Legend has it that when the Han Dynasty first began interacting with the Western Regions, there were thirty-six countries! Later, they split and merged, becoming fifty-five small kingdoms. The Han Dynasty even sent captains and governors to manage them and make them obedient. But then that scoundrel Wang Mang took the throne, and contact with the Western Regions was severed.
By the time of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Ban Chao was quite remarkable. He established relations with over fifty countries, reaching as far as the Western Sea, totaling forty thousand miles east to west, and these countries all came to pay tribute! The Han Dynasty reestablished governors and captains to manage them. However, the relationship between the Western Regions and the Central Plains was inconsistent, and the Han Dynasty felt it was not worth the effort, so these official positions were sometimes vacant. By the Wei and Jin periods, the countries in the Western Regions were fighting each other, resulting in complete chaos, and the specific situation was difficult to understand.
During the time of Emperor Yang of Sui, he sent the Imperial Censor Wei Jie and the Attendant Officer Du Xingman to visit those countries in the Western Regions. They traveled to Jibin and acquired a Ma Wei cup; went to Wangshe City and collected some Buddhist scriptures; went to Shiguo and obtained ten dancing girls, some lion skins, and some muskrat fur before making their way back. Emperor Yang of Sui also sent Pei Ju from Wenxi to Wuwei and Zhangye to reach out to those countries in the Western Regions. At that time, there were forty-four countries with rulers in the Western Regions. Pei Ju seized the opportunity when envoys from those countries came to pay tribute, offered them incentives, and encouraged them to promote each other, motivating other countries to also pay tribute. During the Dali period, over thirty countries came to pay tribute, and Emperor Yang of Sui appointed a captain for the Western Regions to receive them. Unfortunately, shortly thereafter, China descended into chaos, and the tribute from the Western Regions stopped. Alas, a lot of records about these events were lost, and now we can only find records of about twenty countries.
The Tuyuhun people were originally descendants of the Xianbei people from the Liao River region. Initially, there were two sons of the Xianbei leader, the eldest called Tuyuhun and the younger son, named Ruoluo Hui. After the leader died, Ruoluo Hui inherited the tribe, which later became known as the Murong clan. Tuyuhun had a falling out with Ruoluo Hui, so he moved to Longxi, settling south of Gansong Mountain and west of the Tao River, extending south to Bailan Mountain, covering several thousand square miles, and later used Tuyuhun as the country's name.
During the Wei and Zhou periods, they began to call themselves Khans. Their capital was called Fusicheng, fifteen miles west of Qinghai. However, the city had no permanent residents, as they moved with the water and grass. Their official positions included nobles, ministers, secretaries, court officials, and generals. Their king wore a black hat, while the queen adorned a golden flower. Their clothing and equipment were similar to those found in the Central Plains. Many nobles donned a headdress known as mi'ao, women wore skirts and jackets, braided their hair, and adorned themselves with beads and shells. Their country did not impose fixed taxes. Those who committed murder or stole horses faced the death penalty, while lesser offenses were met with fines. Their customs bore a striking resemblance to those of the Tujue people. They observed mourning customs when someone died, but they would discard their mourning attire after the burial. The people were often perceived as greedy and cruel. The region produced barley, millet, and beans.
Qinghai Lake has a circumference of more than a thousand miles, with some small mountains in the middle of the lake. Local people in winter put their mares on the mountains, claiming it helps them obtain dragon seeds. The Tuyuhun once obtained fine horses from Persia, put them in Qinghai Lake, and produced the Qinghai Dapple, which could travel a thousand miles a day; hence the name Qinghai Dapple. There are many yaks, and copper, iron, and cinnabar are abundant as well. Their territory also includes Shanshan and Qiemo. In the northwest, there are hundreds of miles of quicksand, where hot winds in summer often claim the lives of passersby. When a hot wind is approaching, the old camels can sense it beforehand; they stretch their necks and vocalize, then gather together, burying their mouths and noses in the sand. Seeing this, people know the hot wind is coming and quickly cover their mouths and noses with felt to avoid it.
There was a man named Lü Kuo who had been a border bandit during the Zhou Dynasty. During the Sui Dynasty, in the Kaihuang period, he led troops to attack Hongzhou. Emperor Wen of Sui considered Hongzhou to be vast and sparsely populated, making it difficult to defend, so he ultimately decided to abandon it and sent General Yuan Xie with tens of thousands of infantry and cavalry to fight him. Lü Kuo mobilized all the soldiers across the country, from Mantou to Shudun, with shining-armored troops everywhere, forming an unbroken line. His subordinates, including the General of Hexi, King Zhong Lifu, and his crown prince Kebohan, took turns resisting. General Yuan Xie defeated them many times, capturing and executing many of them. Terrified, Lü Kuo fled with his personal guards. All thirteen of his well-known leaders surrendered along with their tribes.
Emperor Wen of Sui felt that Gao Ning, one of Lü Kua's subordinates, was very popular among the people, so he appointed him as Grand General and also as King of Henan, allowing him to oversee the surrendered people. Other generals received rewards based on their merits. Not long after, Lü Kua came to harass the border again. The Governor of Xuzhou, Pi Zixin, led troops to resist him, but was defeated by Lü Kua and killed in battle. Liang Yuan, the Commander of Wenzhou, marshaled elite troops to fight him, killing more than a thousand people and driving Lü Kua away. Later, Lü Kua went to Kuozhou to raid, but was driven away by the local military.
Lü Kua reigned as emperor for a hundred years, on several occasions deposing or even killing the crown prince in fits of anger or joy. Later, the crown princes grew fearful of being deposed or killed, so they planned to capture Lü Kua, surrender to the court, and ask the border officials for troops. Hong, the Governor of Qinzhou and Prince of Hejian, requested to lead troops to support the crown prince, but the emperor refused. The crown prince's plan was leaked to Lü Kua, who then appointed his youngest son, Prince He, as his successor. The Governor of Diezhou, Du Can, saw this as an opportunity to attack Lü Kua, but the emperor remained unyielding.
