It is said that the ancestors of Baekje came from the Goryeo Kingdom. The king of Goryeo had a palace maid who suddenly became pregnant. The king wanted to execute her, but the maid said, "Something that looked like an egg came to me, that's why I became pregnant." The king let her go. Later, the maid gave birth to a boy, whom the king threw into the toilet, but the child miraculously survived. People thought the child had divine power, so they raised him and named him Dongming.
When Dongming grew up, the king of Goryeo began to fear him. Dongming, afraid, fled to the area of flooding (around the Yalu River). The people of Buyeo rallied around him and declared him their leader. Among Dongming's descendants was a man named Qiutai, who was known for his benevolence and integrity. He established a country in the area of Buyeo. The Han Dynasty's Liaodong Prefect, Gongsun Du, granted the title of Duke of Daifang to him by marrying his daughter to him. Baekje gradually became powerful and became a strong country in the eastern territories. Initially, they frequently crossed the sea with a fleet of a hundred ships, which is how they came to be known as Baekje.
Baekje went through more than ten generations of kings, all of whom paid tribute to China. Historical records from that time are quite detailed. During the reign of Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty, King Yu Chang of Baekje sent envoys to present various treasures. Emperor Wen of Sui granted Yu Chang the title of Shangkaifu, Duke of Daifang, and King of Baekje.
This country is said to span 450 miles from east to west and over 900 miles from north to south. It borders Silla to the south and Goryeo to the north. Its capital is called Jubalcheng.
There are a total of sixteen ranks in official positions, the highest being Zuo Ping, followed by Da Lue, En Lue, Na Lue, Yu Lue, and Jiang De. These officials wear purple belts. Below them are Shi De, who wears black belts; Gu De, who wears red belts; Li De, who wears green belts; officials below De wear yellow belts. Next are Wen Du, Wu Du, Zuo Jun, Zhen Wu, and Ke Yu, who wear white belts. Their hats are all the same, with only officials above Nai Lue having silver decorations on their hats. The position of Chang Shi is rotated every three years. The capital city is divided into five regions, each with five districts where common folk live. Each region has a regional governor and two assistants. Each region has ten counties, each with a county magistrate. The inhabitants of this country include people from Silla, Goryeo, Japan, and China. Their clothing resembles that of the Goryeo. Women do not wear makeup, and young girls wear single braids that hang down their backs. After marriage, they divide their hair into two sections and coil them on top of their heads. They enjoy horseback riding, archery, reading history books, managing political affairs, practicing medicine, divination, and fortune-telling. When they bow, they support themselves with both hands on the ground. The country has both monks and nuns, as well as many temples and pagodas. They play instruments like drums, horns, harps, zithers, flutes, and pipes, and enjoy games like pitch-pot, Go, chupu, spear-holding, and bead play. They follow the Yuanjia calendar from the Song Dynasty, with the Jian Yin month marking the start of the year.
The prominent surnames in this country are Sha, Yan, Dao, Xie, Zhen, Guo, Mu, and Miao. Their marriage customs are similar to those of the Central Plains of China, and their funeral customs are similar to those of Goryeo. They grow grains and also raise cattle, pigs, and chickens, but many of the foods they eat are not cooked over a fire. Due to the dampness of their fields, people tend to live in the mountains. They have a type of chestnut that is quite large. There are towns on each of the 15 islands to the southwest of the country. It is said that in the year the Sui Dynasty subdued the Chen Dynasty, a naval vessel drifted to the country of Moro in the East Sea, and later the ship miraculously returned, passing by Baekje. King Chang of Baekje treated the crew of this ship exceptionally well, even sending envoys to congratulate the Sui Dynasty on pacifying the Chen Dynasty. Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty held King Chang of Baekje in high regard and issued an edict saying, "King Chang of Baekje heard that we had pacified the Chen Dynasty and even sent envoys to congratulate us. The journey is long and tough, and there could be damage to the people and ship in case of storms. King Chang of Baekje is sincere, and I already understand that. Although the journey is long, the sentiment is understood, so why send envoys every year? From now on, you don't need to come for tribute every year, and I won't send envoys either. Just keep that in mind!" The envoys left happily.
