The Spring and Autumn period mentions that "when dragons appear, rain follows," but during the Liang dynasty, rain prayers were not performed as a regular ritual. If drought continued into April, seven actions would be taken to conduct rain prayers: first, rectifying wrongful convictions and official misconduct; second, providing relief to the lonely, elderly, and poor; third, reducing taxes and labor duties; fourth, promoting virtuous individuals; fifth, dismissing corrupt officials; sixth, promoting understanding and empathy among men, women, the elderly, and the young to resolve conflicts; seventh, refraining from indulgence, dismantling banquet tables, and abstaining from music. The emperor would don mourning attire. After seven days, sacrifices would be made to the state deities; another seven days later, sacrifices would be made to the mountains, forests, rivers, and marshes, praying for regular rainfall; seven days later, offerings would be made to the principal deities of various temples within the ancestral temple; another seven days later, offerings would be made to historical officials who had benefited the people; and another seven days later, a large-scale rain prayer ceremony would be held, offering sacrifices to the deities and praying for everything to go smoothly.
The large-scale rain prayer ceremony involved building a circular altar on the left side of the southern suburbs, four zhang high, four zhang in diameter, with a circumference of twelve zhang, and four steps. The sacrificial animal was a yellow bull. For five days, offerings would be made to the Five Heavenly Emperors and the Five Human Emperors, with each deity positioned according to direction, the ancestor deity positioned south of the Azure Emperor, and the Five Officials deities accompanying below. Music would stop after seven days. Following that, offerings would again be made to the state deities, mountains, forests, and rivers at the original large altar. A site would be opened south of the capital as a place for sacrifices, with 64 children arranged to dance. To the left of the rain prayer altar, another site would be opened for offerings to the officials and nobles, also featuring 64 children in splendid attire, divided into eight rows, each holding feather fans and concluding their performance after singing a poem from "Yun Han." If the rain prayer succeeded, a grand sacrifice would be offered in thanks, which would be carried out by the appropriate authorities. Only the large-scale rain prayer ceremony does not necessitate a gratitude offering.
If the counties, nations, and prefectures are experiencing drought and praying for rain, five things should be done simultaneously: first, addressing wrongful convictions and official negligence; second, relieving the elderly, orphans, and impoverished; third, mitigating corvée labor; fourth, elevating virtuous individuals; fifth, dismissing corrupt officials. Local officials should fast for three days, then perform sacrifices to the deities. If it doesn't rain within seven days, they should fast and pray for rain again. If it still doesn't rain after three attempts, they should fast again and offer sacrifices to the local mountains, forests, rivers, and lakes, praying for rain. After a successful rain prayer, appropriate sacrifices of thanks should be conducted. Following the system of the Liang Dynasty, after a successful rain prayer, a minor livestock sacrifice is conducted. During the reign of Emperor Wu, the current emperor was paired with the deity during the sacrifice, while during the reign of Emperor Wen, Emperor Wu was paired. After the accession of Emperor Fei, Emperor Wen was paired with the Green Emperor in the sacrifice. The sacrificial animal is a yellow bull, and its head is to be washed with four liters of clear wine. The sacrificial altars, locations, rituals, songs, and dances are identical to those of the Liang Dynasty. If the emperor does not personally participate, the Grand Preceptor, Minister of Rites, and Minister of Works carry out the three offerings. These regulations are modeled after the system from the second year of the Jianwu era of the Qi Dynasty (AD 496). The regulations of the Liang and Chen Dynasties state that all sacrificial officials are required to take purifying medicine, fast for a day, and then participate in the sacrifice to maintain its purity.
In the ninth year of Tianjian, a sacrificial ceremony was held at the rain-praying altar. Emperor Wu believed that rain belonged to the yin category, so it was absurd to pray for rain in a yang direction. The east is where all things begin, so the rain-praying altar should be located in the east, and praying for clear skies should also be done in this direction. Therefore, the rain-praying altar was moved to the eastern suburbs. Ten years later, the emperor wanted to burn firewood during the rain-praying ceremony to pray for rain, which did not make sense. Yi Cao Lang Zhu Yi objected, saying, "According to the commentary on the 'Clouds and Han' poem from the Zhou Xuanwang period, there are records of buried sacrificial offerings, not burning firewood. If it is said that the worship of the Five Emperors must burn firewood, then there is no record of this in the Mingtang." Therefore, the practice of burning firewood was discontinued, and the practice of burying sacrificial offerings was adopted. Eleven years later, the emperor said, "The sacrifices in all directions have been stopped recently and should be reconsidered for restoration." Zhu Yi said, "Zheng Zhong said: 'The sacrifices in all directions pertain to the sun, moon, and stars.' Zheng Xuan said: 'The sacrifices in all directions refer to the Five Mountains, the Four Towns, and the Four Rivers.' The views of these two Zheng scholars differ. I interpret 'wang' as referring to something distant, and all long-distance sacrifices are called by this name. How can it be limited to stars and be confined to rivers and lakes? The Tianjian should be ordered to search for classics related to water and drought, and include renowned mountains, rivers, and locations capable of bringing clouds and rain into the sacrificial scope." The emperor agreed with his opinion. Gu Xie, the main official of Yangzhou, also said, "'The Book of Rites' mentions the 'Midsummer Great Yu,' and 'Spring and Autumn' mentions 'the dragon appears and the Yu.' Praying for rain is a customary sacrifice, and special prayers should be made in case of water and drought. This system should be improved." The Tai Chang doctor also agreed with Gu Xie's opinion. Ming Yanqing of the Ci Department believed, "The thanksgiving ceremony for the rain-praying sacrifice is already included in the suburban sacrifice. The regulations surrounding sacrifices will evolve over time and do not need to be exactly the same." The emperor agreed with his opinion and continued to uphold the original system unchanged. In the fifth year of Datong, a rain-praying altar was constructed within the Zhetian. If rain was required, officials would observe fasting in the Zhetian province.
In Later Qi, during Mengxia (May), a dragon appeared, prompting the holding of a rain prayer ceremony, where they worshiped the Five Emperors of the Five Directions at the eastern outskirts of the summer season. They built a circular altar, 45 feet in diameter and 9 feet high, with steps on all four sides. Outside the altar, three concentric fences were constructed at varying distances and depths, along with a designated area for fire offerings, identical to the specifications of the southern outskirts' worship. They prayed for a bountiful harvest on the altar and included Emperor Wenxuan in the offerings.
The Green Emperor was positioned in the Jia Yin direction, the Red Emperor in the Bing Si direction, the Yellow Emperor in the Ji Wei direction, the White Emperor in the Geng Shen direction, and the Black Emperor in the Ren Hai direction. All these divine positions faced the center of the altar, which was adorned with straw and wheat stalks. The paired offering of Emperor Wenxuan was located slightly behind the south of the Green Emperor, with a rush mat for the ritual and a red bull as the sacrifice. The entire ceremony followed the same process as the southern outskirts' worship.
In addition to this rain prayer ceremony, Later Qi also had nine other sacrificial activities: 1. Rain prayer; 2. Southern outskirts worship; 3. Worship at the Yao Temple; 4. Worship at the Confucius Temple and Yan Temple; 5. Worship of the State and Soil; 6. Worship of the Five Mountains; 7. Worship of the Four Rivers; 8. Worship at Fuko; 9. Worship at the Leopard Shrine. When faced with water or drought disasters, or epidemics, appropriate sacrificial activities would be conducted. These sacrificial activities did not require livestock, only offerings of wine, dried meat, dates, chestnuts, and other items.
If it does not rain for three months during the Jianwu, Jianwei, and Jianshen periods, three officials would be sent to the Yu altar to worship the Five Emperors. During the worship, jade coins must be used, and a fire pile must be lit, but metal or stone musical instruments should not be used. Instead, virtuous musicians with lovely singing voices are chosen to sing the poem "Yunhan" on the southern side of the altar. The other rituals are similar to standard rain prayer ceremonies.
During the sacrifices at the southern outskirts, three officials are dispatched to the altar to worship the Five Heavenly Emperors over five days, and a fire pit is also lit. The seating arrangement mirrors that of the rain prayer ceremony, with the five Heavenly Emperors seated to the left of the Heavenly Emperor. The entire ceremony follows the same rituals as the outskirts sacrifices. When worshiping at the Yao Temple, envoys are sent to Pingyang for prayers; for the worship of the Confucius Temple and the Yan Temple, envoys are sent to the National Academy for prayers, with the ceremony being similar to that of the Yao Temple; for the worship of the gods of land and grain, it follows the normal sacrificial rites; for the worship of the Five Mountains, envoys are sent to each mountain for prayers; the worship of the Four Rivers follows the same rituals as that of the Five Mountains; the worship of Fuko follows the same rituals as the worship of the Yao Temple; and the worship of the Leopard Shrine follows the same rituals as the worship of Fuko.
The rain altar from the Sui Dynasty is located thirteen miles south of the capital, to the left of the road outside the Qixia Gate. It is ten feet high and has a circumference of one hundred and twenty feet. Every Mengxia (May), if the Dragon Star is seen, a rain prayer ceremony is to be held, worshiping the Five Directional Deities, with five human emperors positioned above, and the Great Ancestor Emperor Wu Yuan below, along with the five officials participating in the sacrifice. The livestock used in the sacrifices consists of ten calves, each calf's color corresponding to a different direction.
