The Western Turkic Khanate, to put it simply, was founded by the son of Khan Mugan, who fell out with Shaboluo. They went their separate ways, and later their power grew. They blocked the Dujin in the east, crossed the Jinshan in the west, and brought Guizi, Tiele, Yiwu, and various nomadic tribes of the Western Regions under their control. Later, Khan Mugan was captured by Chuluo Hou, and his subordinate Nili Khan, the noble Yang Suteqin's son, took over. After Nili Khan's death, his son Daman succeeded him, known as Nijue Chuluo Khan. His mother, Xiang Shi, was of Chinese descent, and after giving birth to Daman, Nili Khan died. She then married Nili Khan's brother, Poshi Teqin. Towards the end of the Kaihuang era of the Sui Dynasty, Poshi and Xiang Shi went to Chang'an to meet the emperor, but they arrived amid a rebellion led by Datou, so they stayed in the capital and were housed by the court at the Honglu Temple.
Chuluo Khan was itinerant and often conducted his activities in the former territory of the Wusun. He also appointed two junior khans to oversee specific territories. One junior khan lived north of Shiguo and was in charge of the nomadic tribes in that area, while the other lived north of Guizi in a place called Yingsha. They also had officials in their court, such as Sifa and Yan Hongda, responsible for deliberating on national affairs, with other institutions resembling those of the eastern states. Every May 8th, they would gather to perform rituals to honor the spirits and send important officials to the caves of their ancestors to perform sacrifices.
During the Daye period, Chuluo Khan's rule was marked by inefficacy, with ongoing internal rebellions and frequent battles against the Tiele, leading to disastrous defeats. At that time, Pei Ju, the Yellow Gate Attendant, was liaising with various Western Regions from Dunhuang, and upon learning of the internal turmoil in Chuluo and knowing he longed for his mother, he reported this to Emperor Yang of Sui.
Emperor Yang of Sui sent the envoy Cui Junsu to deliver an imperial edict to Chuluo. Chuluo was very stubborn and refused to accept the edict to mobilize his troops. Cui Junsu said to Chuluo, "The Turks were originally one country, but now they are divided into two parts, hostile to each other, fighting every year. They have been fighting for many decades without being able to eliminate each other, indicating that Qimin Khan and Chuluo Khan are evenly matched. Now Qimin Khan, with his tribe and hundreds of thousands of troops, has sincerely submitted to the Emperor. Why is that? Because he hates you, but cannot defeat you alone, so he bows to the Emperor, hoping to enlist the military might of the Great Sui to unite the two powers against you. The courtiers have all requested the Emperor's approval, and the Emperor has agreed; the army will soon march out. Furthermore, your mother, Lady Xiang, is originally Chinese and currently resides in the capital, where she is staying at an inn. Upon hearing the Emperor's edict, she feared for your safety, crying at the palace gate every day, heartbroken. So the Emperor took pity on her and temporarily stopped the military campaign. Your mother is still on her knees, begging for forgiveness, requesting the Emperor to send envoys to summon you back to the court, to submit to the court and request the Emperor’s grace to grant you the same status as Qimin Khan. The Emperor agreed, so that's why I was sent here. If you submit and accept the edict, your country will enjoy lasting peace, and your mother will live a long life; otherwise, if your mother betrays the Emperor, she will certainly face execution, and then your head will be sent to the Turks for display. With the Great Sui army mobilizing and various northern tribal forces attacking from both sides, you will soon find yourself with nowhere to run! Why risk your mother's life over a simple bow? Why refuse to utter a word of submission and condemn the entire Xiongnu nation?"
When Chuluo heard these words, he suddenly came to his senses, with tears in his eyes as he bowed repeatedly and accepted the imperial edict on his knees. Cui Junsu then said to Chuluo, "After Qimin Khan pledged his allegiance to the court, the late emperor was greatly pleased and rewarded him generously, and as a result, his country grew strong and prosperous. Now that you have submitted, to compete for the emperor's favor, you must show your sincerity to the emperor. Since the journey is long and you cannot meet the emperor for now, you should accomplish something significant to prove your loyalty." Chuluo asked, "How should I do it?" Cui Junsu said, "Tuyuhun is the maternal family of Mohe Duo, the youngest son of Qimin Khan. Now that the emperor has married Princess Yicheng to Qimin Khan, Qimin Khan is afraid of the emperor's power and has cut off ties with Tuyuhun. Tuyuhun also resents the Great Sui, so they do not come to pay tribute. If you request the emperor's permission to attack Tuyuhun, the emperor will definitely agree. The Great Sui army will attack from the inside, while you attack from the outside; you will undoubtedly defeat them. Then you can personally present yourself to the emperor without any obstacles, and even meet your mother on the way. Isn't that great?" Chuluo was very happy, so he sent envoys to pay tribute.
