The Tangut people are descendants of the Sanmiao people. They have several branches, such as Dangchang and Bailang, all claiming to be descendants of macaques. They are bordered to the east by Lintao and Xiping, and to the west by Yehu, and extend north and south for thousands of miles, inhabiting mountainous regions. Each surname forms its own tribe, with larger tribes boasting over five thousand cavalry and smaller ones having over a thousand. They use yak tails and the fur of some unidentified animal to build their houses. They wear leather jackets and coarse cloth garments, draped in felt, which serves as the finest adornment. They are fierce and brave, with no legal constraints, leading their own lives, only coming together during times of war. They do not have taxes or corvée labor, and there is little interaction between tribes. They make a living by herding yaks, sheep, and pigs, having no knowledge of agriculture whatsoever. Their customs are notoriously promiscuous, the most pronounced among all ethnic groups. They have no writing system, only judging the seasons based on the growth of plants. Every three years, they gather to sacrifice cattle and sheep to the heavens. If someone dies at over eighty years old, it is regarded as a natural death, and relatives and friends do not cry; if someone dies young, they consider it unjust, and everyone mourns together. They amuse themselves by playing the pipa, blowing the transverse flute, and beating drums. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, they often harassed the borders. When Gaozu was prime minister and the Central Plains were embroiled in constant turmoil, the Tangut people grew increasingly audacious in their raids. After Jiangong Liang Rui pacified Wang Qian, he requested to capitalize on the situation to launch an attack on the Tangut people, but Gaozu did not agree. In the fourth year of Kaihuang, over a thousand Tangut households surrendered to the Sui Dynasty. In the fifth year of Kaihuang, Tuoba Ningcong and others led their troops to Xuzhou to surrender and were appointed grand generals, with their subordinates also receiving official titles. In the sixteenth year of Kaihuang, they attacked Huizhou, and the court ordered the mobilization of troops from Longxi to quell them, resulting in a significant defeat for the Tangut army. Afterward, they all sought to surrender, eager to become subjects of the Sui Dynasty, and even sent their children to the capital to apologize. Gaozu instructed them, "Go back and tell your fathers and brothers that a person must have a stable place to live, take good care of the elderly, and respect their elders. Constantly running back and forth, don't you find it embarrassing?" Ever since then, the Tangut people have continued to pay tribute to the court.
The Kingdom of Gaochang was, in fact, the former royal court of the King of Cheshi during the Han Dynasty. It takes thirteen days to travel from Dunhuang to get there. The area stretches three hundred miles wide from east to west and five hundred miles long from north to south, surrounded by many mountains. When the army of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty marched west, exhausted and suffering heavy losses, many particularly weary soldiers stayed there. The place also had the Gaochang camp from the Han Dynasty; thus, it became the name of the kingdom.
Initially, the Rouran appointed Kan Bozhou as the King of Gaochang. After Kan Bozhou's death, his son Kan Yicheng succeeded him but was killed by his cousin Shougui, who then became the King of Gaochang. He was later killed by the Gaoche people led by Afuzhilo. After that, they supported Zhang Mengming from Dunhuang as the king. Zhang Mengming was killed by the people of Gaochang, so Mamu became the king, appointing Gonggu and Qu Jia as chief historians. Mamu then contacted Northern Wei and requested to submit to them. However, those who submitted to Northern Wei were reluctant to leave their homeland and relocate eastward, so they all killed Mamu and made Qu Jia the king.
Qu Jia, who was styled Lingfeng, hailed from Yuzhong in Jincheng. After becoming king, he also paid tribute to the Juanjuan. When the leader of the Juanjuan was killed by the Gaoche people, Qu Jia then paid tribute to the Gaoche. Later, Yanqi was defeated by Yida, and the people of Yanqi could not control the situation, so they asked Qu Jia to be their master. Qu Jia sent his second son to be the king of Yanqi. From that point on, the Kingdom of Gaochang began to strengthen, and the people became increasingly loyal. After Qu Jia's death, his son Qu Jian succeeded him.
It is said that the capital's city walls measure one thousand eight hundred and forty steps around, featuring a painting of Duke Ai of Lu consulting Confucius on governance strategies in the imperial palace. There are also eighteen cities within the borders of this country.
