhabitants of this region had six fingers on each hand and foot. If a child was born with fewer than six fingers, they didn't survive long. The capital city was five li long. There were twelve large cities and dozens of small cities within the country, with two thousand soldiers. The king donned a hat adorned with golden lions. The region was rich in rice, millet, hemp, wheat, copper, iron, brocade, orpiment, and was required to pay tribute to the Tujue annually. To the south of Shule lies the Yellow River, to the west stands the Congling Mountains, fifteen hundred li to the east is Kucha, a thousand li to the west is the Xiongnu country, eight to nine hundred li to the south is Zhuju Bo, over a thousand li to the northeast is Tujue Ya, and forty-six hundred li to the southeast is Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, Shule also dispatched envoys to present local specialties.
In the country of Khotan, just over two hundred miles north of the Onion Range, the king's surname is Wang, and his courtesy name is Beishibi Lian. The capital city has a circumference of about eight or nine miles. There are five major cities in the country, as well as dozens of smaller cities, with only a few thousand soldiers available for battle. The common people follow Buddhism, with a large number of monks and nuns, and the king often follows a vegetarian diet. Fifty miles south of the city lies the Zanmo Temple, believed to have been built by the Arhat Bhikshu Bilu Zhan, with traces of the Buddha's bare feet on the stones. "The Zanmo Temple is said to have been built by the Arhat Bhikshu Bilu Zhan, with traces of the Buddha's barefoot followers on the stones." Five hundred miles to the west is the Bimo Temple, believed to be the place where Laozi became a Buddha after converting the barbarians. "Five hundred miles to the west of Khotan is the Bimo Temple, believed to be the place where Laozi transformed the barbarians into Buddhas." The people of this place lack propriety and integrity, with many thieves and robbers, and their behavior is quite licentious. The king wears a brocade hat and a golden crown, while the queen adorns herself with golden flowers. The king's hair is not allowed to be seen by others, as locals believe that seeing the king's hair brings bad luck for the year. This region produces a wealth of hemp, wheat, millet, rice, various fruits, and boasts many gardens, as well as beautiful jade from the mountains. To the east lies Shanshan, fifteen hundred miles away, to the south is the Kingdom of Women, three thousand miles away, to the west is Zhuqubo, a thousand miles away, to the north is Kucha, fourteen hundred miles away, and to the northeast lies Guazhou, twenty-eight hundred miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, they often dispatched envoys to pay tribute.
The country of Qaghan, located over five hundred miles west of the Onion Range, was formerly known as Qusou. The king's surname is Zhaowu, with the style of Aliqi. The capital city is about four miles in circumference, with several thousand soldiers ready for battle. The king sits on a chair crafted from gold and shaped like a ram, and the queen wears golden flowers. This region is rich in cinnabar, gold, and iron. To the east is Shule, a thousand miles away, to the west is the country of Sufengshana, five hundred miles away, to the northwest is the country of Shiguo, five hundred miles away, to the northeast lies Tujue, over two thousand miles away, and to the east is Guazhou, five thousand five hundred miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, they also dispatched envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
The Kingdom of Tuhuoluo, located 500 miles west of Congling, shares its territory with the people of Yida Country. The capital city is only two miles in circumference. However, they have an impressive army of 100,000 skilled soldiers, all of whom practice Buddhism. A unique custom here involves brothers sharing a single wife, taking turns to sleep with her. The brother who goes in to sleep hangs his clothes outside the door as a mark. The children born belong to the eldest brother. It is said that there are magical horses in the caves in the mountains. Every spring, when mares are taken to the caves, they give birth to exceptional foals. It is 1,700 miles south to Cao Country and 5,800 miles east to Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to offer tribute.
Yida Country, located roughly 200 miles south of the Wuxu River, was established by the descendants of the Yuezhi. They boast an army of about 5,000 to 6,000 brave and battle-hardened soldiers. Previously, the country was in turmoil, and the Turks intervened, installing a leader known as Jieqiang. Their capital city is approximately ten miles in diameter, featuring numerous temples and pagodas adorned with gold. They have a custom of brothers sharing wives. If a woman has only one husband, she wears a single horned hat; if the husband has many brothers, the number of horns on her hat increases. Yida Country is 1,500 miles from Cao Country and 6,500 miles from Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to offer tribute.
