The Tiele people, descendants of the Xiongnu, come in many varieties. They can be found everywhere, starting from the eastern shores of the Western Sea and living along the valleys. For example, north of the Luo River, there are the Pugu, Tongluo, Weihe, Bayegu, and Fuluoluo tribes, whose leaders are all known as Sijin; there are also the Mengchen, Turege, Sijie, Hun, Huxue, and other surnames, who can field over 20,000 elite soldiers. West of Yiwu, north of Yanqi, and near the White Mountains, there are the Qibei, Boluozhi, Yidi, Supo, Nahe, Wuxuan, Hegu, Yedi, Yunishan, and other tribes, who can also muster another 20,000 soldiers. In the southwest of Jinshan, there are the Xue Yantuo, Dile'er, Shipan, and Daqi tribes, with an estimated force of over 10,000 troops. To the north of Kangguo, beside the Ade River, there are the Hedie, Heshe, Bohu, Bigan, Ju Hai, Hebisixi, Hecosu, Bayewei Keda, and other tribes, with a combined total of over 30,000 soldiers. To the east and west of Deyi Sea, there are the Surujie, Sansuoyan, Miecu, and Longhu tribes, with an estimated strength of around 8,000. To the east of Fuli, there are the Enqu, Alan, Beiruju, and Fuhun tribes, with nearly 20,000 warriors. To the south of Beihai, there are also the Dupo and other tribes. Despite the different surnames of these tribes, they are all collectively known as the Tiele. They lack a unified ruler and are divided between the Eastern and Western Turks. They are nomadic, migrating with the water and pasture. The Tiele are fierce and ruthless, adept at horseback riding and archery, greedy by nature, and mainly rely on robbery for a living. Some Tiele near the western border cultivate a few crops and raise more cattle and sheep, but have fewer horses. Since the Turkic state was established, they have been employed in warfare for both eastern and western campaigns to secure the northern borders. Towards the end of the Kaihuang era, Prince Jin Yang Guang led his forces north to conquer the Qimin Khan, defeating the Bujia Khan and causing the various Tiele tribes to splinter.
In the first year of Daye, the Turkic Chuluo Khan attacked the various tribes of the Tiele, ruthlessly plundering their resources. Suspecting that the Xue Yantuo and other tribes might rebel, he killed hundreds of their leaders. This provoked widespread unrest, with the Tiele tribes rising up against Chuluo Khan and proclaiming Sijin Fa Sijin Qibie Leng as the Yiwu Zhenmo Khan, with the capital established at Tanhan Mountain. They also appointed Xue Yantuo's Sijin as the Little Khan. After Chuluo Khan was defeated, Yiwu Zhenmo Khan's power quickly grew. Yiwu Zhenmo Khan was extremely brave and deeply loved by the people, causing neighboring countries such as Yiwu, Gaochang, and Yanqi to submit to him.
Their customs were mostly similar to the Turks, with one difference: after marriage, men would move to their wife's home, returning to their own home only after their wife gave birth and nursed the child for a period of time. As for the deceased, they were buried. In the third year of Daye, they sent envoys to offer tribute, which continued thereafter.
The Xianbei, previously referred to as the Kumo Xianbei, were descendants of the Eastern Xianbei. They were defeated by the Murong clan, with the survivors fleeing to hide in the Songliao Plain area. They had poor hygiene practices but excelled in hunting and plundering. Initially, they were subject to the Turks, but gradually grew in strength, dividing into five tribes: the Ruge Wang tribe, the Mohefu tribe, the Qige tribe, the Mukun tribe, and the Shide tribe. Each tribe was headed by a Sijin. Like the Turks, they migrated in search of water and grass. Among them, the A Hui clan was the strongest, with the other four tribes obeying their commands. They often raided the Khitan people for wealth and livestock to obtain rewards in return. For the deceased, they wrapped their dead in reed mats and hung them from trees. Since submitting to the Turks, they had sent envoys to offer tribute, though not consistently. Throughout the Daye period, they sent envoys each year to present tribute.
The Khitan people, who were initially a distinct ethnic group from the Kumo Xi but shared close blood ties, were both defeated by the Murong clan and fled to the Songmo region. Over time, their population gradually grew, and they settled several hundred miles north of the Yellow River. Their customs were similar to those of the Mohe people, and they enjoyed looting and pillaging. When their parents died, if they cried excessively, they were seen as lacking masculinity. They would place the corpses in the trees on the mountains, burn the bones three years later, and sprinkle wine over the ashes, praying for food in sunny spots during winter and success in hunting pigs and deer. They were rough and aggressive, the most unruly among all minority groups.