If the capital suffers a drought after Mengxia, rain prayers are to be held. In addition, wrongful convictions should be addressed, negligent officials investigated, care should be provided for the elderly and the poor, unclaimed bodies should be buried, labor duties alleviated, virtuous individuals promoted, encouragement given for candid advice, and the removal of treacherous and sycophantic officials, and the punishment of corrupt officials. The emperor will also instruct relevant departments to assist men, women, and the elderly and to show compassion for those who feel wronged and aggrieved.
The rain prayer ceremony lasts for seven days. During these seven days, first pray to the mountain and river gods capable of bringing rain; then, after another seven days, pray to the gods of the land and the historical officials and scholars who have benefited the people. After another seven days, pray to the ancestral temple and the emperors who have built shrines in history. After another seven days, hold the formal rain prayer ceremony to pray for rain over the land of China. If it still hasn’t rained after seven days, then pray again in the same order starting from the mountain and river gods. After the autumn equinox, large-scale rain prayer ceremonies are no longer held; only simple prayers are offered. Wine and dried meat are used for sacrifices.
If it still does not rain twenty days after the initial rain prayer, orders will be issued to close the markets and prohibit livestock slaughter. The emperor is required to wear plain clothing, avoid the main hall, reduce his meals, cease all music, and sometimes even hold court in public. Officials must put away their umbrellas and fans. People will also be instructed to create clay dragons for rain prayers. Once it rains, relevant departments must be notified.
Officials in various states and counties must address wrongful cases and care for widows, orphans, and the impoverished, bury unclaimed bodies, fast and bathe before praying for rain at the altar. After seven days, pray to the local mountain and river gods who can bring rain, close the markets, and prohibit the slaughter of livestock like in the capital. After a successful rain prayer, reports must be submitted separately. If there is too much rain, open the city gates to drain the water. If draining the water three times does not alleviate the situation, pray to the mountain and river gods, as well as the deities of the land. At this time, sacrifices must include three types of livestock: cattle, sheep, and pigs.
If excessive rain occurs in the states, counties, and cities, open the city gates to drain the water. If that does not work, pray to the mountain and river gods in the area. When praying for rain and giving thanks, sacrifices must be made using sheep and pigs.
In ancient times, the Emperor would, on specific days marking the start of each season and the midpoint of summer, ride in a splendid jade carriage, hoist grand banners, and wear a grand fur robe to conduct sacrificial ceremonies in the open fields, welcoming and paying homage to the five great deities. This was as solemn as burning firewood and sweeping the ground for sacrifices at the altar of heaven. In spring, they welcomed the Awe-Inspiring Spirit Emperor, as all things begin to grow in this season, relying on his spiritual power, and people revered him. In summer, they welcomed the Crimson Fury Emperor, whose name reflects the fiery red color and immense power. In autumn, they welcomed the White Harvest Emperor, indicating that all things mature in autumn, paying tribute to his significant contributions. In winter, they welcomed the Leaf Light Emperor, indicating that in winter, all things conceal their brilliance, each following its own pattern. In between, they welcomed the Pivot Emperor, meaning that the Earth Virtue Emperor embodies inclusiveness, balancing openness and restraint to maintain order. The names of these five great deities are derived from their virtues.
The Liang Dynasty, Chen Dynasty, Later Qi, Later Zhou, and Sui Dynasty all followed this ritual system, welcoming and sacrificing to the Five Emperors in the countryside on designated days, while also offering sacrifices to the Five Officials, Three Stars, and Seven Lodges. The system of the Liang Dynasty was that during the weather welcoming ceremony, the ancestral spirits were honored, and the sacrificial animal was a specially selected bull, with the ceremony being similar to that of the southern outskirts sacrifices. By the seventh year of Tianjian, Sima Jun, the left chancellor of the Ministry of Rites, and others suggested, "Since insects have not yet hibernated, there is no need for fire plowing. The turtledove is about to become an eagle, and the nets for catching birds have just been set. During the mid-spring season, sacrifices do not require livestock; only jade tablets, discs, and leather coins are sufficient. This aligns with the principles of honoring the deities and upholds the principle of non-violence. Moreover, since we are sacrificing to the heavens, how can we still use livestock? Therefore, it is suggested that during the initial weather welcoming ceremony in summer, sacrifices should not involve livestock." The emperor agreed with their suggestion. By the eighth year of Tianjian, Mingshan Bin further suggested, "The 'Zhou Guan' records that when sacrificing to the Supreme Heaven, one should wear a large fur robe; the same should hold true for sacrifices to the Five Emperors. In recent years, the attire for the countryside sacrifices has been ceremonial robes, so previously, during the requests for the weather welcoming ceremony and sacrifices to the Five Emperors, ceremonial robes were worn. I believe that both the weather welcoming ceremony and the sacrifices to the Five Emperors should also be performed in large fur robes to unify the rituals." The emperor also agreed with his suggestion. The weather welcoming ceremonies of the Chen Dynasty adhered to the system established by the Liang Dynasty.
At that time in the Later Qi Dynasty, in order to welcome the energies from the five directions, they would build an altar in the outskirts of the capital city to the north, south, east, and west, and additionally, they would construct a yellow altar in the northeast direction known as Wei. The objects of worship included the Heavenly Emperor, the Five Directional Gods worshiped alongside the Heavenly Emperor, and the Liang God. The jade, silk, and livestock for the sacrifices were selected based on their colors corresponding to the five elements associated with each direction. The sacrificial rituals followed the same procedures as those conducted in the southern suburbs. The emperor and empress would prepare the sacrificial livestock the night before the ceremony, and the next morning, the Grand Commandant would take the sacrificial items to the temple to announce the offerings before proceeding to the altar for the sacrifice. The officials participating in the sacrifice stood on the east side of the southern steps, facing west. Once the offerings were arranged, the Minister of State would arrange the offerings at his designated place. After the second round of offerings, known as Yaxian, was completed, the Minister of Rites would then proceed with the sacrifice. After the ceremony concluded, all the offerings would be removed. Additionally, it is said that five days before the beginning of spring, two blue clay oxen and farming plows would be made outside the eastern gate of the provincial capital. On the day of the beginning of spring, the relevant officials would celebrate the arrival of spring in the eastern suburbs and raise blue flags beside the clay oxen.
In the Later Zhou period, there were five altars on the outskirts, with their height and distance from the capital linked to the frequency of sacrifices. Each altar measured four zhang in width and had a side length of one hundred and twenty steps. The circular enclosure within the altar had a diameter that was half the length of its sides. The objects of sacrifice were the same as during the Later Qi period. Altars for sacrifices to stars, constellations, mountains, rivers, forests, hills, and tombs were also established in their respective outskirts. The altars for star sacrifices stood five feet high with sides measuring two zhang; those for mountain sacrifices were square pits, also two zhang on each side and two feet deep. The sacrificial rituals were similar to those of the Southern Altar sacrifices. The Minister of Burial Affairs conducted the secondary offering, while the Chief Ancestor performed the final offering, concluding the ritual.
During the Sui Dynasty, there were five Yingqi (迎气) sacrifices held each year. The Qingjiao altar was built north of the road outside the Chunming Gate on the east side of the capital, eight li away from the imperial palace and eight feet high; the Chijiao altar was built west of the road outside the Mingde Gate on the south side of the capital, thirteen li away from the imperial palace and seven feet high; the Huangjiao altar was built west of the road outside the Anhua Gate on the south side of the capital, twelve li away from the imperial palace and seven feet high; the Baijiao altar was built south of the road outside the Kaiyuan Gate on the west side of the capital, eight li away from the imperial palace and nine feet high; the Heijiao altar was built eleven li north of the imperial palace, in a specific area outside the city, and six feet high. Each of these altars was four zhang wide. The sacrificial times were determined based on the solar terms associated with each direction, with the Huangjiao sacrifice taking place during the summer solstice. The deities corresponding to each direction were the focus of the sacrifices, with each deity receiving offerings alongside the Human Emperor, and the offerings were also made to the Taizu Wuyuan Emperor. The deities of the five directions, stars, three celestial bodies, and seven constellations were also worshipped in the corresponding outskirts based on their positions. The livestock chosen for the sacrifices were selected based on their colors corresponding to the five elements of each direction, with two calves per direction, plus an additional sheep and pig for the star sacrifices. The sacrificial rituals mirrored those conducted in the southern outskirts. Regarding the deities of mountains, rivers, and seas, messengers were sent to conduct sacrifices locally on the days of the five Yingqi sacrifices, with the offerings consisting of Ta Lao (beef, mutton, and pork).