Six years later, King He of Tuyuhun was afraid that his father would have him killed, so he planned to surrender to the Tang Dynasty with fifteen thousand families and even sent envoys to the capital to request the court to send troops to meet them. The emperor said to the officials around him, "The customs of the Tuyuhun people are very different from ours. There is no love between father and son, let alone filial piety! I educate the people with benevolence and righteousness; how can I condone such wickedness? I must teach them how to be better people." Then the emperor said to the envoy, "I am commanded by heaven to govern the world, hoping that all people will treat each other with benevolence and righteousness. Moreover, the love between father and son is natural; how can they not protect each other? King He is the father of Prince Wei, and Prince Wei is the crown prince of Tuyuhun. If the father does something wrong, the son should advise him. If advice is not effective, he should enlist the help of his relatives and friends around him. If that fails, he should plead with him tearfully. Everyone has emotions; he will definitely be moved. One must not secretly plot illegal acts and risk the shame of being unfilial. The people of the world are all my subjects; it brings me joy when everyone acts righteously. Since King He has this good intention to surrender, I will teach him how to be a vassal and not send troops to help him do bad things." Ultimately, King He abandoned this idea.
Eight years later, King Tuoba Mimi of Tuyuhun wanted to lead more than a thousand households to submit to the Tang Dynasty. The emperor said, "All under heaven are my people. Even if they are from afar and do not understand our customs and teachings, I govern the world based on benevolence and filial piety. The king of Tuyuhun is incompetent and tyrannical. His wife, children, and subjects are all afraid and wish to submit to the Tang Dynasty to escape peril. However, I cannot take in those who betray their own kin. Moreover, they originally wanted to save their lives. Refusing them now would be unjust. If they genuinely wish to submit, we should comfort them and allow them to find their own way to safety, without sending troops to welcome them. If their wives, sisters, and nephews wish to come, let them come as they wish, without any urging." That year, Wang Yizhi, the governor of Henan, passed away, and Emperor Gaozu let his brother Shu Gui inherit his military power. After pacifying the Chen Dynasty, Lv Kuo was very afraid and fled, no longer daring to cause trouble.
In the year 611 AD, Lv Kuo died, and his son Fu Yun succeeded him. Fu Yun sent his nephew Wusu to offer tribute and request to become a vassal, presenting gifts and hoping to marry his daughter to the emperor as a concubine. The emperor said to the Prince of Teng, "This is not a sincere gesture, just a temporary measure." Then he said to Wusu, "I understand your king wishes to marry his daughter to me. If I agree to your request, other countries will follow suit, and that would be unfair. If everyone agrees, it is also not a good solution. I want you to live in peace and thrive. How can I accept concubines just to fill my harem?" Ultimately, the marriage proposal was turned down.
In the year 612 AD, the emperor sent Yuwen Bi, the Minister of Justice, to console them. In 616 AD, the emperor married Fu Yun to Princess Guanghua. Fu Yun requested to be called Empress, but the emperor did not agree. The following year, there was chaos in the Tuyuhun kingdom, and the people killed Fu Yun and crowned his brother, Fu Jian, as king. The Tuyuhun sent envoys to explain the killing of Fu Yun, ask for forgiveness for the offense of crowning a new king, and request to renew the marriage alliance with the Sui Dynasty in accordance with their customs. The emperor agreed. From then on, Tuyuhun came to pay tribute every year, often inquiring about the news of the Sui Dynasty, which the emperor was displeased with.
After Emperor Yang of Sui ascended the throne, Fu Yun sent his son Shun to pay tribute. At this time, the Tiele people launched an invasion on the border, and the emperor dispatched General Feng Xiaoci to defend against them, but he suffered defeat. The Tiele sent envoys to apologize and pledge their loyalty. The emperor sent the Chamberlain for the Yellow Gates, Pei Ju, to appease them, implying that they could attack Tuyuhun to demonstrate their loyalty. The Tiele people agreed and attacked Tuyuhun, defeating their army. Fu Yun fled to the Xiping region. The emperor ordered Prince Xiong to lead troops from Jiahe, and Xu Gong Yuwen Shu to lead troops from Xiping to encircle Fu Yun, resulting in a major defeat for the Tuyuhun army. Fu Yun fled, and over 100,000 Tuyuhun people and over 300,000 livestock surrendered. Yuwen Shu pursued Fu Yun relentlessly, who fled to a mountain valley. The former territory of Tuyuhun was left vacant, becoming part of the Sui Dynasty's territory from Xiping to the west of Linqiang City, to the east of Qemo, south of Qilian Mountain, and north of the Snow Mountain, stretching four thousand miles from east to west and two thousand miles from north to south. The Sui Dynasty established administrative regions and military camps in the area, and also relocated some people who committed minor crimes nationwide. As a result, the Sui Dynasty detained Fu Yun's son, Shun, preventing him from returning.
Fu Yun lost his livelihood and defected to the Tangut with several thousand cavalry. The emperor appointed Shun as the king of Tuyuhun, entrusted him with command of the remaining Tuyuhun people, with the great king of Tuyuhun, Niluo Zhou, as his advisor. When they reached Xiping, Shun's subordinates killed Niluo Zhou, and Shun ultimately turned back without entering Tuyuhun territory. In the late years of the Daye period, the world was in chaos, and Fu Yun reclaimed his former lands, repeatedly raiding the Hexi Corridor, which the Sui Dynasty's counties could not withstand.