The emperor wanted to go on a western expedition, but after waiting for six years, he finally sent the imperial censor Wei Jie to summon Chuluo, intending to meet him at Dadoubagu Valley. However, the common people in Chuluo's territory were unwilling, so Chuluo turned down the envoy with excuses. When the emperor heard this, he was infuriated, but he found himself powerless to act against him.
At this time, the chief of Chuluo, Shaki, sent an envoy to propose marriage, and Pei Ju took the opportunity to suggest to the emperor, "Chuluo does not come to pay homage because they rely on their strength. I propose a strategy to weaken them by dividing their country, which will make it easier to control. This Shaki is the son of Duoliu and the grandson of Datou, and his family has always been khans, ruling the west. Now I heard that he has fallen out of favor and is attached to Chuluo, so he sent envoys to propose marriage in an attempt to win us over. We should treat his envoy well and appoint him as the Great Khan, so that the Turks will be divided, and both sides will listen to us." The emperor said, "You are right!" So he let Pei Ju go to the embassy every day, secretly hinting to Shaki. Then the emperor summoned Shaki's envoy to the Renfeng Hall, told him about Chuluo's disobedience, praised the Shaki people, said he would appoint him as the Great Khan, allow him to lead troops to attack Chuluo, and we can discuss marriage afterward. The emperor also rewarded Shaki with a peach bamboo white feather arrow and said to him, "This matter must be done quickly, as fast as an arrow!"
On the way back, the envoy passed through Chuluo's territory, where Chuluo took a liking to the arrow and wanted to keep it, but the envoy cleverly escaped. Shaki was thrilled to hear about this and immediately led troops to attack Chuluo, who suffered a major defeat, leaving behind his wife, children, and elderly, fleeing east with several thousand cavalry. Along the way, he was even robbed, and finally escaped to the east of Gaochang, hiding out in the Shiluo mountains. King Qubo Ya of Gaochang reported this to the court, so the emperor sent Pei Ju, along with relatives and friends of the Xiang clan, to quickly rush to Yumen Pass and Jinchang City. Pei Ju sent Xiang Shi to persuade Chuluo, discussing the court's favor and advising him kindly, and finally Chuluo entered the court, but he remained discontented.
In the winter of the seventh year, Chuluo went to the Lingshuo Palace to meet the emperor, who threw a banquet in his honor. Chuluo bowed and apologized, saying, "I am in charge of various tribes in the west, and I couldn't come to pay my respects earlier. I am late now, and I feel immense guilt and fear, and I can't fully express my anxiety." The emperor said, "In the past, you were always at war with the Turks, unable to live in peace. Now the world is peaceful, and we are all one family. I want to offer you comfort and help you live well. Just like there is only one sun in the sky, only when there is one sun can everything be stable; if there were two or three suns, how could everything be peaceful? I know you are busy with affairs, that's why you came late. I am very happy to see you today, so don't worry."
On New Year's Day of the second year, Chuluo wished the emperor longevity, saying, "From heaven to earth, the only true ruler is you, the Holy Khan. You are the great sun; may you reign forever, just like you do today!" The emperor ordered that over ten thousand of Chuluo's men remain, and his brother Dado to herd in Huining County. Chuluo also followed the emperor to campaign against Goryeo and was handsomely rewarded, being named the Hesana Khan. In the tenth year of January, the emperor married Princess Xinyi to him and gave him a thousand sets of brocade and ten thousand pieces of colored silk. The emperor originally intended to return his old land to him, but because of the war in Liaodong, he couldn't do so for now. Chuluo often accompanied the emperor on tours. Later, there was a rebellion in Jiangdu, and Chuluo fled to Hebei with Hua Ji. After Hua Ji was defeated and fled back to the capital, he was killed by the Turks from the north.
The Tiele people, who are descendants of the Xiongnu, are quite diverse. They live along the valleys starting from the east of the Western Sea, and they are everywhere.