From the time of the Jiangzuo period of the Jin Dynasty, all the way to the Song Dynasty and Qi Dynasty, the emperors of newly established dynasties all set up six ancestral temples, but the tablet for the ancestor Taizu was left blank. When Emperor Wu of Song first ascended to the throne, he built a temple in Pengcheng for sacrifices, honoring only the ancestors from the first four generations. In the second year of the Zhongxing period, after Emperor Wu of Liang had just become Duke of Liang, Cao Wensi stated, "On the day the Son of Heaven receives his mandate, he must perform sacrifices at seven ancestral temples; when a vassal is newly enfeoffed, he must perform sacrifices at five ancestral temples." However, Xie Guang and others from the Ancestral Worship Department countered his claim, so the matter was not pursued. Emperor Wu of Liang then constructed a sacrificial platform and four temples for his close relatives in the eastern city, including his concubine Xi Shi, bringing the total to five ancestral temples. The sacrificial rituals utilized grand offerings, which included a full set of livestock.
In April of the same year, Emperor Liang Wu ascended the throne. Xie Guang suggested that the first sacrifice should be a regular seasonal ritual, and the date for the first month must remain unchanged; it should be observed according to the previous dates in the Eastern Temple. The emperor agreed. Thus, after the timely sacrifice in the eastern city was completed, the ancestral tablets were transferred to the Grand Ancestral Temple. There were six ancestors in total: Grand Ancestor Ta Zhong, Grand Ancestor Huai Yin, Grand Ancestor Ji Yin, Great-Grand Ancestor Zhong Cong Shi, Grand Ancestor Te Jin, and the Emperor's father, who were collectively referred to as the Three Zhao and Three Mu, forming six temples. The Emperor's father was posthumously honored as Emperor Wen, and the Empress was honored as Empress De, with the temple title of Ta Zu. However, the ancestors above Grand Ancestor Te Jin were not posthumously honored. The ancestral tablets were moved up, but the Ta Zu temple remained intact; along with the six kin temples, there were a total of seven temples, all in the same courtyard but in separate rooms. The spring, summer, autumn, winter, and year-end sacrifices were held five times a year, known as seasonal sacrifices; the Di sacrifice was held every three years, and the Jia sacrifice every five years, referred to as Yin sacrifices. The Di sacrifice occurred in summer, while the Jia sacrifice took place in winter, both accompanied by distinguished officials, with ceremonies similar to those of the Southern Suburban Rite. Additionally, there was a smaller temple for the Grand Ancestor and his Grand Lady. As she was not the primary consort, a separate temple was constructed. After each sacrificial ceremony at the Grand Ancestral Temple, the emperor would visit the small temple to pay his respects, also using a sacrificial pig, with rituals the same as those at the Grand Ancestral Temple.
In the third year of Tianjian, He Tongzhi, the Left Deputy Minister of the Ministry of Personnel, proposed: "The sacrificial rites are conducted in early summer when everything has not yet grown, so the scale is relatively small; the sacrificial rites are conducted in autumn and winter when everything is mature, so the ceremony is more elaborate. The six meritorious officials listed by the Ministry of Rites were honored in the grand ancestral sacrifices, highlighting the significance of the autumn rituals, which is why they were included. However, recently, neither the early summer rites nor the autumn rituals have included the meritorious officials, which was against proper etiquette and should be changed." The emperor accepted his suggestion. Since then, the sacrificial rites have included the meritorious officials. In the same year, the Historiographer Wang Jingzhi pointed out that since the time of Jiangzuo, when the emperor performed sacrifices at the suburban temples, he had already started fasting, while the common people were still mourning, which was against proper etiquette. He Tongzhi and others presented a memorial stating: "According to the 'Book of Rites', the national gate lies beyond the Gaomen, and the current fence gate serves as the national gate. The current system is different from ancient times. If those in mourning are prohibited from entering the fence gate, it would be overly strict. It should be regulated by the six gates." The emperor issued a decree: "Within the six gates, there are many commoners. Mourning is not permitted during the seasonal sacrifices. If there is a deceased person, the coffin may enter. If large coffins are permitted, then smaller ones should not be. On fasting days, mourning should cease two hundred paces from the temple."
In the fourth year of Tianjian, He Tongzhi suggested again: "According to the 'Book of Rites,' the Grand Sacrificial Minister must inspect the sacrificial animals and vessels the day before the ceremony, and on the morning of the ceremony, the ruler personally leads the animals to the altar. In later generations, to prevent unexpected situations, even the ruler must personally make the sacrifices, hence the ritual of evening offerings was established. Recently, emperors no longer personally lead the animals; this has become a custom where the Danyang Prefect leads the animals, which is inconsistent with ancient practices. We should follow the ancient system: on the evening before the ceremony, the Grand Sacrificial Minister should inspect the animals and vessels, and on the morning of the ceremony, the Grand Commandant should lead the animals in and out. Lesser offerings should be made outside the temple gate, and now the 'Ritual Notes' state that the animals are cooked in the kitchen. I believe we ought to restore the old practices." The emperor agreed with his memorial. He Tongzhi continued: "Zheng Xuan said: 'The sacrificial rites of the Son of Heaven and the feudal lords must first perform the ritual of presenting the corpse before welcoming the animals.' Now in the 'Ritual Notes,' the Grand Sacrificial Minister only holds the ceremonial jade tablet after the offerings are completed, which is a significant breach of the rites. Furthermore, recently rulers no longer personally perform the corpse presentation ritual. Since the Grand Commandant is acting on behalf of the sacrifices, he should personally carry out this task, yet he allows the lowly Grand Sacrificial Minister to do it, which greatly contradicts the old traditions. I believe that on the morning of the ceremony, the Grand Commandant should first perform the corpse offering, and then welcome the animals." The emperor said: "The corpse presentation is meant to provide a focus for the spirits. Now that there is no corpse, how can the presentation be carried out?" He Tongzhi replied: "According to Ma Rong and Zheng Xuan, although the corpse presentation is offered to the corpse, its significance lies in seeking the spirits. Even though there is no corpse present, the importance of seeking the spirits cannot be overlooked." The emperor said: "This was originally to use the corpse to sacrifice to the spirits. Now, if there is no corpse, a designated place for seeking the spirits should be established." Thus, the meaning of the corpse presentation was confirmed. He Tongzhi said: "'The Ritual System' states: 'There is no offering more important than the corpse presentation.' Now that there is an existing offering of the deceased, the act of seeking the spirits through the corpse presentation certainly cannot be disregarded. Additionally, performing the corpse presentation again when sending off the spirits is not recorded in the scriptures and should be abolished according to the rites." Before the memorial received a response, He Tongzhi passed away. Later, Ming Shanbin reiterated his views. The emperor said: "He Tongzhi has passed away; his suggestions should be adopted." From that time on, the Grand Commandant was permitted to perform the corpse presentation instead of the Grand Sacrificial Minister and to lead the animals.
Tai Chang Ren Fang also believed that before daybreak, the presentation of livestock should also include the Grand Commander's sacrificial wine, with meals arranged three ke later, and a five ke interval in between, which meant the preparations for the ceremony were inadequate. Recently, the officials who came to conduct the sacrifice actually began at the second watch and only finished preparing by the third ke before dawn. Ming Shan Bin suggested, "Nine ke is already too early; moreover, the second watch is not considered morning for the sacrifice." The emperor said, "Midnight at the Zi hour is the beginning of morning. The livestock should be inspected at the third watch, and the rest should follow the 'Ritual Instructions'." There were also officials who believed that if the three sacrificial animals were detached from the wooden stakes, according to the established protocol, they should be buried, while pigs and sheep that died would not need to be buried. They requested a discussion on the system. Sima Jiong and others suggested, "If the livestock dies, it must be buried after being cleaned. It is believed that if the three sacrificial animals die after being cleaned, they should all be buried." The emperor agreed. In the fifth year of Tianjian, Ming Shan Bin suggested, "The 'Ritual Diagram' specifies only three types of wine vessels: the first is the elephant vessel from the Zhou Dynasty; the second is the mountain vessel from the Xia dynasty; the third is the zhuo vessel from the Yin dynasty. There are only names for these ritual vessels, but no actual artifacts exist; only the wine from the elephant vessel is used as the wine for the gui and zan vessels. I believe that the sacrificial rites take precedence over the offerings and should not use the same vessel; they should follow the system of ritual vessels to be prepared for the grand ceremony. According to the rituals, there are six types of ritual vessels, with chicken and bird vessels used for the sacrificial rites in spring and summer. The king first uses the gui and zan vessels for the sacrificial rites, followed by the zhang and zan vessels, so both spring and summer sacrifices use two types of ritual vessels. Now..."
After King Wenxiang of Qi ascended to the throne, he was still a vassal of Wei at that time. He built four ancestral temples: the Temple of Gaozu, the Governor of Qinzhou, the Temple of Zengzu, Grand Marshal Wuzheng, the Temple of Grand Master Wenmu, and the Temple of his father, King Xianwu. Later, when Emperor Wenxuan ascended the throne, he built six more ancestral temples: the Temple of Gaozu, the Grand Minister of Works, the Temple of Gaozu of the Ministry of Personnel, the Temple of Gaozu of Qinzhou, the Temple of Emperor Wenmu, the Temple of Emperor Xianwu, and the Temple of Emperor Wenxiang, totaling six. Among the six ancestral temples, starting from Xianwu Wang, the temples have been preserved; those before him have been dismantled over generations. However, although these ancestral temples are in the same temple courtyard, they are separate, independent buildings. Later, the spirit tablets were relocated to the Grand Temple.