As for the Tangut and Qiang, they are descendants of the ancient Sanmiao people. Their tribes include Dangchang and Bailang, all of which claim descent from monkeys. Their territory is bordered by Lintao and Xiping in the east, bordering Tubo Yehu to the west, extending for thousands of miles north and south, and inhabiting mountain valleys. Each surname corresponds to a tribe, with larger tribes boasting over five thousand cavalry and smaller ones having more than a thousand. They use yak tails and the pelts of unknown animals to construct their homes. They wear fur coats and coarse linen garments, draped in felt, which serve as their finest adornments. They are fierce warriors who value strength, living without legal constraints and only coming together for battle. They do not pay taxes and have minimal interaction between tribes. They sustain themselves by herding yaks, sheep, and pigs, having no knowledge of agriculture. Their customs are notably licentious, regarded as the most extreme among all ethnic minorities. They lack a writing system and rely solely on observing plant growth to determine the seasons. Every three years, they convene to sacrifice cattle and sheep to the heavens. If someone dies at over eighty, they regard it as a natural death, and relatives and friends do not mourn; but if a young person passes away, they see it as a significant loss and will mourn collectively. They entertain themselves by playing the pipa, the transverse flute, and drums.
During the Wei and Zhou dynasties of China, the Dangxiang and Qiang tribes frequently harassed the borders. When our founding emperor served as prime minister, the Central Plains were embroiled in constant warfare, and the Dangxiang and Qiang tribes took the opportunity to plunder. Later, General Jiang Liang Rui quelled the rebellion led by Wang Qian and requested to take advantage of the situation to attack the Dangxiang and Qiang tribes, but the founding emperor declined the request. In the fourth year of the Kaihuang era, over a thousand households from the Dangxiang and Qiang tribes surrendered to the imperial court. In the fifth year of the Kaihuang era, Tuoba Ningcong and others led their clansmen to surrender in Xuzhou, and the court appointed them as generals, with their subordinates also receiving official positions. In the sixteenth year of the Kaihuang era, they attacked Huizhou, and the court ordered the mobilization of troops from Longxi to suppress the uprising, resulting in a significant defeat for the Dangxiang and Qiang tribes. Afterward, they all sought to surrender, expressing their willingness to become subjects of the Sui Dynasty, and even sent their children to the capital to offer their apologies. The founding emperor responded, "Go back and tell your fathers and brothers that to live in peace, one must care for their elders and raise their children. Isn't it shameful to keep wandering about?" Since then, the Dangxiang and Qiang tribes have consistently paid tribute to the imperial court.
As for the Kingdom of Gaochang, it was the former seat of the king of Cheshi during the Han Dynasty, a journey of thirteen days from Dunhuang. This area spans three hundred miles from east to west and five hundred miles from north to south, surrounded by many large mountains. When Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty launched a western expedition, the exhausted army left many particularly weary soldiers there. The site also housed a military fortress of Gaochang dating back to the Han Dynasty, thus it later became the name of the kingdom. Initially, the Rouran appointed Kan Bozhou as the king of Gaochang.
After Bo Zhou died, his son Kan Yicheng took the throne, but was killed by his cousin Shougui, who then became the King of Gaochang. Shougui was later killed by Afuzhilo, the leader of the Gaoche. Afterward, they supported Zhang Mengming from Dunhuang as king. Zhang Mengming was also murdered by the Gaochang people, so they appointed Ma Ru as their king and appointed Gong Gu and Qu Jia as the left and right chief historians, respectively. Ma Ru also contacted Northern Wei and requested to submit to them. However, those who submitted to Northern Wei were deeply attached to their homeland and unwilling to move to the east. In a collective decision, they killed Ma Ru and appointed Qu Jia as king.
Qu Jia, whose courtesy name was Lingfeng, was from Yuzhong in Jincheng. After ascending to the throne, he pledged allegiance to the Rouran. When the leader of the Rouran was killed by the Gaoche people, he then pledged allegiance to the Gaoche. Later, Yanqi was defeated by the Yeda tribe, and the Yanqi people were unable to manage the situation, so they requested Qu Jia to be their ruler. Qu Jia sent his second son to be the king of Yanqi. Since then, the Kingdom of Gaochang gradually became stronger, and the people grew increasingly loyal to him. After Qu Jia's death, his son Qu Jian succeeded him.
It is said that the capital city has a circumference of 1,840 steps, and the palace still features paintings of Duke Ai of Lu consulting Confucius on governance. "The city has a circumference of 1,840 steps, and in the sitting room, there is a painting of Duke Ai of Lu consulting Confucius on governance." There are eighteen cities in this country. Regarding officials, the highest rank is the Lingyin, of which there is only one; followed by two subordinate officials; then the left and right guards, eight chief historians, five generals, eight sima, as well as attendant ministers, registrar, chief clerk, officer, and assistant. Major decisions are made by the king personally, while minor matters are discussed and managed by the crown prince and his advisors, without written records.
Men wear Hu robes, women wear skirts paired with Ru Yi tops, and all have their hair styled in a bun. Their customs and laws are similar to those of the Central Plains. "Their customs and laws are somewhat similar to those of the Huaxia." The area is rocky with gravel, has a warm climate, can harvest crops twice a year, which is suitable for sericulture and abundant in fruits. One type of grass, known as sheep thorn, produces honey that is particularly delicious. This area produces red salt as vivid as cinnabar and white salt as pure as jade. There is also plenty of grape wine. The country's sheep and horses are kept in remote areas to avoid invasion by outside invaders. Ordinary folks would have no clue where these animals are kept if it weren't for the high-ranking officials. If you head north, you'll come across Red Stone Mountain, and seventy li north of Red Stone Mountain is another mountain called Tanhan, where snow can still be found in summer. "To the north is Red Stone Mountain, and seventy li north of it is Tanhan Mountain, where snow can still be found in summer." Beyond Tanhan Mountain is the territory of the Tiele people. Heading northwest from Wuwei, there is a shortcut that spans over a thousand li of desert and Gobi, with desolation on all sides and no visible path. "Heading northwest from Wuwei, there is a shortcut that spans over a thousand li of desert and Gobi, with desolation on all sides and no visible path." Those daring enough to take this road must follow the bones of both humans and animals, and might hear the sounds of singing and crying along the way. Those who try to find the source of the sounds often get lost and meet their demise, since they are said to be haunted by ghosts and monsters. That's why most merchants prefer the Yiwu route.
