Shi Guo is located next to the Yaoshashui River, and the capital city spans just over ten miles. The king's surname is Shi, and his name is Nie. To the southeast of the city, there is a house with a throne in the center. On the sixth day of the first month and the fifteenth day of the seventh month each year, they place the ashes of the king's parents in a golden urn and set it on a bed. They then walk around it, sprinkling it with flowers, incense, and various fruits, and the king conducts the ritual alongside his ministers. After the ritual, the king and queen go to another tent, the ministers take their seats in turn, share a meal together, and then depart. The region is rich in rice, wheat, and excellent horses. The locals are skilled warriors and were formerly a vassal state of the Turks. Later, the Turkic Khan led his forces to conquer them and appointed Teqindianzhi to oversee state affairs. Shi Guo is located six hundred miles from Yanqi in the Western Regions and six thousand miles from Guazhou. Teqindianzhi sent envoys to pay tribute in the fifth year of Daye, but they have not returned since.
The Women's Kingdom is located south of Congling. Women have always been the rulers of this country. The queen's surname is Supi, whose courtesy name is Mojie, and she has been the queen for twenty years. The queen's husband, Jinju, does not interfere in political affairs at all. The men in the kingdom are solely responsible for warfare. Their city is situated on a mountain, spanning about five or six kilometers, with approximately ten thousand households. The queen resides in a nine-story building, attended by hundreds of maids, and meets with ministers every five days. There is also a vice queen who helps manage the country's affairs. Their customs are quite peculiar, where high-ranking women look down on men, yet they are not particularly envious. Both men and women like to paint their faces with colors, changing colors several times a day. Everyone wears their hair loose, leather shoes, and tax collection is arbitrary. The climate is very cold, and they primarily rely on hunting for their livelihood. They produce jade, cinnabar, musk, yaks, fine horses, and Shu horses. Especially, there is a lot of salt, which they frequently sell to India at several times the profit. They also regularly engage in conflicts with India and the Tanguts. After the queen dies, the nation will conduct large-scale fundraising and then select two virtuous women from the royal family, one as the queen and the other as the vice queen. If a noble dies, their skin is removed, and their bones and flesh are placed in a vessel with gold dust and buried. After a year, their skin is wrapped in iron and buried. They venerate the Asura and tree deities. Every year at the beginning of the year, they perform human sacrifices, and occasionally sacrifice monkeys. After the sacrifice, they go into the mountains to pray. At this time, a bird similar to a hen will fly and land on their hand. They will then cut open its belly to see if there are grains inside, symbolizing a good harvest, or sand and stones, symbolizing disasters. This practice is known as bird divination. In the sixth year of the Kaihuang era, they dispatched envoys to offer tribute, but subsequently lost contact.
The Yanqi Kingdom, situated 70 miles south of the White Mountains, is an ancient kingdom from the time of the Han Dynasty. The king's surname is Long, whose courtesy name is Tuqi. The capital city stretches two miles along its walls and boasts over a thousand elite soldiers. However, the country's governance is rather chaotic and lacks proper regulations. The local people follow Buddhism, with customs similar to those of the Brahmins. Marriage rituals are similar to those in the Central Plains. Upon death, individuals are cremated, and the mourning period lasts for seven days. All men have their hair cut. The Yanqi Kingdom is abundant in fish, salt, bulrush, and reeds, with a good geographical location. To the east, it is 900 miles to Gaochang, and to the west, it is 900 miles to Kucha, both of which are arid desert wastelands. To the southeast, it is 2200 miles to Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, the Yanqi Kingdom even dispatched envoys to present tributes.
The Kucha Kingdom, located 170 miles south of the White Mountains, is another ancient kingdom that dates back to the Han Dynasty. The king's surname is Bai, whose courtesy name is Sunixi. The capital city is six miles long along the city walls, boasting several thousand elite soldiers. They have a custom that demands a life for a life in the case of murder, and robbers face the punishment of having one arm and one foot severed. Other customs are similar to those of the Yanqi Kingdom. The king adorns his head with colorful ribbons that cascade down his back and sits on a throne made of golden lions. The Kucha Kingdom is abundant in rice, millet, beans, and wheat, along with copper, iron, lead, deer hides, carpets, gold dust, turquoise, realgar, cosmetics, frankincense, fine horses, and a type of livestock known as "sealed cattle." To the east, it is 900 miles to Yanqi, to the south, it is 1400 miles to Yutian, to the west, it is 1500 miles to Shule, to the northwest, it is over 600 miles to the Tujue tribe, and to the southeast, it is 3100 miles to Guazhou. During the Deyuan period, they too sent envoys to present tributes.
