In the earliest days of Linyi, this was due to a rebellion by a woman from Jiaozhi, and Qu Lian, the son of the county magistrate, killed his own father and declared himself king. Lacking a son, his nephew, Fan Xiong, succeeded him. Upon Fan Xiong's death, his son Fan Yi took over. There was a man from Rinan named Fan Wen, who became Fan Yi's servant due to the chaos of war. Fan Wen instructed Fan Yi in building palaces and crafting weapons. Fan Yi placed great trust in him and even let him lead troops, and Fan Wen was particularly popular. Eventually, Fan Wen learned where Fan Yi's descendants had gone—some had fled while others had relocated. After Fan Yi died, leaving no heir, Fan Wen then proclaimed himself king. Later, Fan Wen's son, Fan Fo, faced defeat at the hands of General Dai Huan of the Jin Dynasty. In the Song Dynasty, Tan Hezhi, the Governor of Jiaozhou, led an army against Linyi, advancing deep into enemy territory. Throughout the Liang and Chen Dynasties, Linyi continued to engage in diplomatic relations with them.
The country of Lin Yi stretches for thousands of miles, with plenty of fragrant wood, gold, silver, and jewels on its land, and its resources are similar to those of Jiaozhi. They build city walls with bricks, plastered with shell lime, and their doors all face east. They have two important official positions: one is the Xina Po, and the other is the Sapodi. The lower official positions are divided into three levels: the first level is called Lunduo Xing, the second level is called Gelun Zhi Di, and the third level is called Yita Jialan. Other officials are divided into more than two hundred departments, with the department heads called Fulu and the deputies called Kelun, similar to the pastoral and administrative officials here. The king wears a gold flower hat, dresses in morning glow-colored robes, and is adorned with a necklace adorned with pearls and gemstones, wearing leather shoes, and sometimes a brocade robe. The king is accompanied by more than two hundred guards, all from good families, each wielding a knife with a golden sheath. They have bows, arrows, knives, and spears, with the crossbows made of bamboo and the arrowheads coated with poison. Their musical instruments include the qin, flute, pipa, and five-stringed zither, similar to Chinese instruments. They use drums to alert everyone and play the li (a type of musical instrument) to assemble the troops.
This person has piercing eyes, a tall nose, and black curly hair. The locals usually go barefoot, wrapping themselves in a cloth, and only wear robes in the winter. Women style their hair in chignons, and their homes are adorned with mats made of coconut leaves. When they get married, the matchmaker brings gold and silver bracelets, two pots of wine, and a few fish to the bride's family. Then, on a chosen auspicious day, the groom's family invites relatives and friends to sing, dance, and celebrate together. The bride's family invites a Brahmin priest to escort the bride to the groom's family, where the groom washes his hands before leading the bride. After someone dies, the king waits seven days before burial, officials three days, and commoners one day. They place the body in boxes, and the funeral procession features drumming and gongs until they reach the water's edge, where the body is cremated on a pyre. After cremation, the remaining ashes are collected, with the king's ashes placed in a golden urn and submerged in the sea, officials' ashes placed in copper urns at the seashore, and commoners' ashes placed in clay pots and sent to the river. Both men and women have to cut their hair, accompany the funeral procession to the water's edge, cry, then return home where they stop crying. Every seven days, they burn incense, scatter flowers, and cry again, continuing until they are done. This mourning process continues for forty-nine days, one hundred days, and three years, with the same rituals repeated. The locals are deeply devoted to Buddhism, and their written language resembles that of India.
After the Emperor Gaozu pacified the Chen Dynasty, he sent envoys to Linyi to offer tribute of local specialties. However, Linyi eventually ceased its tribute. At that time, the country was peaceful, and the ministers claimed that Linyi was rich in exotic treasures. During the Renshou era, the Emperor appointed General Liu Fang as the commander of the military expedition to Linyi, along with Qinzhou Governor Ning Changzhen, Huazhou Governor Li Yun, Qin Xiong, and tens of thousands of infantry and cavalry, as well as several thousand prisoners to accompany the expedition against Linyi. King Fan Zhi of Linyi led his troops into battle on elephants, and Liu Fang's army initially faced difficulties. So Liu Fang came up with a plan, digging many small pits, covering them with grass, and using weapons to disturb the grass. Fan Zhi deployed his entire army in formation, fought against Liu Fang, pretended to retreat in defeat, and Fan Zhi chased after them. When they reached the pits, many soldiers fell in, causing panic and chaos. Liu Fang then ordered a full attack and secured a decisive victory. The Linyi army suffered repeated defeats and ultimately abandoned the city in their flight. Liu Fang captured the capital of Linyi and seized eighteen golden statues from the temple, indicating that Linyi had a royal lineage spanning eighteen generations. After Liu Fang returned to the court, Fan Zhi returned to his territory, sent envoys to express his apologies, and from then on, Linyi continued to offer tribute to the court.