Miguo Country, located west of Namishi River, was previously the territory of the Kangju. This country is ruled by Lord Zhaowushi Bi Zhuo, a collateral relative of the Kangju king. Their capital city is only two miles square, with merely a few hundred soldiers. Miguo Country is 100 miles from Kang Country, 500 miles from Suduoshana Country, 200 miles from Siguo, and 6,400 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they regularly sent tribute.
The Shi Kingdom, ten miles south of the Du Mo Shui, used to be the territory of the Kangju. Their king was surnamed Zhaowu and given the courtesy name Tizhe, and was also a distant relative of the Kangju king. The capital city was only two miles in size, boasting over a thousand soldiers. Their customs were similar to those of the Kangju. The Shi Kingdom was 240 miles from Kangju, 500 miles from the Tuholo, 200 miles from Nasiboguo, 200 miles from Miguo, and 6,500 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
The Cao Kingdom, a few miles south of the Namisi River, used to be the territory of the Kangju as well. This kingdom did not have its own ruler but was managed by the son of the Kangju king, named Wu Jian. The capital city was three miles in size, boasting over a thousand soldiers. The Cao Kingdom had a mysterious deity that was revered by countries east of the Western Sea. This deity had a golden statue that was five feet wide and proportionately tall. It required daily offerings of five camels, ten horses, and a hundred sheep, leaving behind leftovers that even thousands couldn't finish. The Cao Kingdom was 100 miles from Kangju, 150 miles from Heguo, and 6,600 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
The He Kingdom, also located a few miles south of the Namisi River, used to be the territory of the Kangju. Their king, surnamed Zhaowu and given the courtesy name Dun, was a relative of the Kangju king. The capital city was two miles in size, with a thousand soldiers. Their king sat on a throne fashioned from gold in the shape of a sheep. The He Kingdom was 150 miles from the Cao Kingdom, 300 miles from Xiaoanguo, and 6,750 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
The country of Wunahé, with its capital built on the west side of the Wu River, was previously part of the Anxi Kingdom. The king's surname is Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang Kingdom royal family, with the style name Foshi. The capital city stretches two li along its walls, with only a few hundred troops. The king's throne is a golden chair shaped like a sheep. Traveling northeast for four hundred li leads to Anguo, while heading northwest for over two hundred li leads to Muguo, and traveling east for seven thousand five hundred li leads to Guazhou. During the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, they sent envoys to offer tribute of local specialties.
Muguo, whose capital is also on the west side of the Wu River, was also part of the former territory of the Anxi Kingdom and neighbors Wunahé. Their king also has the surname Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang Kingdom king, with the style name Alanmi. The capital city stretches three li along its walls, with two thousand elite soldiers. Traveling northeast for five hundred li leads to Anguo, heading east for over two hundred li leads to Wunahé, traveling west for over four thousand li leads to the Persian Kingdom, and traveling east for seven thousand seven hundred li leads to Guazhou. During the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, they also sent envoys to offer tribute of local specialties.
As for the Persian Kingdom, it is located on the west side of the Dūdáhé River in the city of Sulin, which is the ancient Tiaozhi. Their king is called Kusawu. The capital covers an area of about ten li. They have over twenty thousand fierce soldiers who charge into battle on elephants. This country does not have the death penalty, and the harshest punishments involve amputating hands and feet, confiscating property, shaving off beards, or wearing a wooden sign around the neck for differentiation. Everyone over the age of three must pay a tax of four coins. They also have the custom of marrying their sisters. When someone dies, they are placed on the mountains, and the family is required to wear mourning clothes for a month. The king dons a golden crown adorned with flowers, sits on a throne crafted from golden lions, decorates his beard with gold powder, dresses in brocade robes, and adorns himself with jade ornaments.
The Persian Empire produces fine horses, large donkeys, lions, white elephants, huge bird eggs, pearls, porphyry (a type of gemstone), beast spirit (possibly referring to a gemstone), coral, glazed pottery, agate, crystal, sese (a type of gemstone), huluge (a type of gemstone), huoqi (a type of gemstone), diamonds, gold, silver, jinyu (a type of mineral), copper, bintie (a type of iron), tin, brocade, fine cloth, kush rugs (a type of blanket), tassels (a type of blanket), huna (a type of fabric), yuen cloth (a type of fabric), sandalwood wood, fabric woven with gold thread, red deer skin, vermilion, mercury, and including various spices like xunlu incense, tulip, suhe incense, qingmu incense, pepper, bibo (a spice), honey, semihoney (possibly referring to a type of syrup), thousand-year dates, aconite (a medicinal herb), helele (a medicinal herb), wushizi (a medicinal herb), green vitriol, and realgar. The Turks were unable to conquer Persia and had to adopt a vassalage policy towards them. The Persian Empire often sent envoys to present tribute to the Central Plains dynasty of China.