The ranking system of officials is as follows: the highest is the Lord Chancellor, one person; then there are two Deputy Lords; further down are the Left and Right Protectors, eight Senior Historians, five Commanders, eight Marshals, as well as Attendants, Clerks, Chief Secretaries, Aides, and Provincial Officials. Of course, national affairs are decided by the king, while minor matters are discussed and handled by the Crown Prince and the Deputy Lords, who do not write many documents. Men wear Hu clothing, women wear skirts with a jacket, and they all wear their hair in a bun. Their customs and laws are similar to those of the Central Plains region.
This place is abundant in stones and gravel, with a warm climate which allows for two crops a year and is abundant in fruits. There is a grass known as Sheep Thistle that produces honey on its flowers, which has a particularly delightful flavor. Red salt is produced here, as red as cinnabar; white salt, as white as jade. There is also plenty of grape wine. The locals worship both the gods of heaven and Buddhism.
The country's flocks of sheep and herds of horses are pastured in secluded areas to avoid invasion by foreign enemies, and only the nobility are aware of where these livestock are. To the north lies Red Stone Mountain, with Tanhan Mountain located seventy li to the north, which still has snow in the summer. To the north of Tanhan Mountain are the lands of the Tiele tribe.
From Wuwei to the northwest, there is a shortcut that cuts through over a thousand miles of desert and Gobi, surrounded by desolation with no road signs in sight. Those who attempt this route must follow the corpses scattered along the path. They may also hear singing and crying on the road, and those who go searching often lose their way and meet their demise, as it is said to be haunted by spirits and demons. As a result, most traders prefer the Yiwu route.
In the tenth year of the Kaihuang era, the Turks captured their four cities, and two thousand people fled to the Central Plains seeking refuge. After the death of the king, his son Boya ascended the throne. His mother was the daughter of the Turkic Khan, and after his father's death, the Turks insisted he adhere to their funeral customs. Boya resisted for quite some time but eventually had to comply when pressured by the Turks.
After Emperor Yang of Sui ascended the throne, he attracted many people from neighboring countries. In the fourth year of Daye, they sent envoys to pay tribute, and Emperor Yang treated these envoys with great respect.
In the second year of his reign, King Boya of Gaochang came to the imperial court to meet the emperor. He also followed the Sui army to attack Goguryeo, and upon his return, he married Princess Huarong of the Sui Dynasty. In the winter of the eighth year of Daye, Boya returned to his country and ordered the whole nation: "The most important thing in governing a country is to protect the people, and the most important thing in stabilizing a country is to safeguard the people. In the past, our country bordered on remote areas with fierce nomadic tribes, and the people were safe, just dressed in the clothing of the nomads. Now that the Great Sui has unified the country, there is peace throughout the land, and all regions have submitted to us. As I enjoy this era of peace and prosperity, I also hope to extend kindness to all the people, including officials and nobles, to abandon the clothing of the nomads and wear Han clothing."
Emperor Yang was very pleased when he heard this and issued a decree, saying: "Commending virtue and rewarding good deeds has always been the practice of a wise and enlightened monarch. Being bright, upright, honest, and kind are exemplary qualities worthy of emulation. The Grand Master of Ceremonies, Duke of Bian, King Boya of Gaochang, is knowledgeable and broad-minded, with loyalty long been demonstrated and noble integrity spreading far and wide. He was originally a Han Chinese, but later went on to establish a kingdom in the Western Regions. Previously, due to wars, he was oppressed by the Turks and forced to wear the clothing of the nomads. Since our great Sui Dynasty unified the world, pacified the four corners, and our benevolence spread throughout the land, Boya traveled a long way, crossing deserts to come to the court, learning our Han rituals and admiring our grand ceremonies. As a result, he abandoned the clothing of the nomads and wore Han clothing, transforming from a barbarian into a Han Chinese, which is also glorious in history. I hereby grant him a set of Han clothing, made according to the court's specifications. I also sent people to escort him back. Let him wear magnificent clothes, take another look at the Han people's chariots and horses, cast aside those rough fur garments, and become a citizen wearing robes and caps once again!"