In the tenth year of the Kaihuang reign, the Turks captured their four cities, and two thousand people defected to the Great Sui. After the king's death, his son Boya ascended to the throne. His mother was the daughter of the Turkic khan. After his father's death, the Turks insisted that he follow their customs, but Boya firmly refused, resulting in a prolonged standoff. Eventually, as the Turks pressed harder, he had no choice but to comply. After Emperor Yang of Sui took the throne, he attracted many people from neighboring countries. In the fourth year of the Daye era, they sent envoys to present tribute, and Emperor Yang treated the envoys with great respect.
In the second year, King Boya of Gaochang came to the imperial court to meet the emperor. He followed the Sui army to attack Goguryeo, and upon his return, he married the Sui Dynasty's Princess Huarong. In the winter of the eighth year of Daye, Boya returned to his country and ordered the whole nation to say, "The key to governing a country is to protect the people, and the most important thing in stabilizing the country is to unite. In the past, our country was on the border, bordering on barbarian territories, and the people lived in peace and prosperity, but they all wore non-Han clothing. Now that the Great Sui has unified the country and brought peace to the world, everyone has submitted to us. Since I enjoy this peaceful and prosperous era, I should allow everyone to share in it, so all the people of the country should change to wearing Han clothing." Emperor Yang heard about this and was very pleased, decreeing, "Commend virtues, reward good deeds; this has always been the practice of a wise monarch. Grand Minister of Ceremonies and Duke of Bian, King Boya of Gaochang has broad knowledge, a broad mind, and a long-standing loyalty, with noble character spreading far and wide. He was originally a Han person, but later, as the country declined, he was forced to submit to the Xiongnu in the Western Regions and forced to change into non-Han clothing. Since our Sui Dynasty unified the country, bringing peace to the world, with blessings reaching far and wide, Boya has come from afar to pay tribute, learning the etiquette of our Central Plains, admiring our grand ceremonies. So he changed into Han clothing, abandoned the non-Han attire, and transformed from a barbarian into a Chinese citizen, which is highly commendable. He is specially granted a set of Han clothing, made according to the court's specifications, and sent to him. Let him wear beautiful clothes, ride in magnificent carriages and horses, discard the coarse fur garments, and become a civilized country once again."
However, Boya had previously submitted to the Xiongnu, and the Xiongnu often stationed important ministers in Gaochang, and merchants had to pay taxes to the Xiongnu when traveling. Although Boya ordered the change to Han clothing to please the Central Plains dynasty, he remained fearful of the Xiongnu and did not truly dare to make the change. Since then, Gaochang has sent annual tributes of local specialties.
Kangguo is a descendant of the Kangju kingdom. They have always been nomadic and have not had a fixed residence, but they have existed since the Han Dynasty. Their king, who belongs to the Yuezhi, has the surname Wen. They used to live in the city of Zhaowu north of the Qilian Mountains, but were defeated by the Xiongnu and fled to the west of the Congling Mountains, where they established Kangguo. The king's brothers each became rulers of smaller kingdoms, which is why the surrounding countries share the surname Zhaowu, indicating their origins.
The current king, Daishibi, is known for his generosity and popularity. His wife is the daughter of the Tujue Datu Khan. Their capital is located in the city of Aludi by the Sabao River, which is home to many people. State affairs are managed collectively by three ministers. The king has long hair and wears a gold hat adorned with seven different gems, along with luxurious silk and satin garments. The queen wears a hair bun and a black headscarf. Men sport short hair and wear brocade robes. Although Kangguo is regarded as a powerful nation, many countries in the Western Regions are subservient to it. Countries like Miguo, Shiguo, Caoguo, Heguo, Anguo, Xiao Anguo, Nasebo, Wunaheguo, and Muguo all acknowledge its authority.
They have their own laws, which are stored in Zoroastrian temples and used to adjudicate cases. Severe crimes result in family extermination, serious crimes result in death, and theft results in foot amputation. The people there typically have deep-set eyes, high nose bridges, and stubbly beards. They are adept at commerce, attracting traders from all over to Kangguo. They play various instruments, including drums, pipa, five-stringed qin, konghou, and flutes. Their marriage and funeral customs resemble those of the Tujue people. They have ancestral temples where they honor their ancestors every June, with neighboring countries participating in the ceremonies. They practice Buddhism and use Hu script.
The climate there is warm, suitable for growing grains, and they are diligent in cultivating vegetables, with trees growing particularly lush. They produce horses, camels, mules, donkeys, a type of cattle known as Fengniu, as well as gold and a substance known as Yaosha, incense, Asana incense, Cassia (a type of spice), deer hides, felt (a type of blanket), and satin. They produce a lot of wine; wealthy families can store thousands of stones and have good harvests every year. During the Sui Dynasty, Kang began sending envoys to present local specialties, but this practice was later discontinued.
