The ancestors of the Turks were various Hu tribes in the Pingliang area, whose surname was Ashina. Later, Emperor Taiwu of the Northern Wei Dynasty destroyed the Juqu clan, and the Ashina clan fled to the Rouran with five hundred families, living for generations in the Jinshan area, skilled in ironworking. Jinshan resembles a helmet, and the locals refer to the helmet as "Tujue," so they took this as their clan name. Some also say that their ancestors originally lived by the Western Sea but were annihilated by neighboring nations, with men, women, and children all killed. Only one child was spared, whom they could not bring themselves to kill, so they amputated his feet and broke his arms, throwing him into a swamp. A mother wolf often brought him meat to eat, enabling the child to survive. Later, he eventually mated with the wolf, resulting in her pregnancy. When the neighboring nation sent people to kill the child, the mother wolf stood protectively by his side. Just as the messenger was about to kill him, the mother wolf appeared to be possessed by a divine spirit and swiftly ran to the eastern sea, stopping on a mountain. The mountain was to the northwest of Gaochang, and at the foot of the mountain, there was a cave filled with lush grass extending for over two hundred li. Later, the mother wolf gave birth to ten sons, one of whom was named Ashina, the wisest, who emerged as their leader. Therefore, their military flag featured a flag adorned with a wolf's head, symbolizing their heritage.
Later, A-Xian She led the tribe out of the caves, and generations served under the Rouran. During the Daye Hu period, their power gradually grew. Towards the end of the Northern Wei Dynasty, a Yili Khan emerged who led his troops to attack the Tiele, achieving a decisive victory and subjugating more than fifty thousand households. He then sought marriage with the Rouran. The Rouran leader, Anagui, was furious and sent envoys to insult him. Yili Khan killed the envoys and then led his army to attack and defeat the Rouran. After Yili Khan died, his brother Yike Khan took over and defeated the Rouran again. When Yike Khan fell gravely ill and was nearing death, he did not name his own son as his successor but instead appointed his brother Sidou, who was called Mugan Khan. Mugan Khan was brave and intelligent, so he attacked the Rouran and annihilated them, defeated the Yeda to the west, defeated the Khitan to the east, and all the northern barbarians submitted to him, with enough strength to challenge the Central Plains dynasties. Later, he invaded Eastern Wei alongside the Western Wei army and reached Taiyuan.
The people in that area primarily relied on herding for their livelihood, moving around in search of water and grass, with no fixed residence. They lived in round tents, with their hair flowing freely, wearing clothes with the left side overlapping (left lapel), eating meat and drinking milk, and wearing leather clothes, where the elderly held low status, while the middle-aged held high status. Official positions were ranked, ranging from the highest, Daye Hu, to Teqin, Silifa, and Tutunfa, with a total of twenty-eight levels, all of which were hereditary. They possessed horn bows, whistling arrows, armor, long spears, knives, and swords, were skilled in horseback archery, and had a fierce disposition. They had no writing, using carved wood to keep records. When the moon was nearing fullness, they often ventured out to raid.
Treason, rebellion, murder—these crimes will be punished by death; those who commit adultery will be castrated and then beheaded. If someone injures another's eyes in a fight, they must compensate with a woman; if no woman is available, they must pay money. If someone injures another's body, they must compensate with a horse; theft will result in repaying ten times the stolen goods. After a person dies, their body is kept in a tent, and their family must sacrifice many cattle and horses, cry and wail around the tent, cut their own faces with a knife until blood flows, and do this seven times before they can stop. Then, on a chosen day, the body is placed on a horse and burned, with the ashes buried. A wooden tablet is erected on the grave, a small house is built under it, with a portrait of the deceased and depictions of battles they fought in during their lifetime. For every person killed, a stone is erected, sometimes totaling in the thousands. If a father or brother dies, the son or brother will marry their mother or sister-in-law.
In May, they sacrifice many sheep and horses to the heavens. Men enjoy playing a game called "chess" (a traditional game), while women enjoy a game called "kickball" (a traditional game). They drink fermented mare's milk until drunk, then sing and dance together. They greatly fear ghosts and gods, believe in sorcerers, consider dying in battle to be honorable, while dying of illness is seen as shameful. In general, their customs are similar to the Xiongnu.
After Khan Mugan ruled for twenty years and passed away, instead of appointing his son Daluobian as his successor, he appointed his brother as Khan, known as Tobo Khan. Tobo appointed his nephew Shetu Dang'erfu Khan to govern the eastern region, and his brother's son Budili Khan to govern the western region. At that time, Tobo commanded tens of thousands of elite soldiers, instilling fear in China. The Zhou and Qi dynasties competed to form alliances with him, offering treasures from the imperial treasury to please him. This made Tobo even more arrogant, frequently bragging to his subordinates, "I have two sons down south who are very filial to me; why should I fear poverty?"
There was a monk named Huilin from the state of Qi, who was taken captive by the Turks. He said to Tuobo, "The reason why Qi is prosperous and strong is because of the belief in Buddhism!" He then taught Tuobo about the principles of karma. After hearing this, Tuobo believed and built a temple. He even sent envoys to Qi to request Buddhist scriptures such as the "Sutra of Immeasurable Life," "Nirvana Sutra," "Avatamsaka Sutra," and the "Vinaya Sutra." Tuobo himself devoutly fasted, circumambulated the stupa, and even regretted not having been born in the Central Plains. After ruling as Khan for ten years, when he was seriously ill and about to die, he said to his son Anluo, "I have heard that there is no love like the love between father and son. My brother did not appoint his son and passed the Khan position to me. After I die, you must stay away from Daluo."
After Tuobo's death, there was a debate about appointing Daluo as Khan. Due to his mother's low status, many people opposed it. Anluo's mother was of noble birth, and the Turks always respected her. Shetou finally arrived and said to everyone, "If Anluo is appointed Khan, I will support him with my brothers; if Daluo is appointed, I will defend my territory with swords and spears!" Shetou was a tall, strong, and brave man, and everyone was afraid of him. No one dared to oppose him, so Anluo was appointed as the successor. Daluo, feeling resentful at not becoming Khan, often sent people to humiliate Anluo. Unable to control the situation, Anluo renounced the Khan position in favor of Shetou. Everyone agreed that among the four sons of the Khan, Shetou was the wisest. So Shetou was appointed Khan, who was known as Khan Iligulushemuo Heshiboluo, also known as Khan Shabolue, with the capital at Jinshan. Anluo was demoted to the second Khan, residing near the Duluoshui River.
Daluo went to Shabolue and said, "Both you and I are sons of the Khan, inheriting our father's legacy. You are now in a high position, but I have nothing. Why is that?" Shabolue felt troubled, so he appointed him as Khan Aba, allowing him to continue managing his own people.
Sha Bo Lue was a man who relied on his bravery and gathered a large number of people under him. The minority ethnic groups in the north all submitted to him. However, later on, when the founding emperor became the emperor, he was quite dismissive of Sha Bo Lue, which left the northern minority groups feeling quite discontented.
At the same time, the Governor of Yingzhou, Gao Baoning, staged a rebellion, and Sha Bo Lue allied with Gao Baoning and took Linyu Town. The emperor ordered the construction of defensive works on the border, reinforced the Great Wall to guard against their advances, and sent many powerful generals to defend Youzhou and Bingzhou. Sha Bo Lue's wife was the daughter of the Yuwen family, known as Princess Qianjin. She never forgot the downfall of her family and always wanted to restore their family's honor, constantly urging him to restore their family's honor.