However, Boya was once subordinate to the Tiele, and the Tiele often stationed important officials in Gaochang. The merchants who passed through had to pay taxes to Gaochang, which were then submitted to the Tiele. Although Boya ordered his people to wear Han clothing to please the Sui Dynasty, he still feared the Tiele and did not dare to implement any real changes. Since then, Gaochang sent people to offer local specialties as tribute every year.
Kangguo is a descendant of the Kangju. They have always been a nomadic people without a fixed territory, but have existed since the time of the Han Dynasty. Their king's surname is Wen, and he belongs to the Yuezhi. They used to live in Zhaowu, a city north of the Qilian Mountains, but were defeated by the Xiongnu and fled west of the Congling Mountains, where Kangguo came to be. The king's brothers, sons, and nephews were all granted titles as kings, so the neighboring countries of Kangguo adopted Zhaowu as their surname to honor their origins.
The current king is called Daishibi, and he is known for his generosity and is well-liked by the people. His wife is the daughter of the Turkic khan Datukhan. Their capital is in a city called Aludi on the Sabao River, which is home to many residents. State affairs are managed collectively by three ministers. The king sports long hair, dons a jeweled gold hat, and wears luxurious garments made of silk and satin. His wife styles her hair in a bun and wears a black headscarf. Men sport short hair and wear brocade robes. Although Kangguo is regarded as a powerful nation, many nations in the Western Regions are subject to its authority, such as Miguo, Shiguo, Caoguo, Heguo, Anguo, Xiaoguo, Nasebo, Wunanhe, and Mugu, all of which acknowledge its authority.
They have a set of laws kept in Zoroastrian temples, which are taken out to judge cases. Serious crimes result in family annihilation, lesser crimes result in execution, and theft results in amputation of the feet. The people there all have deep-set eyes, prominent noses, and scruffy beards. They are skilled in business, trading with various ethnic groups across the Western Regions, most of whom come to the Kingdom of Kang. They have musical instruments such as drums, pipa, five-stringed qin, konghou, and flutes. Their marriage and funeral customs are similar to those of the Turks. They have ancestral temples where they hold ancestor worship ceremonies every June, and surrounding countries come to participate. The locals practice Buddhism and write in Hu script. The climate is warm and suitable for growing grains. They are diligent in cultivating vegetables, and the trees are also quite lush.
They produce horses, camels, mules, donkeys, yaks, gold, a substance known as "naosha," incense, asana incense, seese (a type of spice), deer hides, felt blankets, and satin. They produce a lot of wine, and wealthy families can stockpile thousands of stones, with good harvests every year. During the Daye period of the Sui Dynasty, the Kingdom of Kang began sending envoys to offer tribute, but later this practice was discontinued.
Anguo is the ancient kingdom of Parthia during the Han Dynasty. The king's family name is Zhaowu, and he is of the same lineage as the King of Kang, with the style name Shelideng. His wife is the daughter of the King of Kang. Anguo is located south of the Mi River, which features five layers of city walls surrounded by flowing water. The palaces feature flat roofs. The king sits on a golden camel seat, which is seven to eight feet high. During each court session, he and the queen sit face to face, while three ministers discuss national affairs together. The customs of Anguo are similar to those of the Kingdom of Kang. However, they have a strange custom of mutual killing between sisters and between mothers and sons, which is quite shocking. After Emperor Yang of Sui took the throne, he sent the official Du Xingman to the Western Regions, and when he reached Anguo, he returned with salt in five different colors.
To the west of Anguo, there is a state called Biguo, which has around a thousand households. Biguo lacks its own ruler and is under the jurisdiction of Anguo. In the fifth year of the Daye era, Biguo sent envoys to pay tribute, but communication was severed afterward.
Shiguo is situated along the banks of the Yaoshashui River, with a capital city that spans over ten li. Their king is surnamed Shi, with the name Nie. In the southeastern part of Shiguo, there are houses that contain a designated seat. Every year on the 6th day of the first lunar month and the 15th day of the seventh month, they place the remaining ashes of the king's parents in a golden urn, put it on a bed, then walk around the urn, sprinkling flower petals and various fruits, while the king conducts the sacrificial rites alongside his ministers. After the sacrifice, the king and queen go to another tent, the ministers take their seats in turn, and they share a celebratory meal together before dispersing.