During the Northern Wei period, the Khitan people were oppressed by Goguryeo, and over ten thousand households sought refuge with the Sui Dynasty, settling in the White Mi River area. They were later oppressed by the Turks, and tens of thousands of households sought refuge in Goguryeo. In the fourth year of the Sui Kaihuang reign, Khitan leaders visited the Sui Emperor Wen. In the fifth year, all Khitan people submitted to the Sui Dynasty, and Emperor Wen accepted them, permitting them to stay in their original lands. In the sixth year, the Khitan tribes engaged in prolonged infighting and also battled with the Turks. Emperor Wen sent envoys to reprimand the Khitan tribes. A Khitan envoy went to the capital to offer an apology. Later, several Khitan tribes, including the Fu tribe, betrayed Goguryeo and submitted to the Sui Dynasty. Emperor Wen accepted them and settled them north of Ke Xi Na Jie. At the end of the Kaihuang period, over four thousand Khitan households betrayed the Turks and surrendered. At that time, the Sui Dynasty had reconciled with the Turks but ended up losing the trust of distant minority groups. Emperor Wen ordered them to be given food and permitted to return, and also ordered the Turks to appease them. However, they adamantly refused to return.
The population of the Khitan tribe is growing, so they have migrated northward in search of water and grazing land, finally settling two hundred miles north of western Liao, depending on the Guchen River for sustenance. Their territory spans five hundred miles from east to west and three hundred miles from north to south, divided into ten tribes. Each tribe's military strength ranges from over three thousand to just over a thousand warriors. They herd their livestock according to the changing seasons. If they need to go to war, the leaders of each tribe convene to discuss and then mobilize their forces for battle, and all actions are to be carried out as agreed. The Turkic Khan Shaboluelue sent Tudun Pandie to lead them.
The Shiwei people are similar to the Khitan. The Shiwei are located north of the Khitan, divided into five groups, each without a unified ruler; specifically, they are Nan Shiwei, Bei Shiwei, Bo Shiwei, Shenmoda Shiwei, and Da Shiwei. All of them are quite impoverished, and the Turks frequently send three Tuduns to oversee them.
The Nan Shiwei people lived 3,000 miles north of the Khitan, where the land was low and damp. In the summer, they moved to the northwest near the Bo and Qian mountains, where the area was rich in vegetation and teeming with wildlife, but also a lot of mosquitoes. To avoid mosquitoes, they lived in treehouses. Eventually, they formed twenty-five tribes, each with a leader called "Yumofuman Duo." When a leader died, the position was inherited by his descendants, and if there were no descendants, a capable individual from the tribe would be elected as the leader. Their customs included men with loose hair and women with their hair tied up, dressing similarly to the Khitan people. They traveled in ox carts with canopies made from woven bamboo, somewhat similar to the felt carts of the Turkic people. When crossing a river, they made rafts out of bundled firewood or used skin boats. The saddles for their horses were made of woven grass, and the reins were tied with ropes. When sleeping, they bent down and covered themselves with bamboo mats, which they would take with them when relocating. They used pigskin as mats and wooden pads to sleep. Women typically sat cross-legged. The climate was very cold, the harvests were meager, there were no sheep, few horses, but many pigs and cows. They brewed alcohol, and their drinking habits were similar to the Mohe people. Their marriage customs involved the groom secretly taking the bride away after both families agreed, and then sending cattle as a dowry before bringing the bride home. Once the bride was pregnant, the groom would take her back to her family. Women did not remarry, believing that it was hard to start anew after losing a husband. The tribe would build a communal tent where the deceased would be laid to rest. They mourned for three years, crying only four times a year. They lacked iron and had to purchase it from Goryeo. They had an abundance of sable furs.
Nanshi Wei walked north for eleven days and arrived at Beishi Wei, where it was divided into nine tribes living around Tuheshan. The leader of their tribe was known as "Qiyinmohe Duo," and each tribe had three "Mohefu" assisting the leader in governance. The climate there was even colder, with snow thick enough to bury horses. In winter, they took refuge in earthen caves in the mountains, and many cattle perished from the cold. There were plenty of roe deer, and they mainly relied on hunting for a living, eating meat and wearing animal skins. They chiseled open the ice, dove into the water using nets to catch fish and turtles. The snow on the ground was very thick, so they traveled on wooden planks to avoid falling into hidden pits. They earned their livelihood by trapping sables, wearing hats made of fox or badger fur, and clothes made of fish skin.
Traveling further north for thousands of miles, you would reach Boshi Wei, where they lived near Hubu Mountain, with a significantly larger population than that of Beishi Wei, and the exact number of tribes is unclear. They used birch bark to build houses, and their other living habits were similar to those of Beishi Wei.