Anguo was known as the Arsacid Empire during the Han Dynasty. The king, Zhaowu, belonged to the same clan as the king of Kang, whose nickname was Sheli Deng. His wife was the daughter of the king of Kang. Anguo was situated south of the Misyar River, featuring five layers of city walls surrounded by flowing water. The roofs of the palaces were flat. The king sat on a golden throne shaped like a camel's hump, about seven or eight feet high. Whenever handling state affairs, he and the queen sat face to face, with three ministers seated beside them discussing state matters. The customs of Anguo were quite similar to those of Kang, but they had a bizarre custom where sisters and mothers would kill each other, which was truly unacceptable. After Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty ascended to the throne, he sent his officials to the Western Regions, and upon arriving in Anguo, they brought back five different types of salt.
Biguo was more than a hundred miles west of Anguo, with probably thousands of households. This country had no monarch of its own and was governed by Anguo. In the fifth year of the Daye era, Biguo sent envoys to offer tribute, but subsequently lost contact.
The Stone Kingdom is located by the water, with the capital city spanning over ten miles in circumference. Their king's surname is Shi, and his name is Nie. To the southeast of the Stone Kingdom's city, there is a house with a seat inside. Every year on the sixth day of the first month and the fifteenth day of the seventh month, they would place the ashes of the king's parents in a golden urn and set it on a bed, and then the king and his courtiers would walk around the ashes, sprinkling flower incense and various fruits over them as offerings to their ancestors. After the sacrifice, the king and queen would go to another tent, the ministers would take their seats in order, enjoy a feast together, and then disperse. The Stone Kingdom possesses rice, wheat, and many fine horses. They are fierce and skilled in battle, who were once vassals of the Turks. Later, Khan Shibi led his troops to conquer the Stone Kingdom, appointing a man named Teqindianzhi to oversee the affairs of the Stone Kingdom. The Stone Kingdom is six hundred miles from the Western Turks and six thousand miles from Guazhou. Teqindianzhi sent envoys to pay tribute in the fifth year of the Daye era, but has not done so since.
Speaking of which, there is a country just south of the Congling Mountains, where women have always been the rulers. The queen at that time was named Su Pi, with the courtesy name Mo Jie, and she had been queen for twenty years. The queen's husband, Jin Ju, didn't involve himself in politics. The men were solely focused on warfare. Their capital was built on a mountain, spanning an area of five to six li, and was home to tens of thousands of families. The queen lived in a nine-story building, surrounded by hundreds of palace maids, and only attended court every five days. There was also a co-queen, and the two of them managed the affairs of the country together. The customs there were very unique, where women held high status, looked down on men, and were not jealous at all. Both men and women liked to paint their faces with various colors, changing colors several times a day. Everyone had loose hair, wore leather shoes, and tax collection was inconsistent. The climate was very cold, and they mainly relied on hunting for a living. They produced copper ore, cinnabar, musk, yaks, and fine horses, including Shu horses, with a particularly large production of salt, which they frequently sold to Tianzhu for substantial profits. They often fought with Tianzhu and the Tanguts. After the queen died, the entire country had to conduct a large-scale fundraising, and then select two outstanding women from the deceased's family, one as queen and one as co-queen. If a noble died, their skin would be removed, and their bones and ashes would be placed in a container for burial. After a year, their skin would be put into an iron vessel and buried. They worshipped the Asura deity. There was also a tree god, which required sacrifices of humans or macaques at the start of each year. After the sacrifice, they would pray in the mountains, and a bird resembling a hen would land on their hands. Opening its belly, if grains were found inside, it signified a good harvest, and if there were sand and stones, it meant disaster, a practice known as bird divination. In the sixth year of the Kaihuang era, they sent envoys to pay tribute, but they later lost contact.
Let's talk about the country of Yanqi again. Its capital is seventy li to the south of Baishan, and it has existed as a country since the Han Dynasty. The king's surname is Long, and his personal name is Tuqi. The capital covers an area of two li. There are nine cities in the country, with over a thousand elite soldiers. The governance of the country is somewhat disorganized. The customs there involve practicing a form of Buddhism that resembles Brahmanism. Marriage customs are similar to those of the Han people. Upon death, individuals are cremated, and relatives observe a seven-day mourning period. All men have their hair cut. The region is abundant in fish, salt, and reeds. To the east, Gaochang is nine hundred li away, and to the west, Kucha is also nine hundred li away, both situated in desert regions. To the southeast, it is two thousand two hundred li to Guazhou. During the Daye period, they once sent envoys to offer local specialties as tribute.
As for the country of Kucha, it is one hundred and seventy li south of Baishan, and it is an ancient nation that dates back to the Han Dynasty. The king's surname is Bai, and his personal name is Sunidie. The capital is six li in length, with several thousand soldiers. The customs there dictate that murderers must pay with their lives, and robbers face the punishment of losing one arm and one leg. These customs are similar to those in Yanqi. The king wears a colorful ribbon tied around his head, cascading down his back, and sits on a throne made of golden lions. The region boasts an abundance of rice, millet, soybeans, wheat, copper, iron, lead, deer hides, woolen blankets, gold dust, malachite, orpiment, realgar, alum, fine horses, and fat cattle. To the east, it is nine hundred li to Yanqi, to the south, it is one thousand four hundred li to Yutian, to the west, it is one thousand five hundred li to Shule, to the northwest, it is over six hundred li to Tujue, and to the southeast, it is three thousand one hundred li to Guazhou. During the Daye period of the Sui Dynasty, the country of Kucha also sent envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
The Shule Kingdom, situated over a hundred miles south of Baishan, is an ancient kingdom that dates back to the Han Dynasty. The king is named Ami Jue. The people here have six fingers on each hand and foot. If a child is born without six fingers, they will not live long. The capital measures five li in length. There are twelve large cities and several dozen small cities in the country, with a military of two thousand troops. The king wears a hat adorned with golden lions. The region is abundant in rice, millet, hemp, wheat, copper, iron, brocade, and realgar, and pays tribute to the Turks annually. To the south of the Shule Kingdom is the Yellow River, to the west lies the Congling Mountains, to the east lies Kucha, 1,500 miles away, 1,000 miles to the Persian Kingdom, 800 to 900 miles to Zhu Jubo, over 1,000 miles northeast to Tujue Yayi, and 4,600 miles southeast to Gua Prefecture. During the Sui Dynasty, the Shule Kingdom also sent envoys to pay tribute with local specialties.