So Sha Bo Lue led his entire army into banditry, with a force of forty thousand archers. The emperor sent the Grand General Feng Yu to station at Yifubo, the Lanzhou Governor, Chi Li Changcha, to defend Lintao, the Grand General Li Chong to station at Youzhou, and Daxi Changru to guard Zhoupian, but Sha Bo Lue defeated all these generals.
So Sha Bo Lue launched attacks from two routes: Muxia and Shimen, and all the livestock in six states of Wuwei, Tianshui, Anding, Jincheng, Shangjun, Honghua, and Yan'an were completely plundered. The emperor, infuriated, issued a decree:
In the past, during the decline of the Wei Dynasty, disasters came one after another. The Zhou Dynasty and the Qi State were in conflict with each other, dividing the Central Plains. The Turkic barbarians had dealings with both the Zhou and Qi states. The Zhou Dynasty was concerned about the Qi State's close ties with the Turks to the east; the Qi State was equally apprehensive, fearing that the Zhou Dynasty had a strong connection with the Turks to the west. They believed that the attitude of the Turks was crucial to the safety of the country, not only because of the fear of a powerful enemy but also to reduce defensive pressure from one side. They drained the people's resources to support the Turks, drained the national treasury, and squandered resources on the Turks. The Chinese land suffered immensely! Furthermore, the Turks frequently raided the border, killing officials and civilians. These long-accumulated atrocities have posed a threat for years, not just starting today.
I have been appointed by heaven to care for the people, and when I saw my subjects suffering, I wanted to eliminate past mistakes. Taxing the people heavily while showing kindness to the Turks, who are like wolves, would not lead to gratitude but rather to increased aggression. This contradicts the principles of heaven and earth, as well as the emperor's way of governance. Therefore, we must be frugal, avoid unnecessary waste, reduce labor demands and taxes, so that those living on the borders can farm in peace. The goods obtained from the Turks should be rewarded to the soldiers, allowing the border people to farm in peace. I have already formulated strategies to stabilize the border and secure victory. Those brutal and ignorant individuals fail to grasp my intentions; they believe that after my grand decree, they can carry on their past arrogance and continue to foster present hatred.
Recently, the Turks have concentrated their forces and attacked our northern border. I have mobilized troops to intercept them in the hope of luring them in and wiping them out in one fell swoop. However, the military in the remote areas, when faced with the Turks, collapsed and fled before they could even head south, with fewer than half making it back alive. Moreover, the five Turkic leaders, who are brothers vying for power and profit, fathers, sons, uncles, and nephews suspicious of each other, appear harmonious on the surface, yet are filled with inner contradictions. They are usually cruel and ruthless, with very harsh family rules. The tribes to the east all hold grudges against the Turks; the leaders of the Rong tribe to the west also have old grievances with them. To the north of the Turks, the Khitans are sharpening their blades, poised to strike at any moment. The Turks first attacked Jiuquan, then simultaneously sparked rebellions in Yutian, Persia, and Yida. Shabolu is about to attack the Panlong City of the Zhou Dynasty, with his subordinates Bogu and Shuhe Luo following suit. In the past few years, Ligicha was defeated by Goryeo and Mohe, and Suopi was killed by the Jie Zhi Khan. Neighboring countries can't wait to wipe them out. The various tribes of the Turks are a ragtag bunch, full of enemies and rivals, lamenting and beating their chests in sorrow and rage. They're human too; no matter how they look, they're still people. Seeing them this way makes my heart ache even more.
The calamities in the Turkic region have been frequent for nearly ten years, with strange occurrences like animals speaking human tongues and humans speaking the language of the gods. It was said that their country would perish, yet their country did not perish. In winter, thunder often struck, fires erupted from the ground, and their survival depended only on water and grass. Last year, there was no rain or snow throughout the four seasons, rivers dried up, locusts ravaged the land, trees were burnt, famine and plague spread, and half of the population and livestock perished. Their original dwellings turned into wastelands, compelling them to migrate south into the deserts just to scrape by. This is the wrath of heaven aimed at their destruction, and even the spirits and gods seem to have concurred. It is time. Therefore, I have selected generals, organized the army, gathered provisions, and many brave souls have stepped up to fight, with warriors eager to slay the enemy leaders, seek revenge, and respond to the call in countless numbers. From the eastern seas to the western deserts, I will mobilize a million strong soldiers to pursue them to the ends of the earth and wipe them out completely. As Wang Hui said, "It is like lancing a boil, who among our enemies can withstand us? What land will dare to defy?"
However, in ancient times, the imperial territory only reached as far as Youzhou in the north. Further beyond lies the edge of civilization, difficult to govern. We may take their land, but we cannot truly inhabit it; while we may kill their people, it troubles our hearts. Therefore, there is no need to exhaust the people and soldiers, to embark on distant expeditions; as long as we maintain control of the borders, that should be enough. This expedition must balance pacification and conquest, accepting those who surrender and eliminating those who resist. Let the oppressed peoples of foreign lands return to their traditional ways. Develop the borders, guard the passes strictly, so they dare not look south, forever submitting to the might of our army. Let the war drums fall silent, and the beacon fires die out; take a moment to rest from our labors, and ultimately achieve peace, control the barbarians, a duty that cannot be shirked! Why serve the emperor, endure the hardships and toils? I will make my intentions known to the world, so everyone understands my thoughts.
Therefore, the court appointed King Hong of Hejian, Grand General Dou Luji, Dou Rongding, Left Minister Gao Ke, Right Minister Yu Qingze, and others as marshals, leading troops to the border to fight against the Turks. Shabolue led the Khans Abo and Tanhan to resist, but they were all defeated and fled. At that time, the Turks were very hungry and had nothing to eat, so they ground bones into powder as food and even suffered from a plague that caused many deaths.
Later, Shabolue, fearing the power of Abo, attacked his tribe while Abo was away, defeating him and killing his mother. Left homeless, Abo fled to the west to Khan Datou, whose name was Diu Jue, Shabolue's uncle and former Khan of the west. When Datou heard about this, he was furious and sent Abo to gather troops and march east. Many tribes pledged their loyalty to him, amassing nearly one hundred thousand cavalry, and then he fought against Shabolue.
There was also Khan Tanhan, who had a good relationship with Abo. Shabolue seized his troops and deposed him, which forced Tanhan to flee to Datou. Shabolue's brother, Di Qinchabie, had a falling out with Shabolue, so he also went to Abo. The two sides continued to fight, sending envoys to the court to request peace or assistance, but the Emperor declined.
At this time, Princess Qianjin wrote to the Emperor, asking him to handle the matter in accordance with her son's status. Emperor Gaozu then dispatched Xu Ping and envoys to meet Shabolue. Prince Jin Yang Guang was stationed in Bingzhou and wanted to take advantage of the situation to attack the Turks, but the Emperor refused. Shabolue sent an envoy with a letter that stated:
On the tenth day of the ninth month of the Chen year, the wise and holy Khan Illig Qulu Mohe Shabolue of the Turkic Khaganate sent a letter to the Emperor of the Sui Dynasty: The envoy Xuping has arrived and we have heard your intentions. Emperor, you are my father-in-law, which is like the relationship between a daughter and her husband. Although our countries are different, our bonds are the same. Now we deepen our relationship as relatives, for generations to come, with heaven as our witness, we will never go back on this promise. All the sheep and horses in this land are your property, Emperor, and the silk and satin you have are also ours. What's the difference between us?