Shiguo is known for its rice, wheat, and fine horses. They are known for their martial prowess and were once allied with the Turks. Khan Shetuo led his forces to conquer Shiguo and appointed a man named Teqindianzhi to oversee Shiguo's affairs. Shiguo lies six hundred li from the Western Turks and six thousand li from Guazhou. Teqindianzhi sent envoys to pay tribute in the fifth year of Daye but has not returned since.
Once upon a time, there was a kingdom of women south of the Congling Mountains. In this kingdom, women were always in charge. The reigning queen was named Su Pi, whose courtesy name was Mo Jie, and she had been the queen for twenty years. The queen's husband was named Jin Ju, who was completely indifferent to everything and did not care about state affairs all day long. The men in this kingdom were primarily warriors. Their capital was situated on a mountain, spanning approximately five or six miles, and it was home to tens of thousands of households. The queen resided in a nine-story palace, attended by hundreds of maidservants, and held court only once every five days. The queen also had a deputy, known as the small queen, who handled state affairs alongside her. Women in this kingdom had a high status, held men in contempt, and showed no jealousy whatsoever. People of all ages enjoyed painting their faces in vibrant colors, often changing colors multiple times a day. Everyone sported unkempt hair and wore leather shoes, and taxes were unpredictable and varied with the mood. The weather there was very cold, and people primarily subsisted through hunting. They were known for their jade, cinnabar, musk, yaks, fine horses, and horses from the Shu region. They particularly excelled in salt production and often shipped salt to India for sale, generating profits several times their initial investment. They frequently fought with India and the Tangut people. After the queen passed away, the whole country had to collect money on a large scale, and then select two outstanding women from the queen's family, one as the queen and the other as the small queen. If a noble died, they would remove the skin from the deceased, combine the skin with gold powder along with the deceased's bones and flesh, place it in a bottle and bury it. A year later, they would wrap the skin in iron and bury it once more. They worshipped the Asura god. They also honored the tree god, and every year at the beginning of the year, they would offer sacrifices of humans or monkeys to the tree god. Following the sacrifice, they would ascend the mountains to pray, and a bird resembling a female pheasant would alight on the palm of the sacrificer. They would then dissect the bird to examine its innards. If it contained grains, it foretold a bountiful harvest for the following year; if it contained sand and stones, it foretold disaster, a practice known as bird divination. In the sixth year of Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty, the kingdom of women once dispatched envoys to pay tribute, but communication eventually ceased.
Yanqi Kingdom, located 70 miles south of Baishan, has been an established country since the Han Dynasty. Their king's surname was Long, whose courtesy name was Tuqi. The capital was a square area of two miles and had nine cities, with over a thousand soldiers. The country had no formal laws. They followed Buddhism, somewhat similar to Brahminism. Their marriage ceremonies were quite similar to those in the Central Plains. Upon death, the deceased were cremated, and the family would observe a seven-day mourning period. Men all had their hair cut. Yanqi Kingdom was known for its production of fish, salt, reeds, and rushes. Going east, it was 900 miles to Gaochang, and going west, it was 900 miles to Kucha, both through deserts and wastelands. Going southeast, it was 2,200 miles to Guazhou. During the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, Yanqi Kingdom sent envoys to offer local specialties as tribute.