In the 18th year of the Kaihuang era, King Chang of Baekje sent his chief official, Wang Bian, to pay tribute. Just as the Sui Dynasty was planning to attack Goguryeo, Baekje also sent envoys to congratulate them and request to guide the way. The Emperor decreed, "In previous years, Goguryeo did not offer tribute and did not follow the proper vassal etiquette. That is why I sent troops to attack. The King and officials of Goguryeo were afraid and admitted their mistakes. I have already pardoned them; there is no need to fight anymore." The Emperor treated the envoys of Baekje kindly and then sent them back. Goguryeo learned of this and invaded Baekje's territory.
Later, King Chang of Baekje passed away, his son Yu Xuan succeeded him, and after Yu Xuan's death, his son Yu Zhang took over. In the third year of the Daye era, Yu Zhang sent an envoy Yan Wen to pay tribute. In the same year, he also sent an envoy Wang Xiaolin to pay tribute and requested the Sui Dynasty to join in attacking Goguryeo. Emperor Yang of Sui agreed and asked them to first investigate the situation of Goguryeo. However, Yu Zhang secretly conspired with Goguryeo while feigning to assess China's strength. In the seventh year of Daye, Emperor Yang personally led troops to attack Goguryeo, and Yu Zhang sent his minister Guo Zhimou to inquire about the timing of the attack. Emperor Yang was pleased and rewarded him generously, and also sent the official Xi Lu to Baekje to maintain good relations. The following year, the Sui army crossed the Liao River, and Yu Zhang also positioned his troops at the border, claiming to assist in the war while actually trying to curry favor with both sides. Soon after, Baekje and Silla frequently clashed. In the tenth year of Daye, Baekje sent envoys to pay tribute. Eventually, chaos broke out across the land, and Baekje's envoys ceased to come.
Legend has it that if you set out from the South Sea and head south for three months, you would reach the country of Moro, which stretches over a thousand li from north to south and several hundred li from east to west. The place is teeming with deer and is a vassal state of Baekje. A three-day journey west from Baekje takes you to the land of Mo.
Silla was located in the southeast of Goryeo, which corresponds to the territory of the Han Dynasty's Lelang Commandery, also referred to as Sila at that time. At that time, General Guan Qiu Jian defeated Goryeo, and the Goryeo people fled to Wozhu. Later, some people returned to their hometown, while the rest became Silla people. Therefore, the Silla people have a highly mixed heritage, with descendants of Han people, Goryeo people, Baekje people, as well as people from Wozhu, Bunei, and Hanhe. Their king was originally from Baekje, fleeing to Silla by sea and eventually becoming the king.
This lineage continued with King Jin Zhenping, in the 14th year of the Sui Dynasty's Kaihuang era, when he sent people to offer tribute to the Sui Dynasty. Emperor Wen of Sui appointed King Jin Zhenping as the Duke of Lelang Commandery and the King of Silla. Previously, Silla was a vassal state of Baekje. Later, Baekje attacked Goryeo, and the Goryeo people could not bear the suffering of war, so they fled to Silla for refuge, which made Silla powerful. Later, Silla emulated Baekje and became a vassal state of Goguryeo.
Silla's official positions were divided into seventeen levels: the highest was called Yibagan (Prime Minister); followed by Yichigan, Yinggan, Pomigan, Daachigan, Achigan, Yijigan, Shadogan, Jifugan, Da Naimogan, Naimo, Da She, Xiao She, Jitu, Da Wu, Xiao Wu, and Zhaowei. In addition to these official positions, there were counties. Their writing and weapons bore similarities to those of China. Silla recruited strong men for the army, and there were specialized management institutions and soldiers for beacon towers, border guard posts, and patrols. Their customs, legal system, and their clothing styles were akin to those of Goryeo and Baekje.