Emperor Gaozu replied: The Sui Emperor replied to Khan Illig Qulu Mohe Shabolue of the Great Turkic Khaganate: I have received your letter and know that you have a good impression of us. Since you are my son-in-law, it seems that today you are no different from my son. Since you express your goodwill as family, that should be the norm, and I have specially sent the minister Yu Qingze to visit my daughter and also see you.
Shabolue displayed his troops and treasures, receiving Yu Qingze while seated, saying he was sick and unable to get up, and also said, "I've never bowed to anyone in my life." Yu Qingze rebuked and advised him. Princess Qianjin privately told Yu Qingze, "This Khan is as fierce as a jackal. If you argue with him, he will bite." Changsun Cheng also advised him, and Yu Qingze reasoned and emotionally persuaded him. Shabolue finally bowed his head and knelt down, accepting the edict of the Sui Dynasty, wearing it on his head.
Later, Shabolue felt deeply ashamed, and his subordinates all cried together. Yu Qingze sent someone to make him swear allegiance, and Shabolue asked his subordinates, "What does it mean to swear allegiance?" The subordinates replied, "Swearing allegiance to the Sui Dynasty is like being a slave to them." Shabolue said, "Being a servant of the Sui Emperor is all thanks to Minister Yu!" Then, Shabolue sent Yu Qingze a thousand horses and married his sister to him. Thus, a bond was formed that would shape the future of both empires.
Shabolue was severely beaten by Datou and feared that the Khitan might attack from the east, so he quickly sent someone to request assistance and relocate the tribe to Baidaochuan in the southern desert. The court granted his request. The court also sent Prince Jin Guang with troops to support him, providing food, shelter, carriages, horses, and even a band. Shabolue seized this opportunity to defeat Abo, but the Aba tribe seized the moment to abduct Shabolue's wife and children. The court dispatched troops against Aba, emerged victorious, and awarded all the spoils to Shabolue. Shabolue was elated and reached an agreement with the court to establish Qishan as the boundary. Then, he wrote a letter to the emperor:
Words from Shibotu, minister to Great Turkic Ilkhanate Shibolomo Khan: The ambassador, the right servant of the Shangshu, Yu Qingze, has arrived, and I respectfully received your decree and have come to appreciate your grace. Your grace is profound and ever more evident. I can only strive to repay it, yet I cannot fully convey my gratitude.
You, the Emperor of the Sui Dynasty, govern the entire realm, endorsed by the heavens, cherished by the people, enveloped by your grace, and illuminated by the sun, moon, and stars. All submit to you and revere you. You are indeed a rare and sagacious ruler of a millennium; such a prosperous era arises only once every millennium, unheard of in ancient history. Since the establishment of the Turkic state, over fifty years have passed. We have long occupied the desert, proclaiming ourselves kings of this region. Our territory spans over ten thousand miles, and our army is formidable, as we have consistently confronted the surrounding tribes, upholding equal protocols with the Han Chinese. We have consistently been the most powerful nation in the north.
The recent climate has been mild, with favorable winds and rain. I feel that a great enlightened ruler must have emerged in Huaxia. Moreover, we have also received your benevolence, and your benevolent rule has influenced us here. The atmosphere of respect and courtesy thrives, from the court to the common people. I believe that there cannot be two suns in the sky, nor can there be two emperors. The emperor of your Sui Dynasty is the rightful emperor. We do not presume to claim the title of emperor through military might or strategic advantage. Now we sincerely revere your benevolence, submit to you, and are willing to serve you, forever as your vassal. Although we are far from the Wei capital, separated by mountains and rivers, we will certainly pay our respects to you from the north, without neglect.
In the future, we will send envoys to the court, offering tribute of horses every year, day and night obediently following your orders. As for changing clothing, hairstyles, languages, and customs, these customs have been long-standing and are not easily changed overnight. We are grateful throughout the country for your grace, and we find it hard to express our gratitude. I am now sending my seventh son, Ku Hanzhen, and others to present this memorial to you.
The emperor issued a decree, saying, "Shabolué has proclaimed himself king in the northern wilderness, and has been powerful for a long time. None in those barbarian tribes is more formidable. Although we were friendly nations in the past, we were still two distinct nations. Now that he has become my vassal, we are now one family. This bond is profound, and I am truly overjoyed! This is all thanks to the heavens, that overseas can now submit to Great Zhou, which is beyond my own capabilities! I have already ordered the relevant departments to report this to the heavenly spirits and to spread this good news to the entire nation." From this decree onward, the court will no longer refer to Shabolué by name in handling all matters related to him, as a sign of respect.
Sand Bowl's wife, the daughter of a Zhou Dynasty prince, was granted the surname Yang by the emperor, registered, and renamed Princess Dayi. Sand Bowl's son, Ku Hanzhen, was appointed Zhuguo and given the title Duke of Anguo. He was also invited to the palace to attend a banquet, meet the empress, and receive a wealth of rewards. Sand Bowl was overjoyed and henceforth made royal tribute every year without fail.
In the seventh year of the first month, Sand Bowl sent his son to offer various rare treasures as tribute and also requested permission to hunt in the areas of Hengzhou and Daizhou. The emperor agreed and sent food and drink to entertain them. Sand Bowl led his tribe to kneel in gratitude. On one occasion, Sand Bowl personally hunted and killed eighteen deer in a single day, offering their tails and tongues to the emperor. On his return to Zihe Town, his camp was burned down, which greatly displeased Sand Bowl, who soon passed away. The emperor held court for three days, sent officials from the Ministry of Rites to offer sacrifices, and bestowed five thousand bolts of silk.
Initially, when the Shetu Khan passed away, he intended to pass the throne to his son Yong Yulu. However, he left a will designating his brother, Yehu Cheluo, to succeed him. Yong Yulu sent messengers to invite Yehu Cheluo to take the throne. Yehu Cheluo said, "In our Turkic tradition, younger brothers replacing older brothers and sons usurping the throne has been common since the Khan of Wooden Pole. This goes against ancestral customs and shows a lack of respect. You should inherit the throne, and I will gladly bow to you."
Yongyu Lu sent someone to Chulou Hou saying, "Uncle, you and my father are of the same root and body; I am merely a branch. How can I take the lead and make the root yield to the branch? How can your esteemed status be lower than mine as a junior? Moreover, how can we possibly go against my father's last wishes? I hope you do not doubt me." They refused the position several times, but in the end, Chulou Hou ascended to the throne, becoming Yehu Khan. Yongyu Lu was appointed as Yehu. They sent someone to the court to explain the situation, and the court rewarded them with music and banners.
Chulou Hou had a long chin and a slight hunch, with broad eyebrows and eyes that reflected both bravery and cunning. He took the flags and drums bestowed by the Sui Dynasty and marched westward to confront Abo. His enemies, believing he had received support from the Sui Dynasty, surrendered, and Abo was captured alive. Later, Chulou Hou wrote to the court requesting a decision on Abo's fate. The court deliberated on the matter. Gao Feng, the Left Chancellor, suggested, "Fratricide is a calamity for the country. Pardon him to show the court's magnanimity." The Emperor agreed. Gao Feng then raised a toast and said, "Since the time of the Yellow Emperor, the Turks have always been a border menace. Now, even the distant North Sea region has become our subjects, an unprecedented event. I wish the Emperor a long and prosperous reign!"