Both Emperor Wenxiang and Emperor Wenxuan were sons of Emperor Taizu. Initially, Emperor Wenxuan was uncertain about the order of his ancestors and wanted to build a separate temple to place the spirit tablets. However, the ministers had differing opinions. It was not until the following autumn that the spirit tablets of Emperor Wenxiang and Emperor Wenxuan were placed together in the Grand Temple. The spring sacrifice is referred to as "Chun Ci," the summer sacrifice is called "Xia Zhi," the autumn sacrifice is called "Qiu Chang," and the winter sacrifice is called "Dong Zheng," all conducted in the first month of each season, plus the December sacrificial rites, totaling five sacrifices a year. As for the Di and Jia sacrifices, they were carried out according to the system of the Liang Dynasty. Each temple provided a whole cow, sheep, and pig as offerings for each sacrifice, and from this time on, the empress also took part in the sacrifices. During the Heqing years, the court mandated that for the spring, summer, autumn, and winter sacrifices, as well as the Di and New Year's sacrifices, two locations for ceremonial fires must be established in the temple courtyard.
The nobility, founding meritocrats, and officials of rank three or higher can worship ancestors up to five generations. Officials below rank five and those of rank three or below can worship ancestors up to three generations. Officials of rank three or higher worship with a whole cow, sheep, and pig; officials below rank five use fewer livestock. Officials below rank six or above rank seven worship ancestors up to two generations with special animals. Officials below rank eight and common people worship ancestors at home with pork or worship ancestral spirits (parents). The ancestral temples are built according to the original style of residences, and the number of temples corresponds to the number of ancestors. The animals used for worship must be provided by descendants who have become officials.
During the Later Zhou Dynasty, in order to restore ancient systems, ancestral temples were placed on the right and the altar of the soil and grain on the left. The temple of the founding emperor was built, along with the temples of the two emperors following him, totaling five temples. When all relatives have passed away, the temple is moved. Emperors who have made significant contributions are referred to as "ancestral tablets," and their temples are not demolished.
After Emperor Min ascended the throne, his great-grandfather was posthumously honored as Emperor De, his grandfather as Emperor Wen, and the temple was given the name Taizu. Plans were made to relocate the first three temples in rotation, but the Taizu temple remains standing. Following ancestral customs, two temples each for the two emperors following Taizu were continued to be built, totaling five temples.
After Emperor Ming passed away, the temple was named Shizong; after Emperor Wu passed away, the temple was named Gaozu, both are considered "ancestral tablet temples" and thus remain undisturbed. During worship, each emperor worships in his own temple, but major worship activities, such as the worship of the earth and the harvest, are held at the Taizu temple, with the empress participating in the ceremonies as well.
The sacrificial ceremony is similar to that of the emperor, with one difference: after the empress completes her offering, she must also present an offering tray containing water chestnuts, water caltrops, celery, pickled vegetables, and rabbit meat sauce; after the chief officiant completes the offerings, the empress personally removes the offering tray, returns to her seat, and then the grand priest removes the other offerings. After Emperor Wen of Sui ascended to the throne, he sent Yuwen Shan and Li Xun to Tongzhou to inform the temple of his father, Huan Wang, and also invited a shaman to conduct a sacrificial ceremony according to the family ritual. He posthumously honored his father Huan Wang as Emperor Wuyuan, his mother as Empress Yuanming, and brought back their ancestral tablets to the capital. The sacrificial animals were all a vivid red, and the sacrifice was performed at sunrise. At that time, Emperor Wen of Sui vigorously built the Temple of the State and Agriculture, changing the system of the Zhou Dynasty by placing the ancestral temple on the left and the Temple of the State and Agriculture on the right. Since the ancestral temple did not clearly identify the ancestors or contain the tablets of those appointed by heaven, Emperor Wen of Sui established four ancestral temples, all in the same hall but in separate rooms. These four temples are: the Temple of the Emperor's Great Ancestor of Taiyuan, the Temple of the Emperor's Great-great-grandfather Kang Wang, the Temple of the Emperor's Ancestor Xian Wang, and Emperor Wuyuan, the Emperor's Father. Although the tablets of the ancestors were all moved up, the temple of the Emperor's Father was not dismantled. Every first month of the month, sacrifices are made to them with lavish offerings. Fresh offerings are presented at the ancestral temple throughout the year, and the relevant departments will carry out these sacrificial activities, but the ancestral tablets will not be taken out. Other sacrificial activities must also be carried out according to the specified time.
Managing the affairs of worshipping deities, the Door God is worshipped in spring, the Kitchen God in summer, the Door God in autumn, and the God of Travel in winter, all of which occur on the day of ancestral worship. At summer's end, a worship ceremony also takes place at Huangjiao, managed by the relevant departments, conducted on the road south of the west gate of the temple, using livestock for sacrifices, specifically a small pig, known as "少牢." A large-scale ceremony is held every three years in the first month of winter, where the spirit tablets that have been moved to the Temple of the Ancestor and those still in their original place are worshipped together. A larger ceremony is held every five years in the first month of summer, where the spirit tablets that have been relocated to other temples are worshipped in their respective temples, while those that have not been relocated are worshipped in the original temple.
During the months of the Di and Xia ceremonies, regular worship activities must be suspended, and various treasures and rare items obtained from battles are displayed in the temple courtyard, while also honoring meritorious officials posthumously. On the same day, ancient emperors and generals are also worshipped: in Pingyang, Emperor Yao is worshipped, alongside Qi; in Hedong, Emperor Shun is worshipped, alongside Jiu Yao; in Anyi, Yu the Great is worshipped, alongside Bo Yi; in Fen Yin, Yin Tang is worshipped, alongside Yi Yin; in Zhi Wei outside the city, King Wen of Zhou and King Wu of Zhou are worshipped, alongside Duke of Zhou and Duke Zhao; in Changling, Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang, is worshipped, alongside Xiao He. Each place uses a large pig for the sacrifices, without the accompaniment of musical instruments. The accompanying figures are worshipped in the temple courtyard.
In the first year of the Daye era of Emperor Yang of Sui, Emperor Yang wanted to emulate the system of the Zhou Dynasty and construct seven temples, so he ordered the relevant departments to formulate detailed worship rituals. The Vice Minister of Rites, Xǔ Shànxīn, also the Acting Minister of Grand Sacrifices, along with Doctor Chǔ Liàng and others, held discussions on this matter.
It is said that the number of ancestral temples that ancient emperors dedicated to their ancestors was quite specific. "The Book of Rites" states: "The emperor has seven temples: three for the ancestors of the Zhou and three for the ancestors of the Mu, together with the temple of the Great Ancestor, making seven in total." Zheng Xuan explains that this was the system during the Zhou dynasty. These seven temples include the Great Ancestor, as well as the ancestral temples of King Wen, King Wu (known as "Tiao"), and four other related temples, totaling seven. The Yin dynasty had six temples, while the Xia dynasty had five, each with different regulations. Zheng Xuan also said that the emperor primarily established four temples for relatives, plus one for the ancestor, making a total of five. Since King Wen and King Wu of the Zhou dynasty were considered heavenly ordained ancestors, their ancestral temples were specially established, which brought the total to seven.
Wang Su's explanation of "The Book of Rites" is that the higher one's status, the greater the respect for ancestors, and conversely, the lower one's status, the lesser the respect. Therefore, the emperor has seven temples, while the feudal lords have five temples. If an ancestor has special merits, even if not the Great Ancestor, their temple cannot be destroyed, but it does not count towards the number of seven temples. Wang Su believes that the notion of the emperor having seven temples has been passed down through generations. He also refers to the phrase in the "Regulations of the Kings" that states: "the emperor has seven temples, the feudal lords have five, and the nobles have three," explaining that the "reduction of two" indicates a decrease in the number of temples. In other words, the emperor established four temples for relatives, plus the father and grandfather of the Great Ancestor, along with the Great Ancestor himself, making a total of seven. With King Wen, King Wu, and Jiang Yuan of the Zhou dynasty, the total number of temples is even greater, reaching ten!
The temples of the Han Dynasty emperors were all established individually, without any custom of tearing down and rebuilding each other's temples. During the reign of Emperor Yuan, talented individuals such as Gong Yu and Kuang Heng began to establish this aspect of the ritual system, designating Emperor Gaozu Liu Bang as the Grand Ancestor, along with four other relatives' temples, totaling five. Only Liu Xin believed that the emperor should have seven temples, while the princes should have five, the phrase "descending and killing with two meanings" referring to a decrease of two temples. Seven temples are a regular system and can be considered a constant. As for ancestral temples, they are not included in this number, as temples are established to honor ancestors based on their merits, and the number cannot be predetermined in advance. Therefore, Ban Gu commented that after researching the various schools of thought, Liu Xin's viewpoint is the most comprehensive and insightful.