The Kingdom of Shule, located over a hundred miles south of Baishan, was an ancient kingdom during the Han Dynasty. The king, named Amijue, rules here. The people have six fingers on each hand and foot! Children born without six fingers do not live long. The capital city spans five miles. There are twelve large cities in the country, as well as dozens of small cities, with a force of two thousand elite troops. The king wears a hat adorned with a golden lion. This region is known for its production of rice, millet, hemp, wheat, copper, iron, brocade, and realgar, and pays annual tribute to the Turks. To the south of the Kingdom of Shule flows the Yellow River, to the west lies the Congling Mountain range, 1,500 miles east to Kucha, 1,000 miles west to the Huns, 800 to 900 miles south to Zhu Jupo, over 1,000 miles northeast to Tujue Tooth, and 4,600 miles southeast to Guazhou. During the Daye era, they also dispatched envoys to present special products.
In the country of Khotan, just over two hundred li north of the Congling Mountains. The king's surname is Wang, with the courtesy name Beishibilian. The capital city is approximately eight or nine li in circumference. There are five major cities in the country, along with dozens of smaller cities, and only a few thousand troops. The common people adhere to Buddhism, with a large number of monks and nuns, and the king often observes vegetarianism and recites scriptures. Fifty li south of the city is the Zanmo Temple, said to have been built by a disciple named Biluzhan, with the footprints of the Buddha still visible on the temple stones. "The Zanmo Temple is said to have been built by the disciple Biluzhan, with the footprints of the Buddha still visible on the stones." Five hundred li to the west of the city is the Bimo Temple, said to be where Laozi transformed the barbarians into Buddhists. "Five hundred li west of Khotan is the Bimo Temple, said to be where Laozi transformed the barbarians into Buddhists." However, the locals are known for their lack of morals, with many involved in theft and promiscuity. The king wears a brocade hat and a crown adorned with a golden rat, while the queen wears golden flowers. Nobody is allowed to see the king's hair, as locals believe that seeing the king's hair brings a year of misfortune. This region is rich in crops like hemp, wheat, millet, rice, and various fruits, with many gardens and abundant jade in the mountains. To the east is Shanshan, fifteen hundred li away, to the south is the Kingdom of Women, three thousand li away, to the west is Zhujubo, one thousand li away, to the north is Kucha, fourteen hundred li away, and to the northeast is Guazhou, twenty-eight hundred li away. During the Sui Dynasty, they often sent envoys to pay tribute. The country of Qumul, located more than five hundred li west of the Congling Mountains, was previously called Qusou. The king's surname is Zhaowu, with the courtesy name Aliqi. The capital city is approximately four li in circumference, with several thousand elite soldiers. The king sits on a chair made of gold, shaped like a sheep, and the queen wears golden flowers. The region is abundant in cinnabar, gold, and iron. To the east is Shule, one thousand li away, to the west is Sufengshana Kingdom, five hundred li away, to the northwest is Shiguo, five hundred li away, to the northeast is the Tujue, over two thousand li away, and to the east is Guazhou, five thousand five hundred li away. During the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to offer some local specialties as tribute.
The Tocharian Kingdom, five hundred miles west of the Congling Mountains, shares borders with Yida Kingdom. Its capital city covers an area of only two miles, but it boasts one hundred thousand elite troops, each a skilled warrior. They also follow Buddhism. They have a unique custom in which brothers share one wife, taking turns to sleep with her. Whoever's turn it is hangs their clothes outside the door as a marker. "Brothers share one wife, taking turns to sleep; each person hangs their clothes outside the door as a marker." Any children born are considered the eldest's. It is said that in the caves in the mountains, there are mythical horses, and every year people put mares in the caves, which can give birth to renowned foals. "In the mountain caves, there are mythical horses. Every year, mares are placed in the caves, and they will give birth to renowned foals." To the south lies Cao Kingdom, seventeen hundred miles away, and to the east is Guazhou, five thousand eight hundred miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, they regularly sent envoys to offer tribute.
The Yida Kingdom, two hundred miles south of Wuhu River, is a nation of the Yuezhi descendants. They have five or six thousand soldiers known for their fierce temperament and combat skills. Previously, the country was in chaos, and the Turks intervened to take control of the nation, installing a man named Jieqiang as their king. Their capital city is about ten miles in circumference, featuring numerous temples and pagodas adorned with gold. They practice the practice of polyandry among brothers. If a woman has a single husband, she wears a single-horned hat; if she has more than one husband, the number of horns on her hat corresponds to the number of husbands. Yida Kingdom is fifteen hundred miles from Cao Kingdom and six thousand five hundred miles from Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, they regularly sent envoys to offer tribute.