Later, during another westward expedition, Chulou Hou was struck down by an arrow. His subordinates enthroned Yongyu Lu as Khan, who became Jieqia Shiduona Duolan Khan. Yongyu Lu sent someone to the court, and the court rewarded him with three thousand bolts of cloth. He sent annual tributes to the court. At that time, there was a fugitive named Yang Qin who escaped to the Turks. He made false claims that Duke Peng Liu Chang and the Yuwen clan were plotting rebellion, attempting to incite Princess Dayi to lead troops in disrupting the border. Khan Duolan captured Yang Qin, sent him to the court, and also presented cloth and fish gelatin as tribute.
The younger brother of Khan Du Lan, Qin Yu, was powerful. Khan Du Lan was wary of him, so he attacked and killed Qin Yu on the battlefield. That year, Khan Du Lan's younger brother Ruda Teqin offered a jade scepter to the court and was granted the title of Pillar State and Duke of Kangguo. The following year, leaders of various Turkic tribes sent tribute of ten thousand horses, twenty thousand sheep, five hundred camels, and five hundred cows. Soon after, they requested to establish markets on the border for trade with China, which was approved by the court.
After the downfall of the Chen Dynasty, the emperor rewarded the screen that had belonged to Chen Shubao, which was given to Princess Dayi. The princess, feeling resentful, wrote a poem on the screen expressing her sorrow over the fall of the Chen Dynasty and her dissatisfaction. The poem reads: "Rise and fall like day and night, the ways of the world are like floating duckweed. Prosperity is truly hard to maintain, the palace will eventually settle. Where is the wealth and glory now? Empty affairs are merely depicted in paintings. Wine and joy are always absent, music and songs are but a sound! I, born of the imperial family, drifted into the enemy's court. Seeing success and failure in a day, my emotions are suddenly tumultuous. This has been true since ancient times, not just my own lament. Only the 'Song of a Wise Ruler' laments the distant marriage." The emperor was very angry upon seeing it, and from then on, the rewards granted to the princess gradually decreased.
The princess secretly colluded with the Turkic Khan Nili Khan to the west. The emperor, fearing she might create trouble, plotted to eliminate her. As a result, the princess was discovered to be involved with a Hu man, and the emperor ordered her to be deposed. Concerned that Khan Du Lan, the Turkic leader, would be uncooperative, the emperor sent Qizhang Gong Niu Hong with four beautiful courtesans to bribe him. At that time, the son of Shabolue, Ran Gan, also known as Khan Tuli, lived in the north and sent a marriage proposal. The emperor instructed Pei Ju to convey to Khan Tuli: "Only by eliminating Princess Dayi can you marry her."
Tuli Khan thought this idea was good and exaggerated his complaint to Dulan. Dulan was infuriated by this and killed the princess on the spot. Dulan and Datou Khan were in conflict and often fought. The Emperor intervened and ordered both sides to withdraw their troops.
In the seventeenth year, the Turkic leader Tuli sent an envoy to propose marriage to a princess of the Sui Dynasty. The Emperor arranged for him to stay at the Taichang Temple, instructed him in the Six Rites, and then married him to Princess Anyi of the imperial family. The Emperor aimed to sow discord among the Turkic tribes in the north; therefore, he treated Tuli with great favor and even sent envoys such as Niu Hong, Su Wei, and Hulü Xiaoxing to the Turkic people. In total, more than 370 Turkic envoys came to the Sui Dynasty. Tuli had originally resided in the north, but because of marrying the princess, he relocated to Dujin Old Town, where the Sui Dynasty granted him numerous rewards.
Yongyulu was furious and declared, "I am the Great Khan, why am I not as esteemed as Rangan?" Therefore, the Turks stopped paying tribute and became a recurring border issue. In the eighteenth year, the Emperor commanded King Yang Xiu of Shu to mobilize troops from Lingzhou to confront the Turks. The next year, he appointed Prince Yang Liang as the marshal, with Left Deputy Director Gao Feng commanding generals Wang Cha and Zhao Zhongqing from Shuozhou, and Right Deputy Director Yang Su leading Director Li Che and Han Sengshou from Lingzhou, along with Director Yan Rong marching from Youzhou, all joining forces to confront the Turks.
Yongyu Lu and Dian Jue mustered their forces to attack Ran Gan, slaughtering all of Ran Gan's brothers and male relatives. They then crossed the Yellow River and attacked Weizhou. Ran Gan, with five cavalrymen, escaped to the Sui Dynasty at night and sought refuge with Changsun Cheng, the envoy of the Sui Dynasty. The Emperor had Ran Gan and the envoy from Yongyu Lu debate before him. Ran Gan spoke candidly, and the Emperor treated him well. Yongyu Lu's brother, Dusu Liu, deserted his wife and children to join Tuli, and then both submitted to the Sui Dynasty. The Emperor was pleased. The Emperor ordered Ran Gan and Dusu Liu to play a game of Cuju, an ancient sport, together, and secretly gave them many treasures to comfort them. In June, Gao Feng and Yang Su attacked Dian Jue and secured a resounding victory. The Emperor bestowed upon Ran Gan the title of Khan of Yilizhendou Qiminkhan, which translates to "intelligent and healthy" in Chinese. Qiminkhan voiced his gratitude in a memorial, saying, "I have received your favor, changed my name, cast aside my former ill intentions, and will faithfully serve Your Majesty, not daring to violate the law." The Emperor constructed Dali City in Shuozhou as a residence for Qiminkhan. By this time, Princess Anyi had passed away, and the Emperor then married Qiminkhan to Princess Yicheng of the royal family, and numerous tribes pledged their allegiance to Qiminkhan.
Yongyulu launched another attack on Qimin, and the Emperor ordered Qimin to retreat into the Guannei region. Yongyulu continued to harass, so the Emperor moved Qimin to Henan, between Xiazhou and Shengzhou, and ordered the construction of a moat hundreds of miles long, blocking the Yellow River on both sides and transforming the area into a pasture for Khan Qimin. At this time, the Sui Dynasty sent Duke Yueguo Yang Su to deploy from Lingzhou, General Han Sengshou to deploy from Qingzhou, Duke Taiping Shi Wansui to deploy from Yanzhou, and Grand General Yao Bian to deploy from Hezhou, all launching an attack on Duluo. Before the troops could leave the pass, Duluo was killed by his subordinates, and Datou declared himself Bu Jia Khan, resulting in significant turmoil within the Turkic realm. The Emperor subsequently dispatched Duke Taiping Shi Wansui from Shuozhou to confront Datou. They confronted Datou at Dajin Mountain, and the Turkic forces fled without engaging in battle. The Sui forces pursued them, resulting in the deaths of over two thousand foes. Prince Jin Yang Guang deployed from Lingzhou, and Datou escaped. Later, Datou's disciple Sili Fa launched an attack on Qimin from Qidong. The Emperor dispatched troops to assist Qimin in defending the pass, and Sili Fa retreated back to Qi. Khan Qimin submitted a letter of thanks, stating: "The great Emperor of Sui, you are like Khan Moyuan, showing compassion for the people. Your kindness is as boundless as the sky and as expansive as the earth. All tribes are sincerely submitting, bringing their people to pledge allegiance to you. Some have crossed the Great Wall to the south, some reside in the Badao, with people and horses filling the valleys. They have been transformed, like withered trees sprouting new leaves, like dry bones regenerating flesh; they will forever graze their sheep and cattle alongside the Great Sui Dynasty."