Emperor Guangwu Liu Xiu, after ascending the throne, established the Gaomiao in Luoyang, as well as temples for the ancestors of Nandun Jun and his four preceding generations, along with ancestral temples, totaling seven. During the early Wei Dynasty, Gao Tanglong advocated Zheng Xuan's teachings, suggesting that only four relatives' temples should be established. Since the Grand Ancestor was still included among these four generations of relatives, the temples for the Grand Ancestor and the ancestral temples of King Wen and King Wu were left vacant for future generations to decide. During the Jingchu period, following Wang Su's teachings, temples for the fifth and sixth generations of ancestors were added, along with four relatives' temples, totaling six. After Emperor Wu of Jin, Sima Yan, seized Wei, there was extensive discussion regarding ancestral temple sacrifices. Starting from Emperor Wen, counting six generations of ancestors up to the Duke of Zhengxi, Emperor Xuan was included in the ancestral line but had not yet been honored as the Grand Ancestor, so there were only six temples for sacrifices.
After the restoration of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, He Xun was proficient in rituals, and the ceremonies in the ancestral temples adhered to the traditional practices of the Wei and Jin Dynasties. When Emperor Wu of Song, Liu Yu, was initially enfeoffed as a king by the Jin Dynasty, he established four ancestral temples in accordance with the feudal lord system. After ascending to the throne, he added temples for his fifth great-grandfather, the Minister Xian Guo, and his sixth great-grandfather, the Lord of Youbei Ping, bringing the total to six. It was only after his death that his temple was elevated in status, attaining a rank equivalent to that of the founding emperor. During the Qi and Liang Dynasties, this system continued to be observed; although sometimes temples were added or reduced, the ritual system did not violate the old practices.
The ministers reviewed historical materials and found that starting from the founding emperor, successive emperors established separate temples. During sacrificial rites, offerings from all emperors were presented collectively to the founding emperor. Therefore, in the early Western Han Dynasty, each emperor's temple was established separately, with sacrifices held at different times and locations, and the temple music was arranged based on each emperor's achievements. It was not until the time of Emperor Guangwu that all temples were centralized in one large courtyard, while each emperor was worshipped in different rooms. This was implemented to reduce expenses following recent warfare. Since then, this practice has remained consistent.
We believe that Emperor Wen of Han was wise and insightful, exceptional in military might, and received the mandate from heaven to found a dynasty, inherit the virtues of the ancestors, and establish the ritual of ancestor worship in a time of flourishing civilization. Ancestor worship rituals have evolved over the generations with some changes and differences, set forth by past emperors as a standard. Throughout history, there have been two main interpretations of ancestor worship rituals: one from the Zhou Dynasty and the other from the state of Zheng. A closer look reveals that Zheng Xuan only discussed the rituals of the Zhou Dynasty and did not fully understand them, while Jia Kui had a comprehensive understanding of the rituals of the emperors throughout history, considering long-term implications. Therefore, we suggest referring to ancient classics and constructing seven temples. The founding ancestor should have a dedicated temple established to ensure future generations remember the tradition. As for the emperor personally worshipping at the ancestral temple, relevant departments should diligently honor the temples of other emperors, to ensure the rituals are appropriately scaled, the rituals are easy to observe, and to honor achievements and virtues, uphold ancient rituals, and adapt them to current circumstances. We also found in historical records that the Zhou Dynasty lacked specific regulations on temple establishment. According to the records of the historians, the Zhou kings were positioned centrally, with ancestral temples arranged in order to their rank on either side. Ruan Chen's "Litu" was based on this principle. The temples in the capital of the Han Dynasty were far apart, and the order of sacrificial rituals was not standardized. It may not be appropriate to directly replicate the Zhou system today, and fully adopting the Han system would be challenging. Therefore, we have meticulously created a map, attached to this memorial.
In this picture, Taizu and Gaozu each built a grand hall, modeled after the ancestral temples of King Wen and King Wu of the Zhou Dynasty, in addition to the ancestral temple, making a total of three halls. The other emperors each worshiped in separate rooms. Apart from the temples of the ancestors and the emperors Wen and Wu, the other temples were to be demolished in rotation. Although this plan was approved, it had not been implemented yet. Later, after Luoyang was completed, the emperor no longer valued the capital city, so a Heavenly Capital Palace was built north of Gu Ben in the Eastern Capital to house Gaozu's imperial robes and facilitate regular sacrifices. Three years later, the relevant departments reported requesting the construction of ancestral temples in the Eastern Capital according to the previous plan. The emperor asked the Secretariat Supervisor Liu Bian, "Now that the temples of the ancestors and the emperors Wen and Wu have been built, what should be done about the temples of future generations?" The emperor issued a decree to only discuss the matter of establishing a temple for Gaozu, but because there were other matters to attend to at the time, this matter was shelved again.
From ancient times to the present, every emperor throughout history was seen as the 'Son of Heaven,' each carrying a natural aura of imperial power. Whenever there was a change of dynasties, the new emperor who established peace and prosperity would perform the Fengshan ritual at Mount Tai, indicating to heaven and earth that he had succeeded! After the Fengshan ritual at Mount Tai, he would also go to Mount Liangfu for the ritual of abdication. Mount Liangfu is a branch of Mount Tai with lower terrain, but it symbolizes the noble virtues of an emperor together with Mount Tai. Therefore, going to Mount Liangfu for the ritual of abdication was also to tell heaven and earth that the world was at peace. At its core, the Fengshan ritual symbolizes 'height' and 'depth.' Heaven regards height as respect, and earth regards thickness as virtue. When the emperor ascends Mount Tai, it is to thank heaven, and when he strengthens the foundation of Mount Liangfu, it is to thank the earth. This is the will of heaven, achieving success and glory, benefiting both heaven and earth, much like elevating heaven and solidifying the earth. The Book of Documents states, "The king follows the ways of heaven, conforms to the earth, ascends to famous mountains, communicates with heaven and earth, then the phoenix will come, and the dragon-turtle will come to pay respects." After Duke Huan of Qi unified the vassal states, he sought to perform the Fengshan ritual, and Guan Zhong provided him with a detailed analysis at that time.
During the time of Qin Shihuang, he expelled the Confucian scholars and then went to Mount Tai for the Fengshan ceremony. Although he abdicated at Liangfu Mountain, the specifics of his Fengshan ceremony were kept under wraps, and no one really knows what he did. Emperor Wu of Han believed the words of those practitioners and created a jade tablet, bound with a gold rope, measuring nine feet wide and twelve feet tall. During the reign of Emperor Guangwu, this old tradition was also observed. The Jin, Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen dynasties didn't get around to performing this ritual. Later, though the Qi dynasty had both an inspection ceremony and a Fengshan ceremony, it ultimately was not implemented. In the fourteenth year of the Kaihuang era of Emperor Wen of Sui, ministers requested the Fengshan ceremony, but Emperor Gaozu refused. Prince Yang Guang, along with a group of ministers, strongly urged the emperor, and only then did he permit the relevant departments to draft the ceremony's details. Thus, Niu Hong, Xin Yanzhi, Xu Shanxin, Yao Cha, Yu Shiji, and others formulated the Fengshan rituals and reported them to the emperor.
After much deliberation, the emperor remarked, "This Fengshan is a major event; what virtue do I have to shoulder such a responsibility? Let's head east to hunt and pay our respects to Mount Tai on the way." In the spring of the fifteenth year of Kaihuang, the emperor went on a tour to Yanzhou and then arrived at Mount Tai. There, he constructed a sacrificial altar, similar to the altar used in the southern suburbs, and also built a wooden altar outside it, decorated the temple, and relocated the palace to the courtyard. Two pits for sacrifices were dug outside the southern gate. They placed musical instruments and offerings on the Qingdi altar, just like the southern suburbs ceremony. The emperor, clad in ceremonial robes and riding in a gilded chariot, set off in grand procession. After the ceremony, the emperor went to the Qingdi altar for the sacrifice.
In the fourteenth year of the Kaihuang era, in the leap month of October, the emperor issued a decree to construct sacrificial shrines on Yishan in the east, Kuaiji Mountain in the south, Yiwulu Mountain in the north, and Huoshan in Jizhou. The shrine in Donghai was located in the southern part of Nanhai Town, both near the sea. The shrines in Sidi and Wushan were also overseen by local shamans, tasked with maintaining cleanliness and instructed to plant pine and cypress trees. As for the shrine on the Huoshan side, messengers were dispatched to perform sacrifices during the Youshi Festival. In the sixteenth year of the Kaihuang era, the emperor ordered the construction of the shrine at Longshan in Beizhen, Yingzhou. If the shrine in Dongzhen of Huoshan in Jinzhou were to be built, it should be constructed according to the specifications of the Wushan temple in Xizhen.
During the Daye era, Emperor Yang of Sui once visited Jinyang and worshipped Hengshan. The sacrificial rituals were largely modeled after the ceremony of Emperor Gaozu worshipping Mount Tai, which included two additional altars and dozens of Taoist priests and female officials conducting rituals at them. Ten years later, Emperor Yang of Sui went to Dongdu and worshipped Mount Hua while passing by, establishing a sacrificial site beside the temple. These actions did not adhere to regulations and were not conducted according to the court's established rituals.