Every year on the first day of the lunar new year, everyone visits each other to exchange New Year's greetings. The king hosts a banquet for his ministers and presents them with gifts. On this day, offerings are made to the gods of the sun and moon. On the fifteenth day of the eighth month, a banquet is held during which officials compete in archery, and winners are rewarded with horses and cloth. In times of major events, officials are gathered to discuss and make decisions together. They prefer to wear plain-colored clothing. Women braid their hair and decorate it with various colored silk threads and beads. Wedding ceremonies are simple, involving eating and drinking, with the level of extravagance varying according to personal preference. On the wedding night, the bride first pays her respects to her in-laws before greeting her husband. When someone passes away, they are placed in a coffin and buried, with a tombstone erected. The mourning period lasts a year for the king, parents, and wife.
Silla's land is fertile, which allows crops to be cultivated in both wet and dry fields. Resources such as grains, fruits, vegetables, and wildlife are similar to those in the Central Plains. Since the Sui Dynasty, Silla has been sending tribute every year. Despite conflicts with Baekje due to its rugged terrain, Baekje is unable to do much about it.
The Mohe people live north of Goryeo, with each village having its own chieftain and no unified leadership. There are seven tribes: the first is the Sumo tribe, bordering Goryeo and boasting several thousand elite soldiers who frequently conduct raids on Goryeo. The second is the Bokdu tribe, north of Sumo, with a force of seven thousand elite soldiers. The third is the Anchego tribe, northeast of Bokdu. The fourth is the Pungne tribe, east of Bokdu. The fifth is the Haesil tribe, east of Pungne. The sixth is the Heuksoo tribe, northwest of Anchego. The seventh is the Baeksan tribe, southeast of Sumo. The total military strength of these tribes is under thirty thousand, with the Heuksoo tribe noted for its formidable strength. East of Pungne, they use stone-tipped arrows akin to those used by the ancient Sushen tribe. They mostly live near mountains and rivers, led by a chief named Damofumanduo, who is considered one of the strongest among the Eastern tribes.
They have a place called Tutai Mountain, which the locals hold in great awe. Although there are bears, leopards, and wolves on the mountain, they never harm people, and the locals dare not harm them either. The terrain there is low-lying and damp, so they build earthen embankments, then dig holes to live in, with the entrance facing upwards and using ladders to enter and exit. They work the fields together, growing plenty of millet, wheat, and sorghum. The water there is salty, leaving salt crystals on tree bark. They primarily raise pigs as livestock. They chew rice to brew wine, which can intoxicate them. Women wear cloth clothes, while men wear pigskin and dogskin clothes. They wash their hands and faces with urine, which is the least hygienic practice among all the tribes.
Their customs are quite loose, and women are very jealous. If a woman's husband finds out she is having an affair and if someone informs her husband, he would kill her. Afterward, he often regrets it and will also kill the informant. Therefore, such adultery is never made public. They mainly make a living by hunting, using bows about three feet long and arrows around one foot two inches long. They often make poison in July and August, apply it to the arrowheads, and use it to hunt animals. Animals shot with poisoned arrows will die immediately.
Legend has it that during the early days of the Sui Dynasty, many countries sent envoys to pay tribute. When Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty received the envoys, he said to them, "I have heard that the people of your country are very brave. Now that you are here, I am very happy! I regard you as my own children, and you should respect me as you would your father!" The envoys replied, "Our country is remote and far away. We heard that your country has a wise and virtuous ruler, so we came to pay our respects. Now that we have received your grace and have the honor of seeing you in person, we are truly honored and delighted! We are honored to pledge our loyalty to you forever!"