In the country of Khotan, just over two hundred li north of the Congling. The king's surname is Wang, and his courtesy name is Beishibi Lian. The capital city is about eight or nine li in area. There are five major cities in the country, as well as dozens of smaller cities, with only a few thousand troops. The common people practice Buddhism, and there are many monks and nuns, and the king follows a vegetarian diet and often recites scriptures. Fifty li south of the city is a Zanmo Temple, said to have been built by an Arhat named Biluzhan, with the footprints of the Buddha etched into the stones of the temple. "Zanmo Temple," "Biluzhan," remember them! Five hundred li to the west of the city is a Bimo Temple, said to be where Laozi transformed into a Buddha. However, the locals are known for their lack of integrity, with many incidents of theft and disorderly behavior. The king wears a brocade hat and a golden crown shaped like a rat, while the queen adorns herself with a golden flower. The king's hair is never seen by others, as the locals believe that if anyone sees the king's hair, it will bring them bad luck that year. This region is rich in hemp, wheat, millet, rice, and fruits, gardens abound, and the mountains are rich in beautiful jade. From Khotan, it is fifteen hundred li to the east to Shanshan, three thousand li to the south to the Kingdom of Women, one thousand li to the west to Zhu Jupo, fourteen hundred li to the north to Kucha, and more than two thousand eight hundred li to the northeast to Guazhou. During the reign of Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty, Khotan often sent envoys to offer tribute.
The Kingdom of Qaghan, located over five hundred li west of the Congling, which was formerly known as Qusou. The king's surname is Zhaowu, and his courtesy name is Aliqi. The capital city is approximately four li in area, with several thousand elite soldiers. The king sits on a chair crafted from gold and shaped like a sheep, and the queen adorns herself with a golden flower. This region is abundant in cinnabar, gold, and iron. It is one thousand li to the east to Shule, five hundred li to the west to Sufengshana Kingdom, five hundred li to the northwest to the Stone Kingdom, more than two thousand li to the northeast to Tujue, and five thousand five hundred li to the east to Guazhou. During the Great Enterprise period, they also sent envoys to offer some local specialties as tribute.
The Tuholuo Kingdom, located five hundred miles west of the Congling, coexists with the Yida Kingdom. The capital city is only two miles in circumference. They boast an impressive one hundred thousand elite soldiers, each well-trained. They also practice Buddhism. They have a unique custom where brothers share a wife, taking turns to sleep with her. The brother who sleeps with her hangs his clothes outside the door as a marker, and any children born belong to the eldest. Legend has it that divine horses reside in the caves of their mountains. Every year, they put a mare in the cave, and it will give birth to a fine foal. Isn't that incredible? From the Tuholuo Kingdom, it is one thousand seven hundred miles south to Cao country, and five thousand eight hundred miles east to Guazhou. During the Daye period, they also sent envoys to offer tribute.
The Yida Kingdom, located about two hundred miles south of the Wuxu River, is the descendants of the Yuezhi. They have five to six thousand soldiers who are brave and skilled in battle. In the past, the country was in turmoil, and the Turks appointed a man named Tong Shezijiangqiang as their king. Their capital city covers about ten square miles and features many temples and pagodas adorned in gold. They have a custom allowing brothers to share one wife. If a woman has only one husband, she wears a single-horned hat; if she has multiple husbands, the horns on her hat increase according to the number of brothers. The Yida Kingdom is one thousand five hundred miles from Cao country and six thousand five hundred miles from Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty's Daye period, they also sent envoys to offer tribute.
The Miguo Kingdom, located west of the Nimishui River, was previously the territory of the Kangju. They have no king, and the city's leader is named Zhaowu, a distant relative of the Kang country king, with the courtesy name Bizhuo. Their capital city is only two miles square, with merely a few hundred soldiers. The Miguo Kingdom is one hundred miles from Kang country, five hundred miles from Suduoshana country, two hundred miles from Shiguo, and six thousand four hundred miles from Guazhou. During the Daye period, they regularly sent tributes in both directions.
Shi Guo, situated roughly ten miles south of the Dumo River, was once part of the Kangju territory. Their king, surnamed Zhaowu and styled Ti Zhe, was a distant relative of the Kangju king. Their capital city was only about two li square, boasting over a thousand soldiers. Their customs were similar to those of Kangju. Shi Guo was 240 miles away from Kangju, 500 miles away from Tuhuoluo, 200 miles away from Nasebo, 200 miles away from Mi Guo, and 6,500 miles away from Guazhou. During the Daye era, they too sent envoys to offer tribute.
Cao Guo, situated a few miles south of the Nami River, was once part of the Kangju territory as well. This country did not have its own ruler; the Kangju king appointed his son Wu Jian to govern it. Their capital city was approximately three li square, boasting over a thousand soldiers. Cao Guo worshipped a highly revered deity, worshipped by countries east of the Western Sea. This god had a golden statue that was over five feet wide and nearly as tall, which required daily sacrifices of five camels, ten horses, and a hundred sheep. The leftover offerings were more than a thousand people could consume. Cao Guo was 100 miles away from Kangju, 150 miles away from He Guo, and 6,600 miles away from Guazhou. During the Daye era, they too sent envoys to offer tribute.