The "Book of Rites" records: The emperor should offer sacrifices to the sun in the eastern suburbs on the day of the spring equinox, and offer sacrifices to the moon in the western suburbs on the day of the autumn equinox. During the Han Dynasty, it was not necessary to offer sacrifices in the eastern and western suburbs on the day of the equinox; usually, it was done at the Taiji altar outside the suburbs. In the morning, the emperor would come out of the Bamboo Pavilion and bow to the east to offer sacrifices to the sun, and in the evening, he would bow to the west to offer sacrifices to the moon. Emperor Wen of Wei criticized this practice as too cumbersome, like celebrating a festival in every household, so he changed the offering to the sun to the first month of the lunar calendar, with the location outside the east gate of the city. Previous historical records also considered this practice inappropriate. It was not until the fifteenth day of the second month of the first year of the Ming Emperor Taihe that the sun was worshiped in the eastern suburbs, and on the fifteenth day of the eighth month, the moon was worshiped in the western suburbs, which finally conformed to ancient rituals. During the Later Zhou period, on the day of the spring equinox, an altar was set up outside the eastern gate of the capital to offer sacrifices to the sun, with the same rituals as those performed in suburban sacrifices, using special sacrificial animals, green sacrificial offerings, and a green jade with decorations. The emperor rode in a green carriage, the officials in charge of the sacrifice wore green crowns, and the people responsible for the sacrifice wore green hats. The Minister of Works offered sacrifices, the Minister of Ancestral Worship made the final offering, and the burnt offering ritual mirrored that of the circular mound sacrifice. On the day of the autumn equinox, an altar was set up outside the western gate of the capital to offer sacrifices to the moon, with the altar constructed in the center of the pit, with sides four Zhang long and four feet deep, and the burnt offering ritual mirrored that of the sun worship. In the early years of the Kaihuang reign, an altar was set up outside the Chunming Gate to the east of the capital, similar to the suburban sacrifice, and every year on the spring equinox, the sun was worshiped here. Another pit was dug outside the Kaiyuan Gate to the west of the capital, three feet deep and four Zhang wide, with an altar in the center one foot high and four Zhang wide, where the moon was worshiped every year on the autumn equinox. The sacrificial animals and offerings were consistent with those of the Zhou Dynasty.
The common people are inseparable from land and food, so they worship the land god (She) and the grain god (Ji). In ancient times, wise and benevolent rulers would be worshipped by the people. Therefore, the legendary official in charge of She, known as Goulong, would supervise the worship of She, while Zhouqi, the official in charge of Ji, would oversee the worship of Ji, and both would be worshipped together. These rituals took place twice a year, in spring to pray for a bountiful harvest and in autumn to give thanks for the harvest. The Sheji altar was established outside the main gate of the palace, inside the outer gate, holding a position of great importance, as important as ancestor worship. However, times have changed, and the rituals and systems of worship have also evolved. Therefore, having Sheji on the left side of the ancestral temple reflects the current reality, while having it on the right side conforms to ritual norms.
The Sheji altar during the Liang Dynasty was situated to the west of the Grand Ancestral Temple, which was originally established in the first year of the Jianwu era by Emperor Yuan of Jin, consisting of three altars: Tai She, Di She, and Tai Ji. The colors of the altar gates and walls were all according to regulations. Every year in mid-spring and mid-autumn, decrees were issued for the prefectures and counties to worship Sheji and the God of Agriculture, and counties would also worship deities such as the Spirit Star, Wind God, and Rain Deity. In December, offerings were made at the altar for Sheji. As for the common people, twenty-five households formed one She. If the number of people in the old She decreased, there was no limit on the number of households. During the spring and autumn sacrifices, prayers were offered in case of droughts or floods, and the quantity of sacrificial items depended on the circumstances. If a prefecture contained the Five Mountains, three officials were appointed to supervise the sacrifices; if there were the Four Rivers or sea deities to be worshipped, sacrifices were held in early spring and mid-winter. In the past, when sacrificing to Tai She, granary officials led the livestock, and agricultural officials inspected the livestock, while the officiant in charge of the sacrifices assisted in the worship.
In the fourth year of Tianjian, Mingshan Bin made a proposal, saying: According to the regulations of the suburban temple sacrifices, the granary officials inspect the livestock during regular times, while the Grand Preceptor assists with the sacrifices. During formal sacrifices, the Grand Commandant leads the livestock. The "Jiaoteseng" states that "the community is the god of the land," and the state holds sacrifices to the community and the fields, which carries great significance. Nowadays, the court officials personally preside over grand ceremonies, but allowing minor officials to lead the livestock feels somewhat disrespectful. Moreover, it is not the responsibility of the agricultural department to inspect livestock; that responsibility should lie with the ritual officials of the Taichang Temple. In the ancient ritual classics, there are no specific regulations regarding who should personally lead the livestock for the sacrifices to the community and the fields. Therefore, the Taichang Temple should inspect the livestock, the granary official should lead the livestock, and the Grand Preceptor should assist in the sacrifices. The Emperor felt that it was fine for the Grand Preceptor to assist in the sacrifices, but it seemed inappropriate for the agricultural department to inspect the livestock, and the position of the granary official was deemed too low. Thus, it was decided that the deputy official of the Taichang Temple would take charge of leading the livestock, and the others would follow Mingshan Bin's suggestion. And that’s how the matter was settled. During the Datong period, two additional altars were added, bringing the total to five.
It is said that the customs of the Chen Dynasty were all based on the old practices of the Liang Dynasty. The emperor offered sacrifices to the state gods using a full set of the three sacrificial animals, the best parts; I, on the other hand, used the leftover bones. The food for the sacrifices was also particular, consisting of six different types of rice: the finest japonica rice served in a Dunsheng vessel, indica rice in a Mosheng, yellow millet in a Geng, white millet in a Gui, glutinous millet in a Hu, and coarse rice in a Lian. The emperor also ordered the Grand Historian's Office to conduct a grand sacrifice to the Elder Star on the eighth day of the second month each year in the courtyard of the office, and to also offer sacrifices to the Heavenly Emperor, Taiyi, the Sun and Moon, the Five Planets, the Hook Star, the North Pole, the Big Dipper, the Three Platforms, the Twenty-Eight Mansions, the Great Deity Star, and the Descendants Star, totaling forty-six deities. All officials participating in the sacrifices were required by the Imperial Physician to take purifying pills a day in advance to ensure their bodies and minds were pure. These sacrificial rituals followed the old customs of the Qi Dynasty.
Later, during the Qi Dynasty, three altars were built to the right of the capital: the Grand State Altar, the State Altar, and the Grand Jike Altar. On the first Chen day of mid-spring and mid-autumn, and on the day of the winter solstice, a full set of grand sacrifices was required. If the emperor personally conducted the sacrifice, the Minister of Agriculture would be responsible for presenting the offerings and cooked food, the Minister of Works would present next, and the Minister of Agriculture would offer the final sacrifice. By the time of the Later Zhou, when sacrificing to the state gods, if the emperor personally conducted the sacrifice, the Chief Minister would present next, and the Zongbo would offer the final sacrifice.
During the Kaihuang era of the Sui Dynasty, the State Altar was set up side by side on the right side inside the Hanguang Gate. On the auspicious days of the fifth day of mid-spring and mid-autumn, a full set of grand sacrifices was required, and the sacrificial animals had to be black. In the lower part of winter on the day of the Hai, a winter sacrifice was also required. Prefectures and counties were to use smaller offerings during mid-spring and mid-autumn, and the common people would each offer sacrifices to their local state gods. Additionally, a Lingxing Altar was built seven miles southeast of the capital city, outside the Yanxing Gate, where the relevant authorities would perform smaller offerings to the Lingxing on the Chen day after the beginning of autumn each year.
In ancient times, there was a ritual in which the emperor personally tilled the fields, called "Jietian." However, this ritual had not taken root in the Jiangnan region until the Song Dynasty officially implemented it. The early Liang Dynasty also practiced the Jietian ritual, following the old customs of the Song and Qi Dynasties, choosing to do it in the first lunar month without fasting and sacrifices.
In the twelfth year of Tianjian, Emperor Wu of Liang felt something was wrong. He said, "Spring plowing should be in February; the texts say 'during Yin Zhongchun,' so the Jietian ritual should be held in Jianmao (February)." So he moved the Jietian ceremony to February. He also said, "The 'Guoyu' records: 'The emperor should first fast in the fasting palace, and the officials should fast with him for three days.' So there should also be bathing, sacrifices, and other ceremonial rites. In the past, those dynasties only plowed the fields without sacrifices, so these rituals were missing. The 'Guoyu' also says: 'Ji (the God of Agriculture) presides over the fields, and the Grand Historian is responsible for praising.' This shows that the Jietian ritual should have an altar for the God of Agriculture, and someone should read out the meaning of plowing. Therefore, from now on, the Jietian ritual should observe a fast for seven days, formally worship for three days, set up an altar for the God of Agriculture at the plowing site, offer sacrifices, and offer praises similar to those for the God of Land."