Kucha Kingdom, located 170 miles south of Baishan, has been an ancient kingdom since the Han Dynasty. Their king's surname was Bai, whose courtesy name was Sunidie. The capital was a square six miles long. They had several thousand soldiers. Local customs dictated that murder was punishable by death, and robbery resulted in the loss of one arm and one leg. The customs were similar to those of Yanqi Kingdom. The king wore a colorful ribbon tied around his head, trailing down his back, as he sat on a throne crafted from golden lions. This region was famous for producing rice, millet, soybeans, wheat, as well as copper, iron, lead, deer hides, carpets, turquoise, malachite, realgar, orpiment, frankincense, good horses, and fat cattle. It was 900 miles east to Yanqi, 1,400 miles south to Yutian, 1,500 miles west to Shule, over 600 miles northwest to the Tujue territory, and 3,100 miles southeast to Guazhou. During the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, Kucha Kingdom also dispatched envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
The Kingdom of Shule, also located over a hundred miles south of Baishan, is an ancient country from the time of the Han Dynasty. Its king is named Ami Jue. He and his people all have hands and feet with six fingers. Children born without six fingers cannot survive. The capital is a square measuring five li on each side. There are twelve large cities and dozens of small cities in the country, with 2,000 soldiers ready for battle. The king wears a hat adorned with golden lions. The country produces rice, millet, hemp, wheat, copper, iron, brocade, and realgar, and annually pays tribute to the Turks. To the south lies the Yellow River, to the west lies the Khaganate, also 1,000 miles away, to the east lies Qiuci, located 1,500 miles away, to the south lies Zhu Jubo, about 800 to 900 miles away, to the northeast lies the Turks' stronghold, over 1,000 miles away, and to the southeast lies Guazhou, located 4,600 miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, the Kingdom of Shule also sent envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
In the country of Khotan, just over two hundred li to the north of Tsung Ling, the king's surname is Wang, his courtesy name is Bei Shi Bi Lian. The capital city is approximately eight or nine li in circumference. The country comprises five major cities and dozens of smaller ones, with only a few thousand troops. The common people believe in Buddhism, with a large number of monks and nuns, and the king often eats vegetarian and recites scriptures. Fifty li south of the city is the Zanmo Temple, which is said to have been built by the Arhat Bhikshu Bilu. The temple even has footprints of the Buddha on its stones! Five hundred li west of Khotan is the Bi Mo Temple, said to be where Laozi transformed the barbarians into Buddhas. The locals lack morals, with many thieves who are promiscuous and lawless. The king wears a brocade cap with a gold rat emblem, while the queen wears a gold flower. The king's hair is not to be seen by others, as locals believe that seeing the king's hair will bring misfortune for the year. The region is abundant in hemp, wheat, millet, rice, fruits, and gardens, as well as beautiful jade stones found in the mountains. Heading east, it is fifteen hundred li to Shan Shan, three thousand li to the Kingdom of Women in the south, one thousand li to Zhu Ju Bo in the west, and fourteen hundred li to Kucha in the north. To the northeast, Gua Zhou is two thousand eight hundred li away. During the Sui Dynasty, Khotan often sent envoys to pay tribute.
In the country of Qocho, over five hundred li west of Tsung Ling, formerly known as the Qu Suo Kingdom, the king's surname is Zhao Wu, his courtesy name is A Li Qi. The capital city is four li in circumference. There are also a few thousand soldiers. The king sits on a chair made of golden sheep, while the queen wears a gold flower. The region is rich in cinnabar, gold, and iron. Heading east, it is one thousand li to Shule, five hundred li to the Kingdom of Sufengshana in the west, five hundred li to the Kingdom of Stone in the northwest, over two thousand li to the Tujue Ya in the northeast, and five thousand five hundred li to Gua Zhou in the east. During the Da Ye period, they also sent envoys to pay tribute with various local specialties.
The country of Tuhuo is located 500 miles west of Congling and shares a border with the country of Yida. The capital city covers an area of about two square miles. They boast an army of 100,000 skilled soldiers, all of whom practice Buddhism. A unique custom here is that brothers share a wife and take turns sleeping with her. Whoever's turn it is hangs his clothes outside the door as a marker. Any children born belong to the eldest brother. In the caves of their mountains, they raise divine horses and every year, they raise mother horses near the caves to produce quality foals. Cao country lies 1,700 miles to the south, and Guazhou is 5,800 miles to the east. During the Daye period, they sent envoys to pay tribute.
Yida lies about 200 miles south of the Wuxu River and is inhabited by the descendants of the Yuezhi. They field around 5,000 to 6,000 fierce and battle-hardened soldiers. Previously, the country faced internal strife, allowing the Turks to impose control. Their capital city spans about ten square miles and is adorned with numerous temples and pagodas, all decorated with gold. They have a custom of brothers sharing wives, where a woman with only one husband wears a single-horned hat; if her husband has multiple brothers, the number of horns on her hat increases. Yida is 1,500 miles from Cao country and 6,500 miles from Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they frequently sent envoys to present various goods.