Their country borders the Khitan, and they often raid each other. Later, when these envoys came to pay tribute, Emperor Wen of Sui warned them, saying, "I am compassionate towards the Khitan as well as you. You should each guard your own territory so you can live and work in peace. Why do you always attack each other? This is against my wishes!" The envoys hurriedly apologized. Emperor Wen of Sui then treated them well and hosted a banquet for them. The envoys and their followers danced, with many of the dance moves simulating battle scenes. Emperor Wen of Sui looked at his attendants and said, "There are actually people in this world who always think about fighting. It's truly unbelievable!" However, their country was far from the Sui Dynasty, with only Sumo and Baishan being relatively close.
Emperor Yang of Sui initially fought with Goguryeo, suffering consecutive defeats. A Goguryeo general named Dudi Jiji led his subordinates to surrender to the Sui Dynasty. Emperor Yang of Sui appointed him as Right Minister of Rites, allowing him to live in Liucheng and interact with the people on the border. Dudi Jiji liked Chinese customs and requested permission to wear Han clothing. Emperor Yang of Sui was pleased and rewarded him with a lot of brocade and silk, treating him with great favor. Later, during Emperor Yang of Sui's campaign in Liaodong, Dudi Jiji went with his subordinates and contributed in every battle, receiving many rewards from Emperor Yang of Sui. During the thirteen years of Emperor Yang's reign, he went to Jiangdu to play, and later sent Dudi Jiji back to Liucheng.
On the way back to Liucheng, he encountered Li Mi's rebel army, and Li Mi sent troops to intercept him. They fought more than ten times before Dudi Jiji managed to escape. When he reached Gaoyang, he was captured by Wang Xuba. Shortly after, he managed to escape to the location of Luo Yi.
The Liouqiu Kingdom is located on an island, to the east of Jian'an County, a five-day journey by boat. The place is full of caves. The king's surname is Huansi, and his name is Keladou; the number of generations that have passed since its founding is unknown. The locals refer to the king as Kelao Yang, and the queen is called Duobatu. Their residence is known as Bolotandong, surrounded by three layers of fences, surrounded by flowing water, with walls made of branches and thorns. The king's house has sixteen rooms, all ornately carved with images of birds and beasts. There is a tree resembling an orange tree, but with very dense leaves and branches as thin as hair hanging down. There are four or five generals in the country, each in charge of different caves, each with a small king. Each cave also has a village, each led by a village chief who oversees local affairs. Both men and women tie their hair with white hemp cords, from the back of the head to the forehead. Men wear hats made of bird feathers, adorned with pearls, shells, and red feathers, each featuring a unique design. Women wear square-patterned white cloth hats. They wear clothes made of bark, various colors of hemp cloth, and animal fur, each with a different style. The clothes are also embellished with colorful wool threads and shells, producing a sound reminiscent of jingling jade, wearing earrings, bracelets, and necklaces with beads. They craft hats from rattan, adorned with feathers. They have weapons such as knives, spears, bows, arrows, swords, and axes. Iron is scarce there, with thin, small blades that are mostly reinforced with bone or horn. They weave armor with hemp; some also incorporate bear or leopard skins. The king rides in a wooden carriage shaped like a beast, carried by attendants on either side, with only a handful of followers. The small kings ride in wooden carriages carved into animal shapes.
The Liúqiú people enjoy attacking one another. They are all strong, can run and jump, are hard to kill, and have strong resistance to attacks. Each cave fights its own battles, without coming to each other's aid. When the two armies confront each other, brave soldiers rush to the front, shouting insults at each other, and then start shooting arrows. If they lose, the entire army retreats, sends a messenger to apologize, and then reconciles. They gather the bodies of the dead from the battlefield, eat them together, and then present their skulls to the king. The king bestows hats upon them and makes them captains. They do not have taxes and distribute responsibilities evenly. Punishments lack fixed standards and are determined on a case-by-case basis. Crimes are decided by the bird leader; those who do not comply are reported to the king, who consults with his subjects to make a decision. Prisons have no shackles, only ropes for binding. The death penalty is executed using an iron spike, about the thickness of chopsticks and over a foot in length, stabbing through the head to deliver death. Less severe offenses are punished by caning. They do not have a written language, but track time by observing the moon's phases and mark years by observing the growth and decay of plants.