Emperor Wu also said, "Before the Qi Dynasty, during the Jietian ritual, the imperial historian rode in a horse-drawn carriage and placed the plow behind the imperial carriage. The 'Book of Rites' says: 'The emperor should personally hold the plow and place it next to his own carriage.' So it should be placed on the carriage where he sits. However, the current emperor's carriage is different from ancient times, so it should be placed on the next level of the carriage to show respect. If placed elsewhere, it would show disrespect. In addition, the imperial historian is responsible for this matter, which is too menial. From now on, it should be the responsibility of the Shizhong to hold the plow and place it on the emperor's primary ceremonial carriage, behind the wooden carriage."
In the second year of his reign, Emperor Liang Wu moved the location of the sacrificial fields to the north bank of the city of Jiankang, where he constructed an expansive sacrificial field. Pear and cypress trees were planted, and a palace and quarters for fasting officials were built, comparable in size to the altars used for worship in the northern and southern outskirts. Additionally, a "Wanggeng Platform" was specially constructed on the east side of the altar. After the emperor personally finished farming, he would climb this platform to watch the agricultural demonstrations by his ministers. A hall known as Qiniandian was also constructed there.
During the Northern Qi dynasty, in the southeast of the imperial capital city, one thousand mu of land was designated, and a variety of colorful grains were planted, including red sorghum, white millet, soybeans, red millet, adzuki beans, black rice, sesame, and wheat, with each type occupying a significant area. The remaining land was developed into small pathways throughout the fields, and a sacrificial altar was constructed south of the pathway and west of the small road, measuring thirty-six feet in width and nine feet in height, with four steps, three railings, and four doors. A large tent was also erected outside the altar, and an altar where the emperor could personally farm was constructed to the east of the road and north of the small road.
On the auspicious day of Hài following the first day of the first lunar month each year, the court ministers would offer a complete set of sacrificial livestock solely to the God of Agriculture, Shennong, without any other deities being included. After the sacrifices, the emperor would personally plow the fields. Before the sacrifices, the Minister of Agriculture would hang up the grains, and the ladies of the six palaces would be responsible for managing these grains. The officials participating in the sacrifices would fast and place sacrificial items on the altar. A special seat would be set up for Shennong on the altar. All officials would wear court attire, and the Minister of Works would perform the sacrifice once, without burning the offerings. After the sacrifices, the emperor would don the ceremonial crown, a green robe, a black headband, a green jade pendant, a yellow sash, and green socks and shoes, prepare the procession, and ride a wooden cart to plow the fields. The officials responsible for plowing would follow in court attire. The palace supervisor would deliver the emperor's plow to the south of the altar, and all officials would stand in order. The emperor would come out from the side hall, walk to the steps south of the plowing altar, and sit on the throne. Those responsible for plowing would stand in formation. The emperor would come down from the southern steps, walk to the plowing area, put down the sword, and symbolically plow three times. Then he would return to the altar and sit down. First-rank officials would plow five times, second-rank officials seven times, and third-rank officials nine times. The officials responsible for plowing would use oxen to cultivate one thousand mu of land along with their subordinates. Then they would kneel, place the grains in a green box, and present it to the Minister of Agriculture, who would then scatter the grains on the plowed land. Once the plowing was complete, the Minister of Agriculture would report on the work, and after the emperor heard the report, he would return to the side hall to change clothes and then host a banquet. After the ceremony, everyone would receive their rewards and then disperse.
During the Sui Dynasty, the system involved setting aside one thousand acres of land to build an altar fourteen miles south of the capital, outside the Qixia Gate. Every year, on the auspicious Hai day in early spring, sacrifices were made at the altar to the agricultural ancestors, and offerings were made to Hou Ji. The livestock used for the sacrifices was a complete set of livestock. The emperor wore ceremonial robes, prepared the ceremonial entourage, and rode in a golden cart. After three rounds of the sacrificial rites, the emperor personally plowed the fields. The Minister of Agriculture handed the plow to the emperor, who symbolically plowed three times before passing the plow to others, who would plow five or nine times according to their rank. The Minister of Works and his subordinates finished plowing the thousand acres. They harvested nine types of grain and stored them in the granary to symbolize abundance. The harvested grains were used to feed the sacrificial livestock.
It is said that the "Rites of Zhou" stipulate that queens should raise silkworms in the northern suburbs, whereas the queens of the Han Dynasty raised silkworms in the eastern suburbs. During the Wei Dynasty, Wei Zun adhered to the "Rites of Zhou" by raising silkworms in the northern suburbs. Wei Zhao of the Wu Kingdom even composed a "Praise of Western Silkworms," indicating that the Sun family had also continued this tradition. By the sixth year of the Taikang era in the Jin Dynasty, Empress Yang, the wife of Emperor Wu, learned from the Han Dynasty and raised silkworms in the western suburbs.
It wasn't until the fourth year of the Daming era of Emperor Xiaowu of the Song Dynasty that a formal silkworm-raising facility was established in Baishi, west of Taicheng, where a designated area was constructed, featuring seven large halls and a silkworm observation pavilion, officially marking the establishment of this practice.
Later in the Qi Dynasty, in a location slightly to the northwest of the capital, 18 li from the imperial palace, a silkworm breeding facility was established. It spanned an area of one thousand steps on each side. The silkworm palace itself measured ninety steps on each side, with walls fifteen feet tall and enclosed by thorny bushes. Inside the silkworm palace, there were twenty-seven silkworm chambers and a separate hall. The eunuchs managing the silkworm palace included officials, assistants, and historians. To the west of the silkworm palace, an altar for the empress dedicated to silkworms was constructed, standing four feet tall and covering an area of approximately twenty-two square feet, with eight-foot-wide steps on all four sides. Additionally, southeast of the mulberry altar, east of the main road and south of the crossroad, a first silkworm altar was established to honor the first silkworm deity. This altar stood five feet tall and covered an area of approximately twenty-two square feet, with steps on all four sides, each five feet wide. The entire area spanned forty steps on each side, which had only one entrance. Green tunics, wrap-around garments, and yellow shoes for the silkworm mothers were all prepared, specifically intended for the silkworm mothers.
Every year, when spring is about to end, after the Grain Rain, a favorable day is selected for the court ministers to use a full set of sacrificial items to worship the ancestral silkworm god, the Yellow Emperor Xuanyuan, at the ancestral silkworm altar, without sharing the offerings with other deities, just like the worship of the Ancestor Farmer. After the sacrificial rites, the queen personally begins to gather mulberry leaves at the mulberry altar. The queen must wear formal attire, don a crown, ride in a splendid carriage, and lead the concubines of the harem to ascend the eastern steps of the mulberry altar and sit on the imperial seat. The female official holds a basket while the female attendant holds a hook, standing below the altar. The queen descends from the eastern steps, with the person holding the basket on her right and the person with the hook on her left, followed by the silkworm mother. After the queen personally picks three mulberry branches, she returns to the imperial seat. Then, the ladies present take turns gathering mulberry leaves; the lady in a pleated dress gathers five branches, the lady in an open dress gathers seven branches, and the lady in a long robe gathers nine branches, then hands the collected mulberry leaves to the silkworm mother. Once the mulberry leaves are gathered, they head back to the silkworm room, chop the leaves into pieces to distribute to the ladies present, and sprinkle a thin layer of mulberry leaves on top. The leaf gatherers return to their original places. The queen descends from the altar and returns to the side hall, changes her clothes, sets up a banquet, rewards everyone, and then goes back.
During the Later Zhou period, the queen, riding in a splendid green carriage, led three concubines, three female officials, the imperial ladies, and the wives of the three dukes and the daughters of the three orphans to the silkworm room, using a full set of offerings to perform the sacrificial rites, worshiping the ancestral silkworm deity. After the ceremony, the queen descended from the altar, and the Zhaohua concubine made the secondary offering, while the Shushi concubine made the final offering, and then everyone joined in gathering mulberry leaves.
The Sui Dynasty had a system of building an altar three miles north of the palace and four feet high. Every spring during the Shangsi Festival, the empress would wear a traditional Ju robe, ride in a splendid chariot, and lead three ladies, nine concubines, and maidservants, both from within and outside the palace, carrying a complete set of sacrificial offerings, including coins and silks, to offer a sacrifice of the first silkworm on the altar, performing the ritual only once. After the sacrifice, the empress would pick mulberry leaves to the east of the altar. The Shanggong officials presented golden hooks, while the Dianzhi officials provided baskets filled with mulberry leaves. The empress personally picked three mulberry branches and hung them using the golden hooks. Other maidservants would also pick mulberry leaves according to their ranks, up to a maximum of nine branches. Women designated as silkworm mothers would also pick mulberry leaves, water them, and then return to their places. After the ceremony, the empress returned to the palace. From the later Qi Dynasty and Later Zhou Dynasty up to the Sui Dynasty, most of these sacrificial ceremonies adhered to the rituals of the Jin Dynasty, though there were also some variations.