The country of Mi lies west of the Namishi River, which was once part of the Kangju territory. They have no king, and the highest-ranking official in the city is named Zhaowu, a distant relative of the king of Kang, known by the courtesy name Bizhuo. Their capital city covers just two square miles, and they maintain only a few hundred soldiers. Mi is 100 miles from Kang country, 500 miles from Suduoshana country, 200 miles from Siguo, and 6,400 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they regularly presented various goods as tribute.
The Kingdom of Shi, ten miles south of the Dumo River, was once part of the Kangju territory. Their king's surname was Zhaowu, known by the courtesy name Tizhe, and he was also a relative of the Kangju king. Their capital city spanned only two square li, with a military force of around a thousand troops, and their customs were similar to those of the Kangju. The Kingdom of Shi was 240 miles from Kangju, 500 miles from Turpan, 200 miles from Nasebo, 200 miles from Mi country, and 6,500 miles from Guazhou. They too dispatched envoys to present tribute during the Daye era.
Cao country, a few miles south of the Nami River, was once part of the Kangju territory as well. This country lacked an independent ruler and was overseen by Wujian, the son of the Kangju king. Their capital city was approximately three square li in size, with a military force of around a thousand troops. Cao country had a highly revered deity, worshipped by countries east of the Western Sea. This god had a golden statue, over five feet wide and tall, and required daily offerings of five camel humps, ten horses, and a hundred sheep. The leftovers from the offerings were enough to feed a thousand people. Cao country was 100 miles from Kangju, 150 miles from He country, and 6,600 miles from Guazhou. They too dispatched envoys to present tribute during the Daye era.
He country, also a few miles south of the Nami River, was once part of the Kangju territory. Their king's surname was Zhaowu, a relative of the Kangju king, with the courtesy name Dun. Their capital city spanned only two square li, with a military force of around a thousand troops. Their king sat on a throne crafted from gold in the shape of a ram. He country was 150 miles from Cao country, 300 miles from Xiao'an country, and 6,750 miles from Guazhou. They too dispatched envoys to present tribute during the Daye era.
The country of Wunahé, with its capital built on the west side of the Wuhu River, was previously part of the Anxi Kingdom. The king's family name is Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang Kingdom royal family, with the courtesy name Foshi. The capital city walls are two miles long, with only a few hundred troops. The king's throne is shaped like a golden ram. To the northeast lies An Kingdom, 400 miles away; to the northwest lies Mu Kingdom, over 200 miles away; and to the east lies Gua State, 7,500 miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, they once sent envoys to present special local products.
Mu Kingdom, with its capital also on the west side of the Wuhu River, was likewise part of the former territory of the Anxi Kingdom and neighbored Wunahé. Their king's family name is also Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang Kingdom royal family, with the courtesy name Alanmi. The capital city walls are three miles long, with two thousand troops. To the northeast lies An Kingdom, 500 miles away; to the east lies Wunahé, over 200 miles away; to the west lies Persia, over 4,000 miles away; and to the east lies Gua State, 7,700 miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to present special local products.
Persia, situated on the west side of the Dahe River, in the city of Sulindu, which was known as Tiao Zhi in ancient times. Their king is named Kusahe. The capital covers an area of approximately ten miles. They have over twenty thousand troops, who ride elephants into battle. This country has no death penalty, with punishments that may include amputation of limbs, confiscation of property, shaving of beards, or wearing a sign around the neck for differentiation. Everyone over the age of three is required to pay a tax of four coins. They also have a custom of marrying their own sisters. When a person dies, their body is placed on a mountain, and their family must wear mourning for a month. The king dons a golden flower crown, sits on a throne made of golden lions, adorns his beard with gold powder, wears brocade robes, and various ornaments.