Miguo, west of the Naimi River, used to be the territory of the Kangju. This nation lacks a king and is governed by Zhaowu Shi, the city lord, a collateral branch of the Kang royal family. Its capital spans just two miles, with merely a few hundred troops. Miguo is one hundred miles from Kang country, five hundred miles from Suduoshana country, two hundred miles from Siguo, and six thousand four hundred miles from Guazhou. During the Deyuan era, they regularly paid tribute.
The State of Shi, located ten miles south of the Dumo River, used to be the territory of the Kangju people. Their king's surname was Zhaowu, whose courtesy name was Ti Zhe, and he was a collateral relative of the Kang king. The capital city was only two miles in size, with approximately a thousand soldiers. The customs were similar to those of the Kang Kingdom. The State of Shi was 240 miles from Kang country, 500 miles from Tuhuolu, 200 miles from Nasebo country, 200 miles from Mi country, and 6,500 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period of the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
The State of Cao, located a few miles south of the Nami River, used to be the territory of the Kangju people. This country had no king and was governed by the son of the Kang king, Wu Jian. The capital city was three miles in circumference, with approximately a thousand soldiers. The State of Cao had a very efficacious deity, worshipped by countries to the east of the Western Sea. This deity had a golden body, five feet wide, with harmonious proportions. It required daily sacrifices of five camels, ten horses, and a hundred sheep, with leftovers that even a thousand people could not finish. The State of Cao was 100 miles from Kang country, 150 miles from He country, and 6,600 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period of the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
He country, located a few miles south of the Nami River, used to be the territory of the Kangju people. Their king's surname was Zhaowu, a relative of the Kang king, with the courtesy name Dun. The capital city was only two miles in size, with a thousand soldiers. Their king sat on a throne shaped like a golden sheep. He country was 150 miles from the State of Cao, 300 miles from Xiao'an country, and 6,750 miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period of the Sui Dynasty, they also sent envoys to pay tribute.
Wunahuo country, with its capital built on the west bank of the Wuhu River, used to be the former territory of the Anxi kingdom. The king's surname was Zhaowu, a descendant of the Kang royal family, with the courtesy name Foshi. The capital city was two miles in length. They only had a few hundred elite soldiers. The king's throne was made of gold shaped like a sheep. Going northeast for 400 miles led to Anguo, going northwest for over 200 miles led to Muguo, and going east for 7,500 miles led to Guazhou. During the Daye period of the Sui Dynasty, they sent envoys to pay tribute with their local products.
Mu Kingdom, with its capital to the west of the Wu River, is also the former domain of the Anxi Kingdom, neighboring the Wunaho Kingdom. The king's surname is Zhao, also a descendant of the Kang Kingdom's king, whose courtesy name is Alanmi. The capital city has walls that stretch three miles and has two thousand elite soldiers. To the northeast lies Anguo, five hundred miles away; to the east lies the Wunaho Kingdom, more than two hundred miles away; to the west is Persia, over four thousand miles away; and to the east is Gua State, seven thousand seven hundred miles away. During the Sui Dynasty, they sent envoys to pay tribute with local specialties.
As for Persia, it lies to the west of the Duda River in the city of Sulun, the ancient city known as Tiaozhi. Their king is named Kusahe. The capital is approximately ten miles across. They have over twenty thousand elite soldiers who ride into battle on elephants. This country has no death penalty; for crimes, offenders may have their hands or feet amputated, their property confiscated, their beards shaved, or be made to wear a wooden sign around their neck as a mark. Everyone over the age of three must pay a tax of four coins. They also practice the custom of marrying their own sisters. When someone dies, their body is left on the mountain, and the family must observe a month of mourning. The king wears a golden crown adorned with flowers, sits on a throne crafted from golden lions, decorates his beard with gold powder, dons brocade robes, and embellishes himself with jade ornaments.