The "Book of Rites" records: In mid-spring, on the day the black bird arrives, a full set of sacrificial offerings are to be presented at the Gaoji Temple. When Emperor Wu of Han was twenty-nine years old, he finally had a crown prince and was very pleased, so he built the Gaoji Temple in the south of the city, using the special sacrificial animals, and thus this sacrificial activity began. In the sixth year of the Yuan Kang era of Emperor Hui of Jin, the stone at the Gaoji altar split in two. The court issued an edict to inquire whether this damaged stone should be repaired, and the scholars discussed, stating: "The Book of Rites" does not record anything about the stone set on the Gaoji altar, and its origin is unknown; since it is already broken, there is no need to repair it. They then asked officials from the western provinces to discuss it. However, the official Shu Xi from the Department of Banditry believed: The stone on the altar symbolizes the Way. If the sacrificial vessels are broken, they should be buried and replaced with new ones; now this stone should be buried and a new one made, and it should not be discarded. At that time, this suggestion was ultimately dismissed. Later, it was found in the records of Gao Tanglong that during the reign of Wei Qinglong, this stone had been constructed, so an edict was issued to have a new stone carved, restore it to its original state, place it on the Gaoji altar, and bury the damaged stone about a foot underground. According to records, there is a stone inside the north gate of the Taimal in the Liang dynasty, featuring carvings that resemble bamboo leaves, covered with a small house, uncovered during the restoration of the Taimal in the Song Yuanjia era. Lu Cheng suggested that this was the stone used for sacrificial offerings during the reign of Emperor Xianwu. This indicates that the Jiangzuo region also once participated in this sacrificial activity.
In the Qi state at that time, the emperor would build an altar for the worship of Gaozhe (the god of fertility) next to the southern outskirts. This altar was 26 feet in diameter, 9 feet high, with four tiers of steps and three levels of railings, which looked quite impressive. Every year on the spring equinox, which is the day the swallows return, the emperor would personally lead the imperial concubines to this altar to worship the Qingdi (the deity in charge of the wood virtue of the east) and also pay homage to Taihao (Fuxi, the ancestor of ancient emperors), and then worship Gaozhe, praying for many children and grandchildren. The worship rituals were as follows: the statue of Qingdi was placed in the north, facing south; Taihao was positioned in the east, facing west; and Gaozhe was set at the southern side of the eastern steps of the altar, facing west. The ceremonial vessels included blue jade tablets and silk cloth, and the offerings consisted of a complete set of Tai Lao offerings (cattle, sheep, and pigs). On the day of the ceremony, the emperor donned the most elaborate ceremonial robes and sat in a splendid jade chariot (the emperor's vehicle); the empress donned a ceremonial gown and rode in an ornately decorated heavy feathered carriage. The emperor would first offer his respects, descending the steps from the east, followed by the empress who would worship after him, descending the steps from the west, and then they would sit down together to rest. After that, the other concubines would then take turns paying their respects to Gaozhe. Once the worship was completed, the emperor and empress would rest in a designated area for a short time, and then bid farewell to the gods. The emperor, empress, and all officials would perform grand rites and bow deeply. Finally, the offerings would be removed, and the ceremonial offerings would be burned, concluding the ceremony. During the Sui Dynasty, this tradition continued, with the worship of Gaozhe taking place at the southern outskirts altar on the spring equinox, with the offerings also consisting of a complete set of Tai Lao offerings.
In the past, sacrifices to the officials responsible for personnel affairs, lifespan, wind, and rain were chosen based on their functions in terms of location and time. The place for sacrificing to the wind official was chosen in the west to take advantage of the strong autumn winds, instead of relying on the position of the Big Dipper constellation. The places for sacrificing to the officials of personnel and lifespan were chosen in the southern suburbs because these two gods are celestial beings associated with yang. The place for sacrificing to the rain official was chosen in the northern suburbs, as water is associated with the north.
During the Sui Dynasty, it was mandated that three altars be constructed for the personnel, lifespan, and food officials at the Hai location (the tenth of the earthly branches), ten miles northwest of the capital city, and these three altars shared a railing. The sacrifice was to occur on the Hai day following the start of winter. A wind official altar was to be built seven miles northeast of the capital city outside the Tonghua Gate, and the sacrifice was to take place on the Chou day after the start of spring. A rain official altar was to be built eight miles southwest of the capital city outside the Jinguang Gate, and the sacrifice was to take place on the Shen day after the start of summer. All three altars stood only three feet high, and the offerings were a set of young livestock, specifically sheep and pigs.
Long ago, the Yiqi clan began conducting wax sacrifices. "Wax" here means "to request." In ancient times, a gentleman was expected to repay any assistance received. As a result, the Zhou Dynasty mandated that wax sacrifices be held every month, gathering the year's harvests to express gratitude to the heavens. This exemplified profound benevolence and the highest form of justice. The sacrificial method involved offerings in all directions. If the harvest from a particular direction was poor, no offerings were made in that direction.
Later, the Zhou Dynasty also retained this tradition, holding sacrifices every November to the deities of Shennong, Yiqi, Houji, and Tianjun, as well as the spirits of five types of animals: fish, birds, fur-bearing animals, insects, and shellfish, along with the water deity, city deity, workshop deity, postal deity, table deity, field deity, beast deity, and cat deity, all conducted at the Five Outer Regions. The deities of the Five Directions, Earth Deities, Five Stars, Constellations, and the Four Symbols (Azure Dragon, Vermilion Bird, White Tiger, Black Tortoise), along with the Five Human Emperors and the deities of the five organs, as well as the mountains, rivers, valleys, and hills, were sacrificed to according to their respective directions. The sun and moon were worshipped in all five directions. The Supreme Deity, Earth Deities, Shennong, Yiqi, and the Human Emperor were worshipped at the main altar, with Shennong presiding over the sacrifices in the southern region, and after the wax ritual, there were no further sacrifices. The Three Celestial Bodies and Seven Constellations were worshipped at a separate small altar nearby, while the mountains, rivers, valleys, and hills were worshipped at their designated altars, with others worshipped on flat ground.
The emperor first sacrificed to the Supreme Deity, Earth Deities, Shennong, Yiqi, and the Human Emperor, followed by the Grand Chancellor (the official in charge of finances), and finally the Grand Sacrificer (the official in charge of sacrifices). Senior officials performed sacrifices to the Three Celestial Bodies, Five Organs, Houji, Tianjun, as well as the mountains, rivers, and valleys, while the middle-ranking officials sacrificed to the Seven Constellations and other entities. Livestock, money, and jade used for sacrifices to deities like the Heavenly Emperor, Human Emperor, Tianjun, and birds and beasts were to be burned, while the Earth Deities, postal, table, and field deities were to be buried underground. After the sacrifices were completed, the emperor would go to the southern suburb to fast in the palace, and the next day, he would conduct the wax ritual in the southern region, followed by the sacrifices in the eastern, western, and northern suburbs in the same manner. Only after all the wax rituals were completed would the emperor return to the palace.
In the early Sui Dynasty, the system of the Zhou Dynasty was followed, stipulating that in the month of Mengdong (November) wax rituals would be held, worshipping the hundred deities, ancestral temples, and the state. If the harvest from a particular direction was poor, sacrifices to that direction would be omitted.
Ah, speaking of it, that winter, precisely in the middle of winter, the emperor performed a sacrificial ceremony at the northern suburbs for the renowned Yuan Chuan Ze, using a particularly fat Tai Lao (a whole bull for sacrifice) as the sacrificial animal. Then, at the She Palace, he sacrificed to the God of Wells, using a smaller animal, which was a Shao Lao (a sheep or pig for sacrifice). By the end of winter (the twelfth lunar month), the ice was quickly stored away, to be taken out again in mid-spring (March). During both the gathering and storing of ice, black bulls and millet were used to sacrifice to the God of Coldness in the ice house. When taking out the ice, peach wood bows and bramble wood arrows were also used.
In the fourth year of the Kaihuang era, in November, the emperor declared: “In ancient times, the term ‘La’ means ‘continuation,’ referring to the transition between the old and the new. The beginning of the year in the Zhou Dynasty was in what we now call mid-winter, the first month of winter, so it is appropriate to say ‘La.’ However, in the later Zhou, they followed the Xia Dynasty's calendar but conducted the Ji clan's wax rituals, which, according to historical records, was completely out of order! Therefore, the old practice of conducting wax ceremonies in October has been abolished, and from now on, let’s have the La ceremony in December!” Thus, the previous rules were changed.
Going further back, during the Later Qi, on the last day of the first month, the Minister of the Interior was to petition the emperor to hold a purification ceremony. By the end of the year, when the emperor attended court, the Eastern Palace (the Crown Prince's palace) would petition to select an auspicious day for the palace; the high officials and the sacrificial items were all prepared by the Ministry of Rites. By the later period of the last ruler of Later Qi, the gods being worshipped were not even proper deities. The last ruler even personally beat gongs and drums and danced to sacrifice to the Hu Tian (the sky god of the Hu people). As a result, there arose a lot of improper sacrificial rites in Ye City, a negative trend that persists to this day. Later, the Later Zhou, to win the favor of the Western Regions, also created a ceremony to worship Hu Tian, which the emperor was required to personally participate in. Those ceremonies imitated the Hu people's style, characterized by debauchery and depravity, utterly indescribable!