Especially north of the Luo River, there are tribes such as Pubu, Tongluo, Weige, Bayegu, Fuluo, all known as the Sijin, as well as Mengchen, Turuhege, Sijie, Hun, Huxue, and other surnames, totaling twenty thousand soldiers. Heading west from Yiwu, north of Yanqi, near the White Mountain, there are tribes such as Qibie, Boluozhi, Yidi, Supo, Nahe, Wuhuan, Gegu, Yedi, Yunishi, and others, also with twenty thousand soldiers. To the southwest of Jinshan, there are tribes such as Xue Yantuo, Dile'er, Shipan, and Daqi, with approximately ten thousand troops. North of Kangguo, near the Aide River, there are tribes such as Hedi, Heshen, Bohu, Bigan, Ju Hai, Hebisix, Hecosu, Bayeweiked, and others, estimated to have thirty thousand troops. On both the east and west sides of Deyi Sea, there are tribes with surnames such as Sulujie, Sansuoyan, Meicu, Longhu, totaling over eight thousand people. To the east of Fuling, there are tribes such as Enqu, Alan, Beiru Jiu Li, Fuwahun, with almost twenty thousand people. To the south of the Northern Sea, there are tribes such as Dupo.
Although these tribes have different surnames, they are all collectively known as the Tiele. They do not have their own monarchs and are subordinate to the two Turkic tribes in the east and west. They are nomadic, always migrating with water and grass. The Tiele people are fierce and cruel, skilled in horseback riding and archery, especially greedy, making a living by raiding and pillaging. Some of the Tiele people to the west do cultivate crops, have plenty of cattle and sheep, but fewer horses. Since the establishment of the Turkic state, they have relied on the power of the Tiele people to control the northern border through military campaigns.
As the Kaihuang era was coming to an end, the Jin Prince led his troops north to conquer and subdue Qimin Khan, defeating Buja Khan, resulting in the fragmentation of the Tiele tribes.
In the first year of Daye, the Turkic Khagan attacked the Iron Lek tribes, ruthlessly looting their wealth. Suspecting that the Xue Yantuo and other tribes might rebel, they killed hundreds of Iron Lek leaders. This stirred up a hornet's nest, as the Iron Lek tribes immediately rose up in rebellion against the Turkic Khagan, proclaiming Sili Fa Sijin Qibige Leng as their Khagan, Yiwu Zhenmo, and establishing their capital at Tanguhan. They also appointed Xue Yantuo as the Little Khagan. After the defeat of the Turkic Khagan, the influence of Yiwu Zhenmo Khagan began to grow. The Yiwu Zhenmo Khagan was extremely brave and deeply popular, leading neighboring countries such as Yiwu, Gaochang, and Yanqi to submit to him.
Their customs were mostly similar to the Turks, with one key difference: after marriage, men would move in with their wives' families and wouldn't return to their own homes until after their child was weaned. Upon death, they would be buried, marking the end of their journey. In the third year of Daye, they sent envoys to present tribute, a tradition they maintained thereafter.
The Xixia, originally called Kumo Xi, are descendants of the Eastern Xianbei people. After their defeat by the Murong clan, the survivors took refuge in the Songliao Plain area. They lead a rough lifestyle and are not particularly hygienic, but they are skilled horsemen and archers who enjoy looting. Initially, they submitted to the Turks, but gradually grew stronger and split into five groups: the Rugewang, Mohefu, Qige, Mukun, and Shide. Each group is led by a Sijin leader. Like the Turks, they live by following water and grass. Among these groups, the Akuishi tribe holds the most power, and the other groups all obey their commands. They frequently raid the Khitan people, seizing wealth and livestock to gain favor. When someone dies, they are wrapped in reed mats and hung from trees. Since they submitted to the Turks, they occasionally send envoys to the Turkic court to pay tribute, but their relationship is unstable and often unreliable. During the Daye era, they sent envoys to pay tribute annually.
The Khitan people, unlike the Kumo Xi, are a distinct ethnic group, yet they share close blood ties. They were also defeated by the Murong clan and fled to the Songhua River and desert areas. Later, they gradually became stronger and settled several hundred miles north of Huanglong Prefecture. Their customs are similar to the Mohe people, especially in their fondness for looting. When their parents pass away, they feel embarrassed if they cry too sorrowfully and will only place the bodies on trees on the mountain, collecting the bones three years later for cremation, then offering wine and prayers to the remains, saying, "In the winter, let us bask in the sun and eat our fill; when we go hunting, let us catch many pigs and deer." They are known for their roughness and aggression, being the most extreme among all minority groups.