In the year 581 AD, the governor of Daizhou, Han Hong, was defeated by the enemy in Heng'an and was reduced to commoner status. The court then appointed Yang Su as the military commander of Yunzhou to lead the army north to conquer. Some tribes that had previously surrendered to the court, such as Huxue, rebelled at this time. When Yang Su's army arrived in Hebei, they happened to encounter the Turkic tribes, Awusi and Sijin, invading from the south, who plundered six thousand men and women from the Qimin tribe along with over two hundred thousand livestock before fleeing. Yang Su, accompanied by General Liang Mo, rode with light cavalry units to chase after them, pursuing them for over sixty li (approximately 25 kilometers), defeated Sijin, recaptured the stolen individuals and livestock, and returned them to the Qimin tribe. Yang Su also sent Zhuguo Zhang Ding and General Liu Sheng to intercept from another route, and they captured many enemies as well.
After crossing the Yellow River, those bandits attacked the Qimin tribe again. Yang Su, accompanied by Cavalry General Fan Gui, launched a fierce attack against them in the southeast direction of Kujie Valley, defeating them once again and pursuing them for more than eighty li. That year, the Khagan of Nili and Ye Hu were both defeated by the Tiele tribes. The state of Buga Khan was also in chaos, and the Xi and Xi tribes all migrated to the interior, while the Buga Khan fled to the Tuyuhun. Consequently, the Qimin tribe grew in strength and began sending annual tributes to the court.
In the fourth month of the third year of Daye, Emperor Yang of Sui went to Yulin for leisure, and the Khagan of Qimin and Princess Yicheng visited the imperial palace to pay their respects, bringing three thousand horses. The emperor was especially pleased and rewarded them with twelve thousand bolts of silk fabric.
Qimin Khan wrote in a memorial: "In the past, the former Emperor was very kind to me; he gave me Princess Anyi in marriage, provided me with various benefits, and did not treat me unfairly. Later, I was murdered by my jealous brothers, and at that time, I didn't know where to go. When I looked up, I saw only the sky; when I looked down, only the ground. I always remembered the kindness of the former Emperor towards me. When the former Emperor saw me, he took pity on me, allowed me to live, and I lived better than before, even making me a Great Khan. The Turkic people, except for those who died, have all gathered together again. Now, Your Majesty, like the former Emperor, rules over all corners of the world and also takes care of me and the Turkic people, without any unfair treatment. I cannot fully express the kindness of the former Emperor and Your Majesty towards me; all of which are kept in my heart. I am no longer the Khan of the Turkic frontier; I am a subject of Your Majesty, and I hope Your Majesty will permit me to adhere to the etiquette and dress customs of a great nation, similar to those of the Han. I now lead my tribe to report to Your Majesty, hoping Your Majesty will grant my request."
The Emperor read the memorial and summoned the ministers for discussion. The ministers all advised agreeing to Qimin Khan's request. However, the Emperor thought otherwise and decreed: "When the former king established the country, the customs of different ethnic groups vary. Educating the people should not entail forcing changes upon their customs. Growing long hair and tattoos are their customs, and wearing leather clothes and fur robes is what they consider appropriate. It is right to follow their customs. Why force them to wear Han clothing and bind them with ropes? Is this truly in accordance with nature? Different clothes can distinguish different ethnic groups, and the diversity among ethnic groups reflects the harmony of the universe." The Emperor also wrote a letter to Qimin Khan, saying that the Qibei region is not yet stable and still needs to be conquered; as long as you are loyal and obedient to the court, there is no need for you to change your attire.
The emperor hosted Qimin Khan and his tribal leaders in a large tent that could accommodate a thousand people, rewarding them with two hundred thousand rolls of silk. The emperor then issued a decree saying, "Your virtues are as vast as the heavens and the earth, so you are blessed by the heavens; your achievements spread throughout the world, so your teachings are widespread. You have crossed mountains and seas to come to the imperial court, seeking to pledge your loyalty, willing to change your attire, and become subjects of our dynasty. Therefore, the ancient records of the 'King's Meetings' documented the tribute of the vassals. The Chanyu Huhanye of the Huns submitted to the Han dynasty, and the Han dynasty also gave him special treatment. Qimin Khan, your loyalty has been steadfast; for generations you have been a vassal of our dynasty. In the past, you faced challenges and submitted to the court, and the previous dynasty recognized and valued your sincerity, granting you a title. We support your army, help you restore your national strength, and rebuild your country. This reflects the court's generosity toward the borderlands. I carry forward the will of my predecessor, aiming to extend this grace far and wide, so I personally come to the north to inspect and provide reassurance to the vassals in the borderlands. Qimin Khan, you have come to see me with sincerity, leading your tribes to my presence; your loyalty deserves praise. You should be rewarded even more ceremoniously, honored according to tradition. You are granted chariots, horses, music, and flags, exempt from the bowing ceremony; your status is above that of the feudal lords."
The emperor personally toured Yunnei, traveled eastward along the Jinhe River, and went north to the residence of Qimin Khan. Qimin Khan respectfully offered wine and birthday wishes, kneeling down in great reverence. The emperor was very pleased and wrote a poem: "Deer block the banners, the dragon court's green carriage returns. The felt tent is lifted by the wind, the canopy opens towards the sun. Call Han Duntan to, Tuqi follows. Suo Bian holds up the fragrant meat, Wei Yuxian offers the wine cup. How does he compare to the Han Emperor, who is empty on the Chanyu platform?" The emperor rewarded Qimin Khan and the princess, each receiving a golden urn, as well as clothing and bedding of brocade satin, and others also received rewards. Previously, Goryeo had secretly sent envoys to contact Qimin Khan, who remained loyal to the court and was transparent about his dealings with Goryeo. That day, the emperor summoned the Goryeo envoy and had Niu Hong announce a decree: "Because Qimin Khan is loyal to the court, I came here in person. Next year, I will go to Zhuojun. After you return, tell the King of Goryeo to come see me soon, do not be afraid. Goryeo will receive the same grace as Qimin Khan. If Goryeo does not come to see me, I will lead Qimin Khan's army to conquer Goryeo." The Goryeo envoy was very afraid. Qimin Khan continued to follow the emperor into the interior, and after reaching Dingxiang, the emperor ordered him to go back to his territory.
The following year, he went to the Eastern Capital to see the emperor and received even more rewards. That year, he fell ill and died, prompting the emperor to suspend court for three days! The emperor appointed his son Duoji Shi, who became known as Shibi Khan. Shibi Khan also requested to marry a Tang Dynasty princess, which the emperor agreed to, adhering to Turkic customs. Eleven years later, he came to the Eastern Capital to see the emperor again. That year, the emperor was summering in the Fenyang Palace. In August, Shibi Khan unexpectedly led his tribe in a raid, surrounding the emperor at Yanmen Pass. The court quickly dispatched troops from various counties to assist the emperor, and as soon as the reinforcements arrived, Shibi Khan pulled back his forces. After that, they stopped paying tribute.
In the second year, he raided Mayi again, but the Tang Dynasty general led the troops to defeat him. In the late Sui Dynasty, the world was thrown into chaos, which allowed the Turks to grow increasingly powerful, threatening the Central Plains. He also brought the Sui Dynasty's Empress Xiao to Dingxiang County. Xue Ju, Dou Jiande, Wang Shichong, Liu Wuzhou, Liang Shidu, Li Gui, and Gao Kaidao all rebelled; though they proclaimed themselves emperors, they were all required to obediently swear allegiance to him and follow his orders as Khan. The Turkic envoys were constantly coming and going, and the roads were bustling with them.