Persia is hundreds of miles away from the sea, over four thousand miles from the Mu Kingdom (possibly referring to a certain country), four thousand five hundred miles from Fulin (the Byzantine Empire), and eleven thousand seven hundred miles from Guazhou (Dunhuang, Gansu). Emperor Yang of Sui sent Yunqiwei Li Yu to communicate with the Persian Empire, and later sent additional envoys with Li Yu to present special products.
Cao Kingdom, located north of the Congling Mountains, was known as Jibin during the Han Dynasty. In simple terms, this refers to the area near the Pamir Plateau today.
Their king, surnamed Zhaowu and styled Shunda, is a relative of the King of Kang. The capital's city walls stretch about four li. The army is well-trained, boasting over ten thousand troops. The country's laws are quite harsh, mandating the death penalty for murderers and robbers. However, their customs are rather superstitious, with a penchant for peculiar sacrificial rituals.
On Congling Mountain, there is a temple dedicated to the God of Shuntian, of impressive scale, lavishly adorned in gold and jade. The roof and floor are crafted from gold and silver, and thousands of people visit to pay their respects daily. In front of the temple, there is a fish spine with a hole in the middle, through which many consider miraculous, even a horse can pass. The king dons a golden crown shaped like a fish and sits on a throne crafted from golden horses – what a sight to behold! This region produces rice, corn, beans, wheat, elephants, horses, and a type of cattle known as Fengniu, along with gold, silver, iron, carpets, cinnabar, indigo, various spices, honey, semi-honey (likely a type of semi-processed honey), black salt, asafoetida, myrrh, and white aconite.
Traveling north from Cao country to Fanyan City covers seven hundred li, to the east lies Jue country at six hundred li, and to the northeast is Guazhou at six thousand six hundred li. During the Daye era of the Sui Dynasty under Emperor Yang Guang, they even sent envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
Speaking of Fu Guo, more than two thousand li northwest of Shu County, it was once the territory of the southwestern tribes during the Han Dynasty. There is a tribe called Jialiang Yi east of Fu Guo. They govern themselves, with customs similar to those of Fu Guo, but their language varies somewhat and is not standardized. They do not have surnames. The king of Fu Guo is called Yi Zeng. Their country is eight hundred li long from north to south and fifteen hundred li long from east to southeast, without city walls, residing near river valleys and in mountainous regions. They have a strong sense of revenge, leading them to build "stone nests" for protection against enemies. These "stone nests" can reach heights of over ten zhang, with some as low as five or six zhang, with each layer about one zhang high, separated by wooden beams. A small door is located on the ground floor, and it must be closed at night to deter thieves. There are over twenty thousand households in the country, all obedient to the king. The Jialiang Yi, on the other hand, follow their chieftain, facing execution for serious crimes and a fine of a cow for minor offenses. They are all agile and skilled in swordsmanship. They wear lacquered leather armor and use bows six feet long with strings made of bamboo. They have the custom of marrying their brothers' widows and sisters-in-law; if a brother dies, the elder brother will marry the younger brother's wife. They take pleasure in singing and dancing, as well as playing drums and flutes. When someone dies, there are no elaborate funeral customs; they simply place the body on a high bed, clean it, dress it in armor, and cover it with animal skins. The children do not weep; instead, they don armor and dance with swords, shouting, "My father was taken by ghosts, I will avenge and kill the ghosts!" Other relatives cry three times, while women must cover their faces with their hands when crying. The family of the deceased slaughters cattle, while relatives bring pork and alcohol to share a meal before the burial. After ten years, they hold a grand burial, where relatives and friends gather, and dozens of horses are slaughtered. They honor their ancestors at ancestral shrines. They wear round leather hats resembling bowls, some even featuring face masks. Most of their clothing is made of fur, and their boots are crafted from whole cowhide. They wear iron chains around their necks and iron bracelets on their wrists. The king and chieftains adorn themselves with gold jewelry, featuring a gold flower about three inches in diameter hanging from their chests. The region is elevated, with a cool climate, strong winds, and little rainfall, making it suitable for cultivating wheat and barley. The mountains are rich in gold and silver mines and host many white pheasants. The rivers yield a type of fish that grows up to four feet long, featuring very fine scales.