This place produces fine horses, big donkeys, lions, white elephants, and large bird eggs, as well as pearls, poli (a gem), animal spirits (a gem), coral, glass, agate, crystal, sese (a gem), huluge (a gem), luteng (a gem), fire qi (a gem), diamonds, gold, silver, various jade stones, copper, bintie (a type of steel), tin, brocade, fine cloth, carpets, blankets, huna (a fabric), yuenobu (a fabric), sandalwood, fabric woven with gold thread, red deer skin, cinnabar, mercury, and various spices such as aloeswood, saffron, benzoin, agarwood, pepper, bibo (a spice), honey, semi-honey (a type of sugar), thousand-year dates, aconite (a medicinal herb), helele (a medicinal herb), gall nuts (a medicinal herb), malachite (a pigment), and orpiment (a pigment). The Turks were unable to defeat them, so they had to adopt a policy of indirect control. The Persians often sent envoys to offer tribute.
West of Persia lies the sea, to the east lies Mu country (now Central Asia) over four thousand miles away, to the northwest lies Byzantium four thousand five hundred miles away, and to the east lies Guazhou (now Gansu Province) eleven thousand seven hundred miles away. Emperor Yang of Sui sent the Cloud Cavalry Captain Li Yu to establish diplomatic relations with Persia, and later sent people with Li Yu to deliver some local specialties.
Caoguo, north of the Congling Mountains, was called Jibin Kingdom during the Han Dynasty. The king of this land was Zhaowu, whose courtesy name was Shunda, and he was a relative of the Kangju king.
The capital city stretches four li along its walls. There are more than ten thousand formidable soldiers. The laws of the land are quite strict, and murderers and robbers are sentenced to death. However, their customs are quite superstitious, and they enjoy participating in various peculiar rituals.
On the mountain of Congling, there is a temple dedicated to the God of Heaven that is quite grand. Its roof is covered in gold, silver, and copper, and the floor is laid with silver. Thousands of people come to worship every day. In front of the temple, there is a fish backbone, with a hollow center wide enough for a horse to pass through.
The king wears a gold crown shaped like a fish and sits on a throne made of golden horses. This place produces rice, millet, beans, wheat, elephants, horses, and a type of cattle called Fengniu, along with gold, silver, steel, carpets, cinnabar, indigo, frankincense, sandalwood, and various spices, such as rock honey, semi-honey, black salt, asafoetida, myrrh, and white aconite.
It is 700 miles north from Caoguo to Fanyan City, 600 miles east to Jieguo, and 6,600 miles northeast to Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, Caoguo even dispatched envoys to present various local specialties.
Fu Guo, situated over two thousand li northwest of Shu Jun, was known as the territory of the southwestern Yi during the Han Dynasty. There was a tribe called Jialiang Yi in the eastern part of Fu Guo. They elected their leaders within their own tribe and had customs similar to those of Fu Guo, with only minor language differences and no unification. They did not use surnames. The king of Fu Guo was named Yi Zeng. Their territory stretched eight hundred li from north to south and fifteen hundred li from east to west. They had no city walls but were situated near valleys and relied on the steep mountainous terrain. They liked revenge, so they constructed "stone nests" from piled stones to protect themselves from enemies. These "stone nests" stood over ten zhang high, with some as low as five or six zhang, with each floor measuring a zhang high and separated by wooden beams. The base was approximately three or four steps wide, tapering to two or three steps wide at the top. There was a small door on the ground floor, and it must be closed at night to prevent theft. The entire country had over twenty thousand households, all subject to the king's orders. The Jialiang Yi's laws were enacted by the chiefs, and serious crimes were punishable by death, while minor offenses incurred a fine of a cow. They were nimble and proficient in sword fighting. They donned armor crafted from lacquered leather and had bows six chi long with bowstrings made of bamboo. They married multiple women, including mothers and sisters-in-law, and if a brother passed away, the elder brother would marry his younger brother's widow. They loved singing and dancing, accompanied by drums, reed instruments, and flutes. When someone died, they did not observe mourning attire; the body was laid on a high bed, washed, dressed, covered in lacquered armor, and draped with animal skins. Descendants did not cry; instead, they danced in armor with swords, shouting, "My father was taken by spirits, and I will avenge him!" Other relatives would cry three times before stopping. Women were required to cover their faces while mourning. The deceased's family would slaughter a cow, and relatives exchanged pork and wine, feasting together before the burial. A grand funeral took place ten years later, where relatives and friends gathered, horses were slaughtered, with at least dozens being killed. They erected ancestral shrines for worship. They wore round leather hats resembling bowls, some of which had face masks. Their clothing primarily consisted of fur and leather, with boots crafted from whole cow hides. They adorned themselves with iron chains around their necks and iron rings on their hands. The king and chiefs donned gold jewelry, featuring a three-inch diameter gold flower hanging from their chests. The terrain was elevated, the climate cool, with little rain and plenty of wind. The land was ideal for cultivating wheat and barley. The mountains yielded gold and silver, and many white pheasants could be found. The rivers were home to a type of excellent fish, four chi long with very fine scales.