Setting off from Boshi Wei, I walked southwest for four days and arrived at Shenmada Wei. The place got its name from a river there. In winter, they all lived in caves to escape the biting cold.
Traveling further northwest for several thousand miles, you would reach Dashu Wei. The journey was incredibly challenging, with poor conditions and language barriers, which made communication nearly impossible. However, this area was rich in sable fur and voles.
As for Beishi Wei, they would occasionally send envoys to pay tribute, but apart from that, I've never actually been there.
Historical records state: Border ethnic minorities have long posed threats to the Central Plains, especially the nomadic tribes in the north. Their power rises and falls, taking turns to dominate the borderlands. This has been a longstanding issue that cannot be succinctly summarized. From the time of the Five Emperors, the Xunyu appeared; during the Three Dynasties, the Xianyun emerged; in the Han and subsequent dynasties, the Xiongnu emerged; in the Wei, Jin, Northern, and Southern Dynasties, the Wuhuan and Xianbei appeared; and in the Northern Wei and Northern Zhou periods, the Ruru and the Turks emerged. The leaders of these tribes replaced one another in succession, becoming rulers of their respective territories. They all lived by animal husbandry, relied on invasion and plunder for their source of wealth, appearing and disappearing without a trace, drifting like clouds and gathering and scattering like flocks of birds. The astute ministers in the court deliberated on marriage alliances, while the brave generals on the border planned counterattacks. However, there are no absolute rules, and power does not have a fixed pattern. Whether to make peace or go to war depends on their strength, and whether to submit or rebel depends on their rise and fall. When weak, they plead for mercy; when strong, they draw their bows and shoot, invading and plundering, constantly shifting, embodying a stark contrast between strength and weakness.
The political orders of the Central Plains dynasty could not reach them, and they did not wear the official hats. They only valued their own interests, showing complete disregard for treaty oaths. They do not uphold any principles among themselves, acting arrogantly and oppressing those in the Central Plains. As for the strategies of marriage alliances, warfare, and military affairs, these are detailed in the historical records of the previous dynasty, so they will not be elaborated upon here. As the Rouran weakened, the Turkic tribes began to gain power; during the reign of the Kaghan, the Turks dominated the north. Their influence extended east to the old territory of the Eastern Hu and west to the territory of the Wusun, boasting an army of hundreds of thousands of archers stationed around the Yin Mountains in Daizhou, posing a threat to Northern Zhou and Northern Qi to the south. The Northern Zhou and Northern Qi couldn't resist and sought peace and marriage alliances with the Turks. Consequently, Northern Zhou allied with the Turks, which ultimately led to the downfall of Northern Qi. After the establishment of the Sui Dynasty, the Turkic power grew even stronger, preparing to invade the Central Plains from the south with their formidable military. However, internal conflicts erupted, resulting in turmoil. The Turkic Kaghan fled, and the Qimin Kaghan requested the Sui Dynasty to protect the border. The Sui Dynasty seized the opportunity to reclaim lost territories, assisting in pacifying the remnants of the rebellion, and the Turkic forces emerged even stronger as a result. The Turks neither invaded the Central Plains nor rebelled until the Ren Shou period, maintaining a vassal relationship. Only with the poor governance of Emperor Yang of Sui did the Battle of Yanmen take place.
Subsequently, various bandit groups rose up, which further strengthened the Turks. Although some notable figures established their own factions, they all sought peaceful coexistence with the Sui Dynasty. The Sui Dynasty then established official offices to manage and control the Turks, while continuously transporting large amounts of gold, silver, treasures, and even women and children to them, with messengers coming and going constantly. Historically, the arrogance of some ethnic minorities had never matched that of the Turks. It was not until the reign of Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty that these troubles were eliminated. However, some Turks still stubbornly resisted, leading their remaining forces to repeatedly breach border passes, destroy Yunzhou and Daizhou, harass Taiyuan, plunder Jingyang, and even allowed their horses to drink from the Wei River. Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty employed clever strategies and covert operations to ultimately subdue this nomadic tribe that had remained untamed for centuries. He incorporated their once vast territory into the Central Plains and registered their populace. This was an achievement that had eluded previous emperors and was not recorded in historical texts. Therefore, it can be seen that although the rise and fall of dynasties follows its own rules, it is also due to whether people do things properly. Emperor Taizong was successful because he was able to "not rely on his own strengths, nor cling to his own possessions," like the heavens and earth encompassing all, and like yin and yang in constant flux. This embodies the royal way, an essence that transcends description.