Persia produces good horses, as well as donkeys, lions, white elephants, huge bird eggs, pearls, porphyry (a gemstone), beast spirit (a gemstone), coral, glassy, agate, crystal, sapphire (a gemstone), holokit (a gemstone), lute (a gemstone), firewood (a gemstone), diamond, gold, silver, tin ore (a mineral), copper, steel, tin, satin, fine cloth, felt (a woolen blanket), tufted blanket, Huna fabric, Yuenobu fabric, sandalwood, fabric woven with golden threads, red deer skin, cinnabar, mercury, as well as various spices such as frankincense, tulips, saffron, sandalwood, and various other spices, as well as pepper, bibo (a spice), honey, half-honey (a type of sugar), jujubes, aconite (a medicinal herb), helile (a fruit), phyllanthus emblica (a fruit), green vitriol (a pigment), realgar (an arsenic sulfide pigment). The Turks were unable to conquer them, so they could only establish a form of indirect control over them. Persia often sent envoys to pay tribute. Moving west from Persia for hundreds of miles is the sea, moving east for more than four thousand miles is the Mu country, moving northwest for four thousand five hundred miles is the Roman Empire, and moving east for eleven thousand seven hundred miles is Guazhou. Emperor Yang of Sui sent Li Yu, a cloud rider, to Persia as an envoy, and later sent envoys to bring various goods as tribute. The Cao Kingdom, north of the Congling Mountains, was called Jibin country during the Han Dynasty. The king of this kingdom is Zhaowu, styled Shunda, and is a relative of the Kangju king. The capital city is four li long along its city walls. There are over ten thousand formidable soldiers. The laws of the kingdom are quite strict, with death as punishment for murder or theft. However, their customs include various unusual sacrificial practices.
On the top of Congling Mountain, there is a temple dedicated to the worship of Shuntianshen that is quite grand. The roof is adorned with gold, silver, and bronze, and the floor is laid with silver. Thousands of worshippers visit the temple daily. In front of the temple, there is a fish vertebra, with a hollow center wide enough for a horse to pass through.
The king dons a crown shaped like a golden fish and sits on a throne crafted from gold in the shape of horses. The region boasts an abundance of rice, millet, beans, and wheat, along with numerous elephants, horses, and a creature known as Fengniu, as well as gold, silver, bintie (a type of steel), carpets, cinnabar, indigo, various incenses, stone honey, semi-honey, black salt, asafoetida, myrrh, and white aconite.
To the north lies Fan Yan City, 700 li away; to the east is the Jue Kingdom, 600 li distant; and to the northeast, Guazhou is 6,600 li away. During the reign of the Sui Dynasty, the Cao Kingdom even dispatched envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
Fu Country, located over two thousand li northwest of Shu County, was inhabited by southwestern tribes during the Han Dynasty. There was a tribe called Jialiang Yi in the eastern part of Fu Country. Each tribe was self-governing, sharing customs and habits similar to those of Fu Country, but with slight variations in language and no common tongue. They did not use surnames. The king of Fu Country was named Yizeng. Their country was eight hundred li long from north to south and fifteen hundred li wide from southeast to northwest, without city walls, situated near river valleys and nestled against steep mountains. They had a culture of revenge, leading them to construct "stone nests" from piled stones to evade enemies. These "stone nests" stood over ten zhang high, with some as low as five or six zhang, with each layer approximately one zhang high, separated by wooden partitions. A small door was located on the ground floor, and at night, the door was always closed to prevent theft. There were more than twenty thousand households in the country, and all orders were issued by the king. The Jialiang Yi's laws were issued by their chiefs, with severe crimes punishable by death and minor offenses resulting in fines of cattle. The people were agile and skilled in swordsmanship. They made armor from lacquered leather, with bows six chi long and bowstrings made of bamboo. They practiced polyandry, marrying multiple women, including mothers and sisters-in-law, and if a brother died, the surviving brother would marry the deceased brother's wife. They enjoyed singing and dancing, as well as playing drums, reed pipes, and flutes. When someone died, there was no specific mourning attire. The body was laid on a high bed, cleaned, dressed, covered in lacquered armor, and draped with animal skins. Descendants refrained from crying, instead dancing with swords in armor and shouting, "My father was taken by ghosts, and I will avenge and kill them!" Other relatives would cry three times before stopping. Women were required to cover their faces with their hands while crying. The deceased's family would slaughter cattle, and relatives would exchange pork and wine, gathering to drink and eat together before the burial. A grand funeral would take place ten years later, with relatives and friends gathering, often resulting in the slaughter of several dozen horses. Ancestral shrines were erected for veneration. They wore round fur hats resembling bowls, with some even donning face masks attached to their hats. Most of their clothing consisted of fur and leather, with boots crafted from whole cowhide. They adorned themselves with iron chains around their necks and iron bracelets on their wrists. The king and chiefs sported gold jewelry, featuring a gold flower with a three-inch diameter hanging on their chests. The terrain was elevated, characterized by a cool, windy climate with minimal rainfall. The land was conducive to cultivating wheat and barley. The mountains yielded gold and silver, and many white pheasants were found there. The river was home to a desirable fish, measuring four chi in length with very fine scales.