Speaking of the people in this place, their eyes are deep-set, their noses are high, and they resemble the Hu people somewhat, but they are also quite smart. There are no distinctions between rulers and subjects, and they don’t observe any kneeling or bowing rituals. Fathers and sons can even share a bed. Men shave their beards and eyebrows clean and remove any body hair. Women tattoo their hands with designs often featuring insects or snakes. For marriage, they offer wine, food, and pearls as betrothal gifts, or if a man and woman are in love, they can directly become husband and wife. When a woman gives birth, she is required to eat the placenta, and after giving birth, she will heat her body over a fire, sweat it out, and recover in five days. They use wooden troughs to evaporate seawater and produce salt, use tree sap to make vinegar, and ferment rice and wheat to make wine, which is quite mild. They eat with their hands, and if they come across something good, they first offer it to their elders. At banquets, the person offering the toast must wait for the host to call their name before drinking; even when toasting the king, they must call the king's name. When drinking together, the atmosphere is reminiscent of that among the Turks, singing and dancing, with one person singing and everyone joining in; the songs tend to be quite sorrowful. When dancing, men will hold women's shoulders and dance together. When someone dies, as their breath fades, the body is brought to the courtyard, where friends and family mourn. The body is then washed, wrapped in cloth and then covered with reeds before being buried right there without a grave. Sons observe mourning for their fathers by refraining from meat for several months. In the south, the situation differs somewhat; when someone dies, the entire village gathers to consume the deceased’s body.
This place is full of bears, leopards, jackals, wolves, as well as many pigs and chickens, but there are no cows, sheep, donkeys, or horses. The land is fertile; they first set fire to the land and then irrigate it with water. They use a long stone implement for cultivation, about a foot long and a few inches wide, like a shovel. Here, rice, sorghum, millet, foxtail millet, hemp, and various beans, including red beans, kidney beans, and black beans, are produced in abundance. As for trees, maple trees, catalpa trees, camphor trees, pine trees, Chinese toon trees, Nanmu trees, cedar trees, tung trees, bamboo, vines, fruit trees, and medicinal herbs are similar to those found in areas south of the Yangtze River, with a climate and environment akin to Lingnan.
The locals worship mountain gods and sea gods, offering wine and food during their rituals. If there are deaths in battle, they also sacrifice the deceased to the spirits. Some construct small shelters beneath the thick trees, some hang skulls on trees and shoot arrows at them, while others pile up stones and insert flags, treating them as idols. The king's residence is piled with skulls at the base of the walls, as they believe this brings good fortune. Every household must hang the skulls or horns of animals on their doors.
In the first year of Daye, which is the first year of Emperor Yang of Sui's reign, the navy commander He Man and his men, every spring and autumn, when the weather is clear and the sea is calm, gaze far to the east, as if they see mist, without knowing how far away it is from us. After three years, Emperor Yang of Sui sent Captain Zhu Kuan of the Feathered Cavalry to explore the situation at sea, and He Man accompanied him, eventually reaching the land of Liuqiu. Due to the language barrier, they captured a person and brought him back.
In the second year, Emperor Yang of Sui sent Zhu Kuan to pacify them again, but the people of Liuqiu refused to listen, so Zhu Kuan forcibly took some of their cloth armor back. At that time, envoys from Wa came to pay their respects and saw the armor, exclaiming, "Hey, this is what the people of Liuqiu wear!" Emperor Yang of Sui then sent Chen Leng and the court official Zhang Zhenzhou with troops to depart from Yian to cross the sea to attack Liuqiu. They first arrived at Gaohuayu, then traveled east for two days to Xiduoyu, and another day to Liuqiu. Among Chen Leng's troops were soldiers from various southern states, including a Kunlun person who spoke the Liuqiu language. They were sent to persuade surrender, but the people of Liuqiu refused to listen and fought with the soldiers. Chen Leng led the troops to drive them away, all the way to the capital of Liuqiu, where they fought several battles and won each one, burned their palace, captured numerous men, women, and children, and returned with numerous spoils of war. Since then, Liuqiu has severed ties with us.