In the Western Turkic territory was Daluobian, the son of Mu Gan Khan. He had conflicts with Shabolu, so the Western Turks split into two parts, which later both flourished. To the east, they resisted Dujin, and to the west, they crossed the Jinshan Mountains, and various other ethnic minorities in the Western Regions submitted to him. Eventually, Daluobian was captured by Chulouhou, and the Western Turks appointed Nili Khan (the son of Yang Suteqin). After Nili Khan's death, his son Daman succeeded him and was known as Nijue Chulu Khan. His mother Xiang Shi was Han Chinese, but after Daman's birth, Nili Khan passed away, and Xiang Shi remarried to Nili Khan's brother Poshi Teqin. Towards the end of the Sui Dynasty's Kaihuang period, Poshi and Xiang Shi went to Chang'an to meet the emperor, but they encountered the Datou Rebellion, so they stayed in Chang'an, and the emperor accommodated them in the Honglu Temple. Chulu Khan had no permanent residence, often residing in the former territory of the Wusun. He also appointed two small khans to manage part of the army. One was north of Shiguo, tasked with overseeing the local ethnic minorities; the other lived north of Gaochang, in a place called Yingsha. The Western Turkic government included officials like Sifa and Yan Hongda, who were responsible for discussing national affairs, much like their eastern counterparts. Every year on May 8th, they gathered to honor the spirits, and every year they would send important officials to pay homage in the caves where their ancestors had once lived.
During the Daye era, Chuluo Khagan's governance was poor, experiencing constant internal rebellions and frequent conflicts with the Tiele, suffering significant defeats. At that time, Pei Ju, the Huangmen Shilang, was in touch with various states in the Western Regions around Dunhuang. After hearing about the chaos in Chuluo and knowing he was worried about his mother, he reported this to Emperor Yang of Sui.
Emperor Yang of Sui sent the envoy Cui Junsu to deliver a message to Chuluo with an edict. Chuluo took a strong stance and outright refused to accept the edict to raise troops. Cui Junsu said to Chuluo, "The Turks were originally one country, now divided into two parts, hating each other and fighting every year. After so many years of fighting, they have not been able to destroy each other, which indicates that Qimin Khan and Chuluo Khan are of comparable strength! Now Qimin Khan, with his tribe of hundreds of thousands of troops, has come to submit to the Emperor, demonstrating a sincere attitude. Why is that? Because he hates you very much, but cannot defeat you alone, so he bows to the Emperor, seeking to leverage the Sui army to unite the two great powers against you. Officials and people in the court all requested the Emperor's approval, and the Emperor agreed. The army will soon march out. Your mother, Lady Xiang, is originally Chinese and currently resides in the capital at an inn. She heard about the Emperor's edict and feared you would be destroyed. She weeps daily at the palace gate, filled with sorrow. So the Emperor took pity on her and temporarily stopped the plan to send troops. Your mother is still crawling on the ground in apology, asking the Emperor to send an envoy to summon you back to the court, to submit to the court and request the Emperor's favor for you, just like with Qimin Khan. The Emperor agreed, so he sent me. If you submit to the Emperor and accept the edict, your country will be forever stable, and your mother will live longer. If you don't, your mother will deceive the Emperor, be executed, and your head will be displayed on a pike in the enemy's camp! The Sui army will move out, combined with various tribes from the north, attacking you, and you won't last long! Why risk your mother's life over two simple gestures? Why hesitate to submit and jeopardize the entire Xiongnu nation?"
When Chuluo heard these words, he suddenly woke up, burst into tears, bowed, and knelt to accept the imperial edict. Cui Junsu said to Chuluo, "After Qimin Khan surrendered to the court, the late emperor was very happy and rewarded him generously, which is why his country became powerful and prosperous. Now that you have surrendered, you must also vie for the emperor's favor, forge a strong bond with the emperor, and show your sincerity. Because the journey is far, and you cannot currently meet the emperor, you should accomplish a notable achievement to demonstrate your loyalty." Chuluo asked, "How should I do it?" Cui Junsu said, "Tuyuhun is the mother's family of Mohe Duo, the youngest son of Qimin Khan. Now the emperor has married Princess Yicheng to Qimin Khan. Qimin Khan is wary of the emperor's power, so he has severed ties with Tuyuhun. Tuyuhun also resents the Sui Dynasty, so they have stopped paying tribute. If you request the emperor's permission to attack Tuyuhun, the emperor is sure to agree. The Sui army will attack from within, you will attack from the outside, and you will surely defeat them. Then you can meet the emperor in person without any obstacles and even see your elderly mother. Isn't that great?" Chuluo was overjoyed and sent envoys to pay tribute.
The emperor planned to go hunting in the west, and after six years, he sent the imperial censor Wei Jie to summon Chuluo, intending to meet him at Daboubagu. However, Chuluo's subjects disagreed, so he thanked the envoy and made excuses to politely decline. When the emperor heard this, he was furious but felt powerless.
Just at this time, the chief of Chuluo sent envoys to propose marriage. Pei Ju took the opportunity to suggest to the emperor, "Chuluo does not come to pay tribute because he is overconfident. I want to weaken him strategically and divide his territory, and then he will be easier to control. This Shikui is a son of Duoli, a grandson of Datou, and his family has been Khans for generations, ruling the west. Now I have heard that he has fallen from power and is now under Chuluo's control; that's why he sent envoys to try to win us over. We should treat his envoys well and appoint him as the Great Khan of the Turks, so the power of the Turks will be dispersed, and both sides will listen to us." The emperor said, "You are right!" So he let Pei Ju go to the embassy every day and secretly hinted to Shikui's envoys.
The emperor summoned Shikui's envoy at Renfeng Hall, talked about Chuluo's disobedience, praised the people of Shikui, said he would appoint him as the Great Khan and allow him to lead troops against Chuluo; if he wins, we can discuss marriage afterward. The emperor also presented a white feather arrow made of peach bamboo to Shikui's envoy, saying, "This matter must be done quickly, as fast as an arrow!" On the way back, the envoy passed through Chuluo's territory. Chuluo was quite taken with the arrow and wanted to keep it, but the envoy cleverly escaped.
Shikui was very happy when he heard the news, immediately led troops to attack Chuluo, and Chuluo was defeated, leaving behind his wife, children, and elderly, and fled east with thousands of cavalry. He was even robbed during his flight and finally fled to the east of Gaochang, hiding in the mountains of Shiluo. King Qubo Ya of Gaochang reported this to the court, and the emperor sent Pei Ju with relatives and friends of the Xiang clan to rush to Yumen Pass and Jinchang City. Pei Ju sent Xiang Shi to persuade Chuluo, explaining the court's favorable stance towards him and advising him gently. In the end, Chuluo came to the court, but he always appeared sullen.
In the seventh year of winter, Chuo Luo went to the Lingshuo Palace to meet the emperor, and the emperor hosted a banquet for him. Chuo Luo bowed and apologized, saying, "I am in charge of all the ethnic minorities in the west, and I couldn't come to pay my respects earlier. I am late now, and the guilt is great. I am terrified." The emperor said, "In the past, you and the Turks were always at war, unable to live and work in peace. Now that peace has been restored throughout the land, we are all like one family. I want to treat you well and let you live a good life. Just like the sun shines alone in the sky, only then can all things be peaceful; if there were two or three suns, how could all things be peaceful? I also know that you are busy with your affairs, which is why you are late. Seeing you today, I am extremely happy, so you don't have to worry."