During the Northern Wei period, the Khitan were attacked by Goguryeo, and over ten thousand households requested to submit to the Sui Dynasty and settled along the Baihe River. Later, they were oppressed by the Turks, prompting tens of thousands of households to seek refuge in Goguryeo. By the fourth year of Emperor Wen of Sui's reign, leaders of various Khitan tribes came to pay tribute. By the fifth year of Kaihuang, all the Khitan had submitted, and Emperor Wen of Sui welcomed them and allowed them to remain in their original locations. In the sixth year of Kaihuang, the various Khitan tribes engaged in prolonged conflicts with one another and even fought with the Turks. Emperor Wen of Sui sent envoys to rebuke them. A Khitan envoy arrived at the capital, kowtowing in apology. Later, several Khitan tribal leaders defected from Goguryeo and led their people to submit to the Sui Dynasty. Emperor Wen of Sui accepted them and settled them north of Kexi Naje. In the late years of Kaihuang, more than four thousand Khitan households betrayed the Turks and surrendered. At that time, the Sui Dynasty had a good relationship with the Turks, but this ultimately led to losing the support of distant minority groups. Emperor Wen of Sui ordered food to be given to them and allowed them to return, also ordering the Turks to appease them. However, they refused to leave. The population of the Khitan tribes continued to increase, so they migrated northward, following the water and grass for grazing, eventually settling two hundred miles north of Liao Xi, along the Hechen River. Their territory was five hundred miles wide east to west and three hundred miles long north to south, divided into ten tribes, each with military forces of varying sizes, with some tribes having up to three thousand men and others over a thousand. They grazed their livestock according to seasonal changes, following the water and grass. In times of war, the tribal leaders would meet to discuss strategies and then mobilize their troops in a coordinated effort. The Turkic Shabolue Khan even appointed Tudun Pando to lead them. The Shiwei, located north of the Khitan, were divided into five tribes - South Shiwei, North Shiwei, Bo Shiwei, Shenmoda Shiwei, and Da Shiwei. They had no monarch, the people were quite impoverished, and the Turks frequently sent three Tuduns to oversee them.
Nanshi Wei is located over three thousand miles north of the Khitan, and the area is low-lying and humid. In summer, they relocate to the northwest, near the two mountains of Bo and Qian. There, the vegetation is lush, and wildlife abounds, though mosquitoes are particularly abundant. To avoid mosquitoes, they all live in treehouses. Eventually, it split into twenty-five tribes, each with a leader called "Yumo Fuman Duo." When the leader dies, the position is inherited by his descendants. If the descendants are extinct, a capable individual is elected from within the tribe to become the leader. Their customs dictate that men wear their hair loose while women style theirs up, and their clothing is similar to that of the Khitan. They use oxen to pull carts, with carts constructed from bamboo mats, resembling the felt carts of the Turks. When they cross a river, they bundle firewood to create a raft, and some use animal hides to craft small boats. The saddles are made of woven grass, and the reins are made of knotted ropes. When they sleep, they dig a pit in the ground and cover it with bamboo mats, and when moving, they take this "nest" with them. They use pigskin as mats and wooden platforms for beds. Women prefer to sit cross-legged. The climate there is very cold, the harvests are meager, there are no sheep, horses are rare, but there are many pigs and cows. They make wine, and their customs of eating, drinking, and having fun are similar to those of the Mohe people. The custom of marriage is for both families to agree first, then the groom secretly takes the bride away, and later sends cows and horses as a betrothal gift to bring the bride back home. When the bride is pregnant, the groom and bride live in the bride's family home together. Women do not remarry, as they believe it's challenging for a widow to remarry. The tribes come together to construct a large tent, and when a person dies, they lay the body on the tent. Mourning lasts three years, during which they are permitted to cry only four times a year. Their land lacks iron, relying entirely on imports from Goryeo. They have an abundance of sable pelts.
Nanshi Wei traveled north for eleven days and reached Beishi Wei, which was divided into nine tribes that lived around Tuge Mountain. The tribal leader was known as "Qiyinmo Heduo," and each tribe had three deputies known as "Mohefu." The climate there was harsher, with snow so thick it could bury horses. In winter, they took refuge in caves in the mountains, and many cattle and sheep perished from the cold. There were plenty of roe deer, and they primarily survived by hunting, consuming meat, and wearing animal skins. They would break the ice and dive underwater to catch fish and turtles using nets. With thick snow covering the ground, they rode on wooden planks to avoid falling into hidden pits. Their custom involved making a living by hunting sables, wearing hats made of fox or badger fur, and donning clothes made from fish skin.