The Wa Kingdom, located to the southeast of Baekje and Silla, is three thousand li away by water. It is nestled among mountains and islands in the vast sea. During the Wei Dynasty, the Wa Kingdom had already established trade relations with China. The Wa Kingdom consists of more than thirty small states, each claiming to be a kingdom. The people of the Wa Kingdom do not understand how to measure distances, so they calculate based on the number of days. It takes five months to travel from east to west and three months from north to south across their territory, all the way to the coast. The terrain is elevated in the east and lower in the west, with the capital in Xiemidai, which is referred to as Yematai in the Records of Wei. Ancient texts say that the Wa Kingdom is twelve thousand li from the Lelang Commandery and Daifang Commandery, to the east of Kuaiji, similar in distance to Dan'er. During the reign of Emperor Guangwu of the Han Dynasty, the Wa Kingdom sent envoys to pay tribute, calling themselves "daifu." By the time of Emperor An of Han, the Wa Kingdom sent envoys again to pay tribute, and they were referred to as "Wano." During the reigns of Emperors Huan and Ling of Han, the Wa Kingdom was in chaos, with various small states warring against each other, lacking a legitimate ruler for many years. Later, a woman named Himiko emerged, who practiced sorcery to beguile the people, so they proclaimed her as their queen. She had a brother who helped her manage the country. Queen Himiko had thousands of attendants, and few were allowed to see her face; only two men were responsible for delivering her food and messages. The queen's palace, towers, walls, and fences were under strict military guard. From the Wei Dynasty to the Qi and Liang Dynasties, the Wa Kingdom maintained contact with China. In the twentieth year of the Kaihuang era, in the year 590 AD, the King of the Wa Kingdom, surnamed Ami, styled Doriesibei, and titled Abejimi, sent envoys to meet the Emperor. The Emperor ordered the relevant departments to investigate the customs of the Wa Kingdom.
The envoy reported that the Japanese king regarded the sky as his older brother and the sun as his younger brother. He would handle government affairs before dawn, sitting in a cross-legged position, and stop working when the sun rose, saying he would let his "younger brother" take over. The Emperor Gaozu heard this and said, "This is unreasonable!" So he ordered the Japanese king to change these statements. The Japanese king's wife, named Jimi, had six or seven hundred women in his harem! His son, Regimidorofuri, was the crown prince. At that time, Japan lacked city walls.
The palace officials were divided into twelve ranks: great virtue, small virtue, great benevolence, small benevolence, great righteousness, small righteousness, great propriety, small propriety, great wisdom, small wisdom, great trust, and small trust, with no set number of officials in each rank. They also had 120 military officials, equivalent to village heads in China. Every eighty households were overseen by an Iniyi, similar to a village head today. Ten Iniyi were under the command of one military official.
Japanese clothing, worn by both men and women, consisted of skirts and tops with narrow sleeves, and shoes resembling straw sandals that were lacquered and tied to their feet. Many commoners went barefoot. They were not allowed to use gold and silver for decoration. Their clothes were made from a single piece of fabric, seamlessly joined together without stitching. They did not wear hats, with their hair falling freely on either side of their ears. It was not until the Sui Dynasty that the kings began to wear brocade hats, decorated with openwork gold and silver carvings. Women tied their hair behind their heads, wore skirts and tops with pleats, and utilized bamboo combs, grass mats, animal skin mattresses, and leather trimmings adorned with patterns.