On New Year's Day of the second year, Chuo Luo wished the emperor endless longevity, saying, "From heaven to earth, the place where the sun and moon shine, only the holy Khan can be found. You are the great sun; may the holy Khan live forever, just like today!" The emperor ordered more than 10,000 of Chuo Luo's followers to stay and let his brother Dado graze in Huining County. Chuo Luo also followed the emperor to conquer Goryeo and was appointed as the Khan of He San, and was generously rewarded. In the tenth year of January, the emperor gave his daughter, Princess Xinyi, in marriage to him and rewarded him with a thousand sets of brocade and ten thousand pieces of colored silk. The emperor originally planned to return his old land to him, but due to the war in Liaodong, which caused a temporary delay, it was not possible. Chuo Luo often accompanied the emperor on his tours.
When there was a mutiny in Jiangdu, Chuo Luo fled to Hebei with Hua Ji. After Hua Ji was defeated, he fled back to the capital and was killed by the Turks from the north.
The Tiele people, who are descendants of the Xiongnu, consist of many different tribes. Starting from the east of the Western Sea, along the valleys, they stretch endlessly. Take the north side of the Luo River, such as Pugu, Tongluo, Weihe, Bayegu, and Fuluo, who all call themselves Sijin. There are also tribes with surnames such as Mengchen, Turuge, Sijie, Hun, and Huxue, totaling up to twenty thousand elite soldiers.
Yiwu went west, north of Yanqi and close to the White Mountain, where there are tribes like Qibei, Boluozhi, Yidi, Supo, Nahe, Wuhuan, Ge Gu, Yedi, Yuni, and others, which can muster around twenty thousand soldiers. In the southwest of Jinshan, there are tribes such as Xueyantuo, Dieler, Shipan, Daqi, with an estimated strength of over ten thousand troops. To the north of Kangguo, adjacent to the Ade River, there are tribes such as Hedie, Heshen, Bohu, Bigan, Ju Hai, Hebisixi, He Suo, Bayeweike, and so on, totaling over thirty thousand troops. To the east and west of Deyihai, there are tribes with surnames such as Sulujie, Sansuoyan, Meicu, Longhu, with an estimated strength of over eight thousand fighters. To the east of Fuli, there are tribes such as Enqu, Alan, Beirujili, Fuwohun, with nearly twenty thousand members. To the south of the North Sea, there are tribes such as Dupo, and so on.
Although these tribes have different clan names, they are collectively referred to as the Tiele. They do not have a unified monarch, but are each subordinate to the Eastern and Western Turks. They have no fixed abode, migrating wherever water and pasture lead them. The Tiele are known for their fierceness and brutality, skilled in horseback riding and archery, and especially greedy, primarily relying on raiding for their livelihood. Some tribes near the western border grow some crops, have more cattle and sheep but fewer horses. Since the establishment of the Turkic state, they have depended on the Tiele's strength to exert control over the desolate northern regions through conquests and expeditions.
Towards the end of the Kaihuang era, Prince Jin Yang Guang went to the north to fight, subduing the Qimin Khan and defeating the Bujia Khan, leading to the dispersal of the various Tiele tribes.
In the first year of Daye, Chuluo Khan of the Turks ruthlessly plundered the possessions of the Tiele tribes. He also harbored suspicions about the Xue Yantuo and other tribes, fearing they would rebel, resulting in him killing all the leaders of several hundred Tiele tribes. This led the Tiele tribes to revolt against Chuluo Khan and to support Silefa Sijin Qibige Leng as Yiwuzhen Mohe Khan, who resided in the Tahan Mountains. They also appointed Xue Yantuo's inner chief, named Yedie, as the Little Khan. After Chuluo Khan was defeated, Mohe Khan's power began to swell. Mohe Khan was extremely brave and prestigious, striking fear into neighboring countries. Yiwu, Gaochang, and Yanqi all submitted to him.
Most of their customs closely resembled those of the Turks, except that after men got married, they would first live in their wife's house and would only return to their own home after the child was born and weaned. They buried the dead, which set them apart from the Turks. In the third year of Daye, they sent envoys to offer tributes, and this practice continued thereafter.
The Xi people, originally known as the Kumo Xi, are a branch of the Eastern Hu people. They were defeated by the Murong clan in the past, and the surviving members scattered and took refuge between the Songliao Plain and the desert. Their customs are quite crude and unrefined, but they are adept hunters who take pleasure in looting. Initially, they were vassals of the Turks, but gradually grew stronger and divided into five tribes: the Rugewang tribe, the Mohefu tribe, the Qige tribe, the Mukun tribe, and the Shide tribe. Each tribe is led by a chief known as "Sijin." Like the Turks, they migrate in search of pastures. Among them, the A Hui tribe holds the most power, and the other four tribes obey them. They often fight with the Khitan people, plunder wealth and livestock, and then receive rewards. When someone dies, they wrap the body in reed mats and hang it on a tree. Since they submitted to the Turks, they also sent envoys to the court to offer tribute, sometimes consistently, sometimes interrupted; they are quite inconsistent. During the Daye period, they sent envoys every year to offer treasures.
The Khitan people, however, are a distinct ethnic group from the Kumo Xi, but they share a close blood relationship. Like the Kumo Xi, they were defeated by the Murong clan in the past and fled to the area around the Songhua River and the desert. Later, they gradually grew stronger and settled several hundred miles north of Huanglong Prefecture. Their customs are similar to the Mohe people, and they also have a penchant for looting. When their parents die, if they mourn for their parents, they consider it shameful, so they simply place the bodies in trees on the mountains, collect the bones, and cremate them three years later. Then they sprinkle wine on the ashes and offer prayers, saying, "In winter, let me eat in the sun; if I go hunting, let me catch more pigs and deer." They are rough and brutal, and they are considered the fiercest among all ethnic minorities.
During the Northern Wei period, the Khitan were oppressed by Goryeo, and over ten thousand households requested to submit to the Sui Dynasty and settled along the Bai River. Later, they were oppressed by the Turks, and another over ten thousand households fled to Goryeo. In the fourth year of Emperor Wen of Sui's Kaihuang reign, leaders of various Khitan tribes came to the court. In the fifth year of Kaihuang, all Khitan tribes surrendered, and Emperor Wen of Sui accepted them, allowing them to return to their original places of residence. In the sixth year of Kaihuang, the Khitan tribes engaged in prolonged conflicts with each other and also fought against the Turks. Emperor Wen of Sui sent envoys to admonish them. The Khitan envoys came to the capital, performed a kowtow and offered their apologies. Later, several Khitan tribal leaders defected from Goryeo, leading their people to submit to the Sui Dynasty. Emperor Wen of Sui accepted them and settled them north of Kexi Naxie River.
At the end of the Kaihuang era, more than four thousand Khitan households betrayed the Turks and surrendered. At that time, the Sui Dynasty had reconciled with the Turks, losing the loyalty of these distant refugees. Emperor Wen of Sui ordered food to be distributed to them and sent them back to the Turks, instructing the Turks to settle them properly. However, they stubbornly refused to leave. As more and more Khitan tribes joined them, they migrated northward, following the seasonal pastures, settling by the Gehen River, two hundred miles north of the west of Liao. Their territory was five hundred miles wide east to west and three hundred miles long north to south, divided into ten tribes. Each tribe had a varying number of soldiers, ranging from three thousand to over a thousand. They grazed with the seasons, following the seasonal pastures. In the event of war, the tribal leaders would convene and act in unison. The Turkic Khan Shabolue sent Tudun Pandie to lead them.