He Guo, situated a few miles south of the Nami River, was once part of the Kangju territory as well. Their king, surnamed Zhaowu and also a relative of the Kangju king, was styled Dun. Their capital city was only about two li square, with approximately a thousand soldiers. Their king sat on a seat made of gold sheep. He Guo was 150 miles away from Cao Guo, 300 miles away from Xiao'an Guo, and 6,750 miles away from Guazhou. During the Daye era, they too sent envoys to offer tribute.
The country of Wunaho, with its capital built on the west side of the Wuhu River, used to be part of the former Anxi Kingdom. The king's surname is Zhao and his given name is Wu, also known by his courtesy name Foshi. The city walls of the capital stretch two miles. The royal guard consists of only a few hundred elite soldiers. The king's seat is a sheep-shaped throne made of gold. Traveling northeast for four hundred miles will take you to Anguo, going northwest for over two hundred miles will take you to Muguo, and going east for seven thousand five hundred miles will take you to Guazhou. During the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, they once sent envoys to present tributes of local goods.
Muguo, with its capital built on the west side of the Wuhu River, is also part of the former Anxi Kingdom, neighboring Wunaho. Their king, also surnamed Zhao, is named Wu, with the courtesy name Alanmi. The capital city walls are three miles long, and there are two thousand elite soldiers. Traveling northeast for five hundred miles will take you to Anguo, going east for over two hundred miles will take you to Wunaho, going west for over four thousand miles will take you to the Persian Kingdom, and going east for seven thousand seven hundred miles will take you to Guazhou. During the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, they also sent envoys to present tributes of local goods.
The country of Persia, located west of the Dahe River, in the city of Sulincity, anciently known as Tiaozhi. Their king is named Kusahe. The capital is about ten miles in diameter. There are over twenty thousand elite soldiers who ride elephants into battle. This country has abolished the death penalty; for crimes, offenders may face punishments such as limb amputation, property confiscated, or forced to shave their beards, or have a wooden plaque tied around their neck for identification. Everyone over three years old must pay a tax of four coins. They also practice the custom of marrying their sisters. When someone dies, their body is disposed of in the mountains, and the family is required to observe a month of mourning. The king wears a golden crown adorned with flowers, sits on a throne fashioned from golden lions, applies gold powder to his beard, wears brocade robes, and jade accessories.
This place produces good horses, large donkeys, lions, white elephants, giant bird eggs, pearls, and various types of gems, including poli (a type of gem), beast spirit (possibly a type of gem), coral, glazed pottery, agate, crystal, sese (a type of gem), huluojie (a type of gem), luteng (a type of gem), huoqi (a type of gem), diamonds, gold, silver, jinyu stone (a mineral), copper, bintie (a type of steel), tin, brocade, fine cloth, felt (a type of blanket), fur, huna (a type of fabric), yuenobu (a type of fabric), sandalwood, fabric woven with gold thread, red deer skin, cinnabar, mercury, as well as various spices such as aloeswood, saffron, suhe incense, agarwood, pepper, bibo (a spice), honey, semihoney (possibly a type of sugar), thousand-year dates, aconite (a medicinal herb), helele (a fruit), wushizi (a fruit), green vitriol, realgar, and so on. The Turks were unable to defeat them and could only maintain symbolic control. Persia often sent envoys to pay tribute.
To the west of Persia lies the sea, to the east is the Mu Kingdom, located over four thousand miles away, to the northwest is Fulin (Byzantine Empire), four thousand five hundred miles away, and to the east is Guazhou, eleven thousand seven hundred miles away. Emperor Yang of Sui sent Li Yu of the Cloud Riders as an envoy to Persia, and later sent someone to follow Li Yu to present some gifts.
Caoguo, north of the Congling Mountains, was called the Jibin Kingdom during the Han Dynasty. This place now sounds quite mysterious and doesn't match our current place names.
Its king's surname is Zhaowu, with the style name Shunda, a relative of the king of Kangguo. The capital city is not large, only about four square miles. The military consists of just over ten thousand soldiers, which is not a large force. However, their laws are very strict, with both murder and theft punishable by death. The common people have a rather unfortunate tendency towards superstition in various deities.
On Congling Mountain, there is a temple dedicated to the God of Shuntian, which is quite impressive. The roof is made of gold, silver, and copper, and the ground is laid with silver. Every day, there are thousands of people who come to worship. Even more astonishing is that in front of the temple, there is a fish spine with a hole in the middle that a horse can ride through. Just thinking about it is hard to believe! The king wears a hat topped with a golden fish and sits on a throne crafted from gold and shaped like horses. The spectacle is truly remarkable.
In Cao, there is abundant produce such as rice, corn, beans, and wheat. There are also many elephants, horses, and a type of livestock called Fengniu. Gold, silver, premium steel, luxurious rugs, cinnabar, indigo, frankincense, sandalwood, along with rock honey and semi-honey, black salt, asafoetida, myrrh, and white aconite are also found here.
Seven hundred miles north of Cao lies Fanyan, six hundred miles east lies Jieguo, and six thousand six hundred miles northeast lies Guazhou. During the Sui Dynasty, Cao even sent envoys to present local specialties as tribute.