They had bows, arrows, knives, spears, crossbows, and axes, with armor made of lacquered leather and arrowheads made of bone. Despite having an army, they seldom engaged in warfare. When the king held court, they always had a ceremonial procession and performed their national music. Japan's population was estimated to be around one hundred thousand households.
Speaking of the customs of this place, if someone commits murder, robbery, or adultery, they face execution! Thieves are required to repay the value of what they stole, and if they can't pay, they risk becoming slaves. For other crimes, offenders may face exile or corporal punishment.
During trials, if someone refuses to confess, their knees will be crushed with wooden blocks or their necks will be strangled with a bowstring. There are even harsher methods, such as throwing small stones into boiling water and forcing the accused to fish them out—whoever is found guilty will have their hands burned; or putting snakes in a jar and making the accused catch them—whoever is found guilty will be bitten by the snake.
Therefore, the locals are generally honest and seldom get involved in lawsuits or theft. They enjoy listening to the music of the five-stringed lute and flute. Both men and women like to have tattoos on their arms and faces, and they love to fish. Without a written language, they used wood carving and knotted ropes to keep records.
Later on, they embraced Buddhism and obtained Buddhist scriptures from Baekje, marking the beginning of their written language. They practice divination and believe in wizards. Every New Year's Day, they shoot arrows, drink, and have fun, and their other festival customs are quite similar to those in China. They also enjoy playing chess, dice games, and board games like backgammon.
The climate there is warm, the vegetation is evergreen throughout the year, the land is fertile, and there's plenty of water, but the land is limited. They use small rings to tie around the necks of cormorants, enabling them to catch over a hundred fish daily! Since they do not have plates or utensils, they use tree leaves as plates and eat with their hands.
The people in this place are straightforward, and the culture is quite straightforward. There's a higher ratio of women to men, and marriage between people of the same surname is forbidden; as long as both parties are in agreement, they can marry. When the bride enters the groom's house, she must step over a dog before meeting her husband. The women here are modest and generally do not get jealous.
When a person dies, the deceased should be buried in a coffin. Relatives and friends sing and dance by the corpse, while the wife, children, and brothers wear white mourning attire. Officials and nobles must keep the body for three years before burying it, while common folk select an auspicious day for the burial. During the burial, the body is placed on a boat and then pulled to the burial site, or transported by a small cart.
There is a mountain called Mount Asu, where stones spontaneously ignite, with flames reaching the sky. The locals consider this phenomenon to be miraculous and often go there to pray and make offerings. They also have a kind of wish-fulfilling bead, greenish-blue in color and about the size of an egg, which glows at night and is said to be the essence of fish eyes.
Silla and Baekje both considered Wa (Japan) a great country, believing it to possess many treasures, and held it in high esteem, frequently sending envoys back and forth.
In the year 607 AD, the King of Goguryeo sent envoys to the Sui Dynasty. The envoys said, "We have heard that the Celestial Sovereign of the Western Sea (referring to Emperor Yang of Sui) vigorously promotes Buddhism, so we have come to pay our respects and have brought dozens of monks to study Buddhist teachings." The Goguryeo's official letter contained phrases like "From the land where the sun rises, the Celestial Sovereign sends greetings to the land where the sun sets, may the Celestial Sovereign be in good health." Emperor Yang of Sui was displeased upon reading it and told the Minister of Rites, "The letters from these foreign peoples contain impolite phrases; do not let me see such letters again."
In the second year, Emperor Yang of Sui sent Pei Qing, a Palace Attendant, to visit Wa. Pei Qing first passed through Baekje, arrived at Jukdo, and saw the land of Gaya to the south (now Jeju Island). He then traveled through Dusama (now Kyushu, Japan), all of which are located in the sea. Continuing eastward, he arrived at the country of Iki, then at the country of Tsushima, and further east to the country of Qin (now Kyushu, Japan), where the people resembled those in the Central Plains. People considered it a foreign land, though they were not entirely certain. After traversing over ten countries, he finally reached the coast of Wa. From Tsushima eastward, these countries were all subordinate to Wa. The Wa king dispatched Xiao Deabei Tai to lead a contingent of several hundred people, set up a procession, and welcomed Pei Qing with gongs and drums. Ten days later, the Wa king sent Dalige Duopi to lead more than two hundred cavalry to meet him outside the city.