Next, we continue to learn about the details of their lives. Their social structure is quite unique, lacking surnames, with tribal leaders holding important power. Their architectural style is also very unique, with lofty stone dwellings which serve as both homes and defensive structures, demonstrating their efforts for survival and security. Their distinct burial customs and lifestyle further illustrate their unique culture and beliefs. From their clothing and diet, it is clear that they are skilled at utilizing local resources, and their lifestyle is closely tied to the local natural environment. They value martial prowess and are skilled in sword fighting, perhaps due to their frequent need to face external threats. In summary, this ancient and mysterious people have a way of life and cultural customs that are worth studying and understanding.
In the year 608 AD, during the fourth year of the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, their king sent eight representatives to the court to pay tribute. The following year, his student, Yi Lin, was sent with sixty members of the Jialiang Yi tribe to pay tribute. They intended to present fine horses, but due to the treacherous and impassable terrain, they requested that a mountain road be opened to facilitate their tribute. Emperor Yang of Sui deemed it too troublesome and declined.
In the area of the Jialiang Yi tribe, there is a river approximately sixty to seventy yards wide; and in the neighboring region, there is a river over a hundred yards wide, both flowing southward, and they used animal hides to craft boats for crossing the river.
To the south of the country of Affu is a tribe called Boyuanyi, whose customs are similar. To the west of the country of Affu is a matriarchal nation. To the northeast of the country of Affu, stretching for thousands of miles, are continuous mountains that extend to the Dangxiang region. The mountains are home to various Qiang tribes: Dazuofeng, Xiaozuofeng, Xiwei, Geyan, Baigou, Xiangren, Wangzu, Lintai, Chunsang, Lidou, Misang, Biyao, Daxia, Bailan, Chilimotu, Nae, Dangmi, Qubu, Sangwu, Qiandiao. These tribes all live in deep mountain valleys, lacking a central leader. Their customs are similar to those of the Dangxiang people; some are governed by Tuyuhun, and some are attached to the country of Affu. During the reign of Emperor Yangdi of the Sui Dynasty, these tribes all came to the court to pay tribute. The court appointed various officials to oversee the southwestern border.
Historical records say: From ancient times to the present, to expand the borders and establish links with distant regions, it requires an emperor who is both enlightened and magnanimous, as well as ministers who are enthusiastic about this matter. Zhang Qian opened up the Western Regions, and Ban Chao abandoned his pen for a sword; they either forged alliances with precious treasures or intimidated with sharp swords, risking their lives for short-term glory, all because the emperor prioritized border expansion, and the ministers were willing to go to great lengths. Therefore, it is said that what the people at the top like, the people below will like even more.
Emperor Yang of Sui imitated the Qin and Han dynasties, undertaking large-scale and extravagant projects even more aggressively than they did. Pei Ju submitted the "Records of the Western Regions" to flatter him, so Emperor Yang of Sui personally went to Yumen Pass, established Yiwu, Qemo, and other places outside the pass, and the entire Guanzhong region was thrown into chaos, leading to immense suffering for the populace. Even without threats from the northern nomadic tribes, there were reports of good fortune from the eastern tribes; Emperor Yang of Sui would definitely build military camps at Luntai, construct cities at Wulei, seek the Bright Pearls of Great Qin, and bring back the bird eggs of Tiao Zhi, transporting goods back and forth—how could they possibly sustain such enormous expenses?
Ancient wise emperors maintained control over territories within a radius of five thousand li, focusing on stabilizing the Central Plains region while ignoring those remote and desolate areas. Is it due to a lack of prestige or insufficient virtue? No! They simply did not want to burden the Central Plains' populace with the issues of remote barbarians, nor to harm useful matters with useless ones. Therefore, the Qin Dynasty stationed troops in the Five Ridges, and the Han Dynasty managed the three borders, resulting in either starvation along the roads or a halved population. The Sui Dynasty, despite its strength, ultimately found itself in a dire situation in the Qinghai region. All of this is because the rulers themselves lost their direction, leading to the suffering of the people.
If Emperor Yang of Sui had seriously contemplated the significance of "pacifying the border regions," resolutely rejected the suggestions to establish protectorates, returned those thousand-li horses, and refrained from demanding tribute from the white wolves, then even without a victory in Liaodong, how could the disaster at Jiangdu have occurred? "Seven Rong and Nine Yi, waiting for the wind to translate," originally referred to the regular tribute from minority border ethnic groups. If Emperor Yang of Sui had been able to pacify the border areas, how could the tragedy at Jiangdu have transpired?