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In conclusion, the lives of the Fu Kingdom and Jialiang Yi were very different from ours. Their stone dwellings, which sound quite unique, were designed to defend against enemies while taking advantage of the terrain. Their customs, such as marrying multiple sisters-in-law and waiting ten years for grand burials, were quite peculiar. Judging from their clothing and weapons, they were evidently skilled in combat. Their love for song and dance shows that they had a lighter, more enjoyable side to their lives. However, their tendency for revenge gave them a fierce reputation. Overall, this passage paints a vivid picture of the lives of an ancient and mysterious people, full of exotic charm. Their unique customs and harmonious way of living with nature are worth contemplating and exploring. From the details of their lives, we can also catch a glimpse of some aspects of the society at that time, as well as their understanding of life and death.
In 608 AD, during the fourth year of Emperor Yang of Sui's Daye reign, a king known as "Its King" sent eight members of the Su Kingdom to the court as tributes.
The following year, he sent his student Yilin with sixty members of the Jialiang Yi tribe to pay tribute. They wanted to offer good horses, but they couldn't get through because of the dangerous terrain, so they asked Emperor Yang of Sui to open a mountain road to make future tributes easier. However, Emperor Yang of Sui thought it was too much trouble and refused their request.
There was a river about sixty to seventy zhang wide along the border of Jialiang Yi, and on the Fu Kingdom side, there was a river over a hundred zhang wide, both flowing south. They made boats from animal skins to cross the river.
To the south of the kingdom of Fu, there is a tribe called Boyuanyi, whose customs are similar to those of the Jialiangyi. To the west of the kingdom of Fu, there is a matriarchal society. In the northeast of the kingdom of Fu, rolling mountains stretch all the way to the Dangxiang area. The mountains are home to various Qiang tribes, such as Dazuofeng, Xiaozuofeng, Xiwei, Geyan, Baigou, Xiangren, Wangzu, Lintai, Chunsang, Lidou, Misang, Biyao, Daxia, Bailan, Chilimotu, Nae, Dangmi, Qubu, Sangwu, Qiandiao, and others. These tribes all live in deep mountain valleys, lacking a strong leader. Their customs are similar to those of the Dangxiang people; some are governed by Tuyuhun, while others are attached to the kingdom of Fu. During the reign of Sui Yangdi, these tribes all came to the court to pay tribute. In order to manage these areas, the court set up several administrative offices to oversee these areas from afar.
Historical records indicate that since ancient times, if one wishes to expand borders and trade with far-off lands, one must encounter an ambitious emperor and have ministers eager to undertake significant endeavors. Zhang Qian opened the road to the Western Regions back then, and Ban Chao later joined the army, continuing the conquest of the Western Regions. They either bought their way with precious treasures or intimidated with sharp swords, risking their lives for fleeting glory. All of this is because the emperor likes the reputation of expanding territory, and the ministers are ready to go to great lengths for their country. Thus, what those in power desire, the common people will likely embrace even more.
Emperor Yang of Sui was extremely extravagant, even more extravagant than those of the Qin and Han dynasties. Pei Ju presented the "Records of the Western Regions" to appeal to his extravagant tastes. As a result, the emperor personally went outside the Yumen Pass and established places like Yiwu and Qumo, creating turmoil in the Guanzhong region right up to the desert's edge, resulting in great hardship for the common people. If it weren't for the northern nomadic tribes causing trouble and the eastern barbarians winning battles, Emperor Yang of Sui could have built military camps at Luntai, constructed cities at Wulei, sought pearls from Daqin, and brought bird eggs from Tiao Zhi, leading to the exhaustion of countless individuals from the constant transportation. The wise emperors of ancient times ruled within a radius of about five thousand miles, mainly focusing on governing the Central Plains region, without concerning themselves with those distant regions. Does this imply they lacked prestige and benevolence? No, they simply didn't want the barbarians of the border regions to burden the people of the Central Plains or let useless matters harm useful ones. Therefore, the Qin Dynasty stationed troops at the Five Ridges, the Han Dynasty used troops on the three borders, resulting in either widespread famine or a halving of the population. The Sui Dynasty, in its hubris, ultimately faced severe consequences in Qinghai. All of this was because the emperor himself lost his direction, resulting in the suffering of the common folk. If Emperor Yang of Sui could seriously consider these principles, reject the proposals to establish protectorates, return the fine horses, and refuse the tribute of white wolves, then even if the western minority tribes sought to pay tribute, they would have to bide their time. Even without the victory in Liaodong, they would not have met the tragic downfall of Jiangdu!