After arriving at the capital of Wa, the Wa king and Pei Qing were delighted to meet. The Wa king said, "I have heard of the great Sui in the west, a land of etiquette, so I sent people to pay tribute. We barbarians live in remote places by the sea and do not understand etiquette, so we delayed the time in the territory and did not meet immediately. Now we have specially cleaned the roads and decorated the buildings to welcome the ambassador, hoping to learn about the advanced culture of the great Sui." Pei Qing replied, "The emperor’s grace reaches across heaven and earth, and his blessings flow through the four seas. Because the Wa king admires the culture of the great Sui, that is why he sent me to promote education." Then, the Wa king arranged for Pei Qing to stay in the building.
Later, Pei Qing sent someone to inform the Wa king, "The imperial order has been conveyed; please depart for your country at your earliest convenience." So the Wa king hosted a banquet for Pei Qing and sent envoys to follow Pei Qing back to his country to offer local specialties as tribute. From then on, Wa severed ties with the Sui Dynasty.
The historian said: Different geographical environments, such as valleys and rivers, cultivate distinct customs and habits among their inhabitants, with different preferences and desires, and different languages. The sage develops educational policies based on the times and circumstances to fulfill their wishes and align their customs and habits with those of the Central Plains.
The lands inhabited by the Nine Yi are very far from the Central Plains, but they are inherently gentle and lack a rough or violent demeanor. Despite being separated by mountains and seas, they can be easily governed through education. During the Xia and Shang dynasties, the Nine Yi tribes would occasionally visit to pay their respects to the emperor. Only after Jizi fled to Korea were the "Eight Prohibitions" enforced. While these prohibitions were straightforward, they were thorough, easy to implement, and could be upheld over the long term. The impact of education has persisted for thousands of years and remains unbroken to this day.
Today, the various states in Liaodong are increasingly adopting ceremonial attire similar to that of the Central Plains, and some have begun using sacrificial vessels like the zun and dou from the Central Plains. They take pleasure in studying the classics and historical texts and have a deep appreciation for literature and history. Countless people travel to the capital to study, and even if some may die or get lost along the way, it does not deter others from coming. If not for the positive customs established by ancient sages, how could such circumstances have arisen? Thus, Confucius stated, "Speak with honesty and keep your promises, act with seriousness and respect, and you can travel even in barbarian lands." This is indeed a profound saying! The customs of the various states in Liaodong are worth emulating, far beyond merely offering tribute.
Starting from the territories ruled by Han Gaozu, which benefited the Central Plains, it wasn't until the end of the Kaihuang era that campaigns in Liaodong began. However, due to unfavorable conditions, the army failed to achieve any results. The two emperors of the Sui Dynasty were ambitious and aimed to rule the entire world, repeatedly sending troops to campaign in the Korean Peninsula and deploying a large number of forces. These small states, fearing extinction, fought fiercely like cornered beasts, resulting in ongoing wars and chaos, which ultimately led to the collapse of these small states and the ruin of their families. As the art of war states, "Countries that focus on virtuous governance will thrive, while those that pursue territorial expansion will ultimately face destruction." However, the Liaodong region has long remained outside the jurisdiction of counties. These states consistently paid tribute and offered their respects without interruption. The two Sui emperors grew proud and complacent, believing themselves to be invincible because of this, unable to use civil governance to win them over, they recklessly initiated wars instead. Relying on domestic strength while seeking to expand their territory abroad, their arrogant attitude invited resentment, leading them to wage war in anger. Such behavior has historically always led to destruction. Thus, we should take these lessons from the barbarians to heart!