Once upon a time, Fu Guo, situated over two thousand li to the northwest of Shu County, is the realm of the southwestern tribes of the ancient Han Dynasty. To the east of Fu Guo lies a tribe known as the Jialiang Yi, whose customs are similar to those of Fu Guo, though their language differs slightly and lacks standardization. They do not have surnames at all. The king of Fu Guo is named Yi Zeng. Their country is eight hundred li long from north to south and fifteen hundred li long from southeast to northwest; without city walls, they reside near river valleys and mountains. These people have a strong sense of vengeance, so they construct stone dwellings resembling bird nests to evade their enemies. These "stone nests" range from over ten zhang high to as short as five or six zhang, with each floor exceeding one zhang in height and separated by wooden beams. The base is about three or four steps wide, tapering to two or three steps at the top, resembling pagodas. A small door on the lower level must be closed at night to protect against thieves. The kingdom comprises over twenty thousand households, all loyal to the king. The Jialiang Yi follow their chieftain, and those guilty of serious crimes face execution, while minor offenders are fined a cow. They are agile and skilled in swordplay. They wear lacquered leather armor and use six-foot-long bows with bamboo strings. They practice polyandry, marrying multiple wives and sisters-in-law. If a brother dies, the elder brother marries the younger brother's widow. They love singing and dancing, accompanied by drums, reed instruments, and flutes.
When a person dies, if there are no special funeral clothes, the body is laid on a high platform, washed, dressed in armor, and covered with animal hides. The children and grandchildren refrain from crying; instead, they don armor, dance with swords, and shout, "My father was taken by ghosts; I will avenge him and kill the ghosts!" Other relatives cry out three times before falling silent. Women weep while covering their faces with their hands. The deceased's family slaughters a cow, and relatives and friends bring pork and wine, and everyone shares a meal together before the burial. A grand funeral is held ten years after the death, inviting many relatives and friends, and slaughtering dozens of horses. They set up ancestral shrines for worship. They wear leather hats that are round like bowls, with some even donning face masks. Most clothing is made of fur, and boots are crafted from whole cowhide. They adorn themselves with iron chains around their necks and iron bracelets on their wrists. The kings and chiefs wear gold jewelry, featuring a gold flower pendant that measures three inches in diameter. The region features high terrain, a cool climate, and infrequent rainfall. The land is well-suited for cultivating wheat and barley. The mountains yield gold and silver, and many white pheasants inhabit the area. In 608 AD, during the fourth year of Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty's reign, their king sent eight people to the court to pay respects. The following year, his student Yilin led sixty members of the Jialiang Yi tribe to pay tribute. They wanted to offer good horses, but they were unable to make it due to the treacherous terrain and requested the establishment of a mountain road to facilitate their tribute. Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty found the request too troublesome and declined. The Jialiang Yi tribe resided along a river that is approximately sixty to seventy yards wide; adjacent to the neighboring country, another river flows over a hundred yards wide, both rivers flow south, and the tribe uses boats crafted from animal skins to cross them.
To the south of the country of Fu, there is a tribe called Boyuanyi, whose customs are similar to those of Jiali Yi. To the west of the country of Fu is a matriarchal state. To the northeast of the country of Fu, a vast mountain range stretches for thousands of miles, extending all the way to the Dangxiang region. There are Qiang tribal settlements everywhere in the mountains, including tribes such as Dazuo Feng, Xiaozuo Feng, Xiwei, Geyan, Baigou, Xiangren, Wangzu, Lintai, Chunsang, Lidou, Misang, Biyao, Daxia, Bailan, Chilimotu, Nao, Dangmi, Qubu, Sangwu, and Qiandiao. These tribes all live in deep mountain valleys, lacking a central leader. Their customs are similar to those of the Dangxiang people, some of which are vassals of Tuyuhun, while others are affiliated with the country of Fu. During the Sui Dynasty, these tribes all came to the imperial court to offer tribute. The Sui government set up various officials in the southwestern border to govern them from a distance.
Historical texts state: From ancient times to the present, ambitious emperors and devoted subjects willing to serve their country are essential to open up remote areas and establish connections with the border regions. Before Zhang Qian went to the Western Regions to open up a road, Ban Chao later joined the army, either forging alliances through treasures or intimidating foes with swords, ready to sacrifice their lives for the greater good of the nation. All of this is because the emperor prioritizes the expansion of the borders, and the subjects are willing to go to great lengths for their country. Therefore, it can be said that what pleases those in power will inspire many below to follow suit.
Emperor Yang of Sui imitated the extravagant style of the Qin and Han dynasties, engaging in massive construction projects and living in extravagance. At this time, Pei Ju presented the "Record of the Western Regions" to align with his desires. Therefore, Emperor Yang of Sui personally led an expedition to Yumen Pass, establishing Yiwu, Qiemo, and other areas. From the Guanzhong area all the way to the Lop Nor region, the people were overworked and the country suffered financial losses, resulting in widespread grievances. If the northern nomadic tribes posed no threat and reports of victories came from the Eastern Yi, Emperor Yang of Sui would definitely continue to build guard posts at Luntai and fortresses at Wulei, and seek the treasures of Daqin, bringing back the pearls of Tiao Zhi. In this way, how could the country manage the burden of transportation and trade?
In ancient times, wise emperors ruled over territories no more than five thousand miles in circumference, focusing on stabilizing the Central Plains and never mobilizing troops to conquer remote areas. Was their prestige or benevolence insufficient? No, they simply did not want to exhaust the people of the Central Plains with the barbarians of remote areas or jeopardize the nation's interests with futile pursuits. Therefore, the Qin Dynasty guarded the Five Ridges, the Han Dynasty governed the three borders, and the outcome was either fields strewn with corpses or a drastic population decline. With its strong power, the Sui Dynasty ultimately found itself in dire straits in Qinghai. All of this was because the rulers themselves lost their way, resulting in calamities for the populace.
If Emperor Yang of Sui could seriously consider the significance of "pacifying the borders," reject the requests to conquer the Western Regions, return the thousand-mile steed, and not demand tribute from the White Wolf tribes, then the seven tribes and nine barbarian groups of the Western Regions would come to pay their tributes punctually. Even without achievements in Liaodong, how could they end up in the tragic situation of Jiangdu?