The Shiwei people were similar to the Khitan. The Shiwei were located north of the Khitan and were divided into five parts, without a unified leader, namely South Shiwei, North Shiwei, Bo Shiwei, Shenmoda Shiwei, and Da Shiwei. They had no monarch, and the people were poor and weak, with the Turks frequently dispatching three Tuduns to oversee them.
Nanshiwei is located three thousand li north of the Khitan, in a low and damp area. In the summer, they move northwest to the vicinity of Daiboshan and Qianduishan, where the area is lush with vegetation and teeming with birds and animals, but also swarming with mosquitoes. To avoid mosquitoes, they live in nests constructed in the trees. Later, they gradually divided into twenty-five tribes, each with a leader known as "Yumofuman Duo." When a leader dies, his son takes over the position, and if there is no son, a respected member of the tribe is chosen. Their customs include men wearing their hair loose and women wearing their hair up, and their clothing resembles that of the Khitan people. They travel in ox carts with thatched roofs, somewhat similar to the felt carts of the Turks. When crossing a river, they bind firewood together to fashion a raft, and some also craft boats from animal skins. The saddles are made of woven grass, and the reins are made of braided ropes. At night, they dig a pit in the ground and cover it with wicker, which they transport when relocating. They use pigskin as mats and sleep on wooden mats. Women typically sit cross-legged. The climate there is very cold, the harvest yields little, sheep are absent, and horses are scarce, but there are many pigs and cows. They make wine, and their customs of feasting and revelry are akin to those of the Mohe people. The marriage custom is that once both families reach an agreement, the groom discreetly abducts the bride, then offers cattle and horses as bride price, and brings the bride back home. The couple only returns to the bride's family together after the bride becomes pregnant. Women do not remarry, as they believe it’s uncomfortable to live with their husband's deceased wife. The tribes build a large tent together, where the deceased bodies are laid. They observe a three-year mourning period, during which they cry only four times a year. Their land lacks iron and must import it from Goryeo. They have an abundance of sable furs.
It takes eleven days to travel north from Southern Shiwei to Northern Shiwei, which is divided into nine tribes living around Tuhe Mountain. The leader of each tribe is called "Qiyinmohe Duo," and each tribe has three deputies called "Mohefu." The climate there is colder, resulting in many cattle and sheep freezing to death. In winter, they move into the mountains and live in earthen caves. They have an abundance of deer and roe deer, and they mainly rely on hunting for a living, eating meat and wearing animal skins. They chip open the ice and dive into the water using nets to catch fish and turtles. With the thick snow on the ground, they ride on wooden planks to avoid falling into hidden pits. Their way of life revolves around hunting sables, wearing fox or badger hats, and clothes made of fish skin.
Heading a thousand miles further north, you will reach Boshiwei, located near Hubu Mountain, with a much larger population than Northern Shiwei, though the exact number of tribes is unknown. They use birch bark to build houses, and their customs are similar to those of Northern Shiwei.
I set off from Boshiwei, heading southwest for four days, and arrived at Shenmodashiwei. This place is named after the water found there. In winter, they all live in caves to escape the harsh winter chill.
Then I traveled thousands of miles northwest to reach Dashiwei. The journey was incredibly challenging due to the rough terrain and a completely foreign language. However, this area is known for its abundance of sable pelts and blue rats.
As for Northern Shiwei, they sometimes send envoys for tribute, but aside from that, I haven't ventured there myself.
The historical records say: The northern ethnic minorities have been bringing disasters to the Central Plains for a long time, especially the northern Di tribes. They have a large population, a fluctuating power dynamic, and have been dominant on the border for a long time. During the era of the Five Emperors, there were the Xunyu; during the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, there were the Xianyun; during the Han Dynasty, there were the Xiongnu; during the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties period, there were the Wuhuan and the Xianbei; during the Northern Wei and Northern Zhou periods, there were the Rouran and Turkic. The leaders of these ethnic minorities replaced each other one after another, becoming regional overlords. They all relied on animal husbandry for a living, acquired wealth through raids and plunder, and came and went like the wind, gathering and scattering like a flock of birds. The wise advisers and generals in the court held differing views, some advocating for peace and marriage alliances, while others advocated for brave battles on the border. However, there was no set pattern to these matters, and there was no constant strategy. Whether to make peace or go to war depended on their strength, and whether to submit or rebel depended on their rise and fall. When they were weak, they came to pay tribute and beg for forgiveness; when they were strong, they drew their bows and shot arrows, plundering and killing, their strength unpredictable and ever-changing. They neither adhered to the laws of the Central Plains dynasties nor wore their crowns. They cared only for wealth, disregarding alliances and oaths. They attacked each other, were arrogant and overbearing. The historical records of previous dynasties regarding treaties and warfare are sufficiently detailed, so I won’t go into more detail.
When the Rouran were weakened, the Turks began to grow stronger. During the era of Qaghan Muqan, the Turks rose to prominence in the north. Their influence stretched east to the former lands of the Donghu and west to the territory of the Wusun, boasting hundreds of thousands of archers stationed around Mount Yin in Daizhou, posing a threat to Northern Zhou and Northern Qi to the south. Both Northern Zhou and Northern Qi were unable to withstand them and rushed to seek alliances and marriages. Consequently, Northern Zhou formed an alliance with the Turks, which ultimately led to the downfall of Northern Qi. After Emperor Yang Jian founded the Sui Dynasty, the Turks' power grew even stronger. With their formidable military, they sought to invade the Central Plains. However, internal strife erupted among the Turks, leading to Dahe Qaghan's flight and Qimin Qaghan's plea to safeguard the borders. Thus, the Sui Dynasty seized the opportunity to reclaim lost territories and assist in suppressing the remnants of the Turks, and the Turks' power gradually regained strength. Only during the reign of Emperor Yangdi of Sui in the Renshou period did the Turks refrain from invasion or rebellion, consistently adhering to the customs of vassalage.
However, Emperor Yang of Sui adopted the wrong policy regarding the Turks, leading to the Siege of Yanmen. Soon, various factions of bandits emerged, and the Turkic power grew increasingly formidable. Although some heroes established their own forces, they all sought reconciliation with the Central Plains dynasty to ensure stability for their people. Therefore, the Sui Dynasty established official offices in the Turkic regions to oversee Turkic matters. A continuous flow of gold, silver, treasures, and exquisite silk was sent to the Turks, with messengers coming and going constantly. Throughout history, no minority ethnic group has exhibited such arrogance as the Turks. It was not until the period of Emperor Taizong of Tang that these troubles were decisively dealt with. However, the Turks still secretly plotted and repeatedly invaded the border, destroying border towns, attacking Yunzhou and Daizhou, threatening Taiyuan, looting Jingyang, and even watering their horses by the Wei River. Emperor Taizong fought with divine prowess and ultimately wiped out this nation that had remained untamed for centuries, integrating their once vast lands into the territory of the Central Plains and registering their people. This achievement was unprecedented in the annals of history.
From this, it can be seen that although the rise and fall of the celestial order follows certain principles, success ultimately depends on human actions. When a country becomes powerful, do not be proud and complacent; when a country possesses wealth, do not be greedy. We should embrace inclusivity like heaven and earth, nurturing all beings as yin and yang do. This is the highest principle, and we should always keep it in mind.