In the year 608 AD, during the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, the king of Tuyuhun sent eight envoys to Chang'an to pay their respects to the emperor.
In the following year, he sent his student Yilin with sixty people from the Jialiang tribe to present tribute. They wanted to present good horses, but the rugged terrain made the journey impassable, so they requested Emperor Yang of Sui to open a mountain road for future tribute missions. Emperor Yang of Sui found this to be too troublesome and labor-intensive, so he did not agree.
The Jialiang tribe had a river about sixty to seventy zhang wide; the neighboring country (another tribe) also had a river more than a hundred zhang wide, both flowing south, and the locals used boats made of animal skins to cross the rivers.
To the south of the neighboring country was a tribe called Baoyuan, which had similar customs to those of the neighboring country. To the west of the neighboring country lay a matriarchal society. To the northeast of the neighboring country were mountain ranges stretching for thousands of miles, extending to the Dangxiang region. Many Qiang tribes lived in the mountains: *Dazuo Feng*, *Xiaozuo Feng*, *Xiwei*, *Geyan*, *Baigou*, *Xiangren*, *Wangzu*, *Lintai*, *Chunsang*, *Lidou*, *Misang*, *Biyao*, *Dahua*, *Bailan*, *Chilimotu*, *Naoe*, *Dangmi*, *Qubu*, *Sangwu*, *Qiandiao*. These tribes lived in deep mountain valleys, lacking a strong leader to unify them. Their customs were similar to those of the Dangxiang people, with some tribes submitting to Tuyuhun and others allegiant to the neighboring country. During the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, these tribes all came to Chang'an to pay tribute. To oversee these regions, the Sui Dynasty established several prefectures on the southwestern border to manage these tribes from a distance.
In historical records, it is said that from ancient times to the present, in order to expand the borders and forge connections with remote regions, there must be ambitious emperors and ministers passionate about this endeavor. Zhang Qian ventured into the Western Regions, while Ban Chao traded his pen for a sword. They either used treasures to make friends or swords to intimidate, risking their lives for fleeting glory, all because the emperor valued the expansion of borders, and the ministers were willing to go through fire and water. Therefore, what those in power favor, the people below will be more enthusiastic about.
Emperor Yang of Sui imitated the grandeur of the Qin and Han dynasties, even surpassing them, and Pei Ju presented the "Record of the Western Regions" to cater to his thoughts. Therefore, Emperor Yang of Sui personally went on expedition, reached the Yumen Pass, established Yiwu, Qiemo, and other places, extending all the way to the Liusha region, causing great suffering among the people. If the nomadic tribes in the north were not a threat, and good news came from the eastern barbarians, Emperor Yang of Sui would definitely continue to build guard posts at Luntai, construct cities at Wulei, seek the pearls of Daqin, and obtain the eggs of Tiaozhi for transportation, how could the nation possibly bear such a burden?
Ancient wise emperors ruled over territories just five thousand miles in circumference, devoted to stabilizing the Central Plains, not concerning themselves with distant, desolate regions. Is it because their prestige was not enough, their virtues not widely recognized? No, they simply did not waste resources on remote areas, not harming useful matters for useless ones. So the Qin Dynasty stationed troops in the Wuling Mountains, the Han Dynasty fought on three borders, resulting in either fields strewn with corpses or a population halved. The Sui Dynasty, relying on its strong power, also ended up in a sorry state in the Qinghai region. All of this is because the rulers lost their direction, leading to immense suffering among the common people.
If Emperor Yang of Sui had seriously considered the meaning of "pacifying the borders," turned down the governors' requests, withdrawn with his thousand-mile steed, and did not demand tribute from the White Wolf, then even without a victory in Liaodong, how could the tragedy of Jiangdu have unfolded?