After traveling a thousand miles north, they reached Boshi Wei, which had a significantly larger population than Beishi Wei, though the exact number of tribes remains unknown. They built houses using birch bark, and their lifestyle was quite similar to that of Beishi Wei.
I departed from Boshi Wei and traveled southwest for four days until I reached Shenmoda Shiwei. The name of this place comes from the water found there. In winter, they all took shelter in underground caves to escape the harsh cold.
Traveling further northwest for several thousand miles, they finally reached Dashi Wei. The journey was quite arduous, and communication proved difficult due to the language barrier. That area was abundant in sable skins and blue rats.
Regarding Beishi Wei, they occasionally send envoys to pay tribute, but I have yet to visit myself.
The historical texts state: The border minority ethnic groups have long posed a threat to China, particularly the northern nomadic tribes. They have a large population, power that rises and falls, and have been dominant in the border areas for a long time; this has been an ongoing situation. In the era of the Five Emperors, there existed the Xunyu; during the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, the Xianyun emerged; in the Han dynasty, there were the Xiongnu; during the Wei, Jin, Northern, and Southern dynasties, there were the Wuhuan and Xianbei; during the Northern Wei and Northern Zhou periods, there were the Rouran and Turkic peoples. These tribal leaders successively became monarchs. They all relied on animal husbandry, lived by plundering through invasion, appeared and vanished without a trace, drifting like clouds and gathering like birds. The astute strategists at court deliberated on peace and war, while the brave generals on the border discussed battles. However, there are no fixed patterns in these matters, and power does not have a fixed pattern. Whether to make peace or go to war, whether to submit or rebel depends on their relative strength. When weak, they beg for mercy; when strong, they draw their bows and shoot arrows, invade and plunder. Their attitudes are capricious, with their strength and weakness often reversed. They operate outside the court's jurisdiction, nor do they adhere to the customs of the Central Plains. They prioritize their own interests above all else, showing utter disregard for alliances. They attack each other, are often arrogant and overbearing. The details of peace and war are well recorded in historical records; therefore, I will refrain from further elaboration.
As the Rouran weakened, the Turks began to rise in power. During the reign of the Ashina Kaghan, the Turks dominated the north. Their influence extended east to the former lands of the Donghu, west to the land of the Wusun, boasting tens of thousands of archers stationed in the Yin Mountains of Daizhou, posing a threat to both Northern Zhou and Northern Qi to the south. Both Northern Zhou and Northern Qi could not resist and quickly sought alliances and marriages. Consequently, the Turks allied with Northern Zhou and eventually defeated Northern Qi. After the establishment of the Sui Dynasty, the Turks' power grew even stronger. With their formidable military, they intended to invade the Sui Dynasty from the south. However, internal strife broke out among the Turks, leading to the Kaghan's flight and the Qimin Kaghan's plea to secure the borders. Seizing the opportunity, the Sui Dynasty reclaimed lost territories, aided in suppressing rebellions, allowing the Turkic forces to gradually strengthen. After the death of the Qimin Kaghan, the Turks neither invaded nor rebelled, maintaining a vassal relationship until the time of the Shibi Kaghan. However, Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty implemented misguided policies, which led to the Battle of Yanmen. Subsequently, various bandits rebelled, which further empowered the Turks. While some heroes carved out their own domains, they ultimately sought peace and stability through marriages. The Sui Dynasty set up offices to oversee the Turks, sending them significant wealth and ensuring constant communication. Historically, no ethnic minority's arrogance could rival that of the Turks.
Until the reign of the enlightened ruler of the Tang Dynasty, these calamities were finally addressed. However, certain ethnic minorities still stubbornly resisted, leading their troops to repeatedly break through border fortresses, destroyed Yunzhou and Daizhou, threatened Taiyuan, plundered Jingyang, and even watered their horses by the Wei River. Emperor Taizong of Tang employed clever strategies and covert operations, ultimately defeating this long-unconquerable enemy, integrating their former lands into the Tang Dynasty, making the people in those remote areas citizens of the Tang Dynasty. This was an achievement beyond the reach of past emperors and generals, and it was not recorded in history books. This illustrates that while the rise and fall of dynasties follow certain patterns, ultimately, it depends on human talent and effort. To have without showing off, to hold without hoarding, to embrace all like the heavens and earth, to cultivate all things like yin and yang, this is the highest principle, something that words fail to capture.