Chitu is a branch of the Funan Kingdom. It is located in the South China Sea, and it takes more than a hundred days by boat to reach its capital. The land there is predominantly red, hence the name Chitu. To the east lies Poloci, to the west is Polosha, to the south is Helodan, and to the north is the sea, covering several thousand miles. Their king's surname is Qutan, and his name is Lifu Duose. He is completely unaware of the outside world and the distances to other nations. It is said that his father was a king who later renounced his throne to become a monk and passed the throne to Lifu Duose. Up to now, he has ruled as king for sixteen years. He has three wives, each a daughter of neighboring kings.
The city of Sengzhi had three gates, with about a hundred steps between the first and second gates. Each gate was painted with images of flying deities, immortals, and bodhisattvas, adorned with golden flowers, bells, and ribbons. Dozens of women were standing at the gate, some playing musical instruments, some holding golden flowers. Additionally, there were four women dressed like Vajra warriors on each side of the gate. Guards with weapons stood outside, while attendants wielding white dusters stood inside. White nets hung on both sides of the road, adorned with flowers. All the buildings in the king's palace had double eaves. He sat in the room in the northern part, facing north.
He sat on a three-tiered couch, dressed in a morning glow-colored robe, a golden flower crown, and various pieces of jewelry draped around his neck. Four women stood by his side, with about a hundred guards on each side. Behind the king's couch was a wooden niche decorated with gold, silver, fragrant wood, and various shells. A brilliantly shining golden lamp hung behind the niche, with two golden mirrors placed next to the couch. In front of each mirror stood golden vases, each accompanied by a golden incense burner. In front of the king was a golden reclining bull statue, sheltered by a precious canopy, with a precious fan on either side. Hundreds of Brahmins were seated facing each other in two rows, one on the east side and the other on the west.
Among his officials were a Satakara, two Dhanadhyas, and three Kalimikas responsible for administrative matters. There was also a Kularajadeva responsible for judicial matters. Each city had a Nayaka and ten Bowlbearers.
Their customs include piercing ears, cutting hair, and no kneeling etiquette. They like to apply fragrant oil to their bodies. The locals are deeply reverent towards Buddhism, with a particular reverence for Brahmanism. Women style their hair in a bun at the back. Both men and women wear colorful fabrics like rosy dawn and morning clouds. Wealthy families pay more attention to their attire, preferring elaborate clothing, but gold jewelry is only permitted if bestowed by the king.
Marriage ceremonies are held on auspicious days. The bride's family starts celebrating five days before the wedding, singing, dancing, and drinking. On the day of the wedding, the father hands over his daughter to the groom, and the marriage becomes official seven days later. After getting married, the couple typically lives apart, with only the youngest son living with the parents. Upon the death of parents or siblings, people shave their heads and don plain clothing, erect a bamboo structure by the water, pile it with firewood, place the deceased on top, burn incense, blow horns, beat drums, and finally set fire to cremate the body, allowing the ashes to fall into the water. Funeral rites are uniform across all social classes, from commoners to officials, except for the ashes of the king, which are collected post-cremation and placed in a golden urn for worship in temples.
The climate there maintains consistent temperatures year-round, experiencing more rainfall and fewer sunny days. Crops can be planted year-round, making it particularly suitable for cultivating rice, foxtail millet, white beans, and black sesame, similar to those found in the Jiaozhi region. They brew wine from sugarcane, incorporating purple taro roots, producing a yellowish-red wine boasting a rich and aromatic flavor. They also make wine from coconut milk.
After Emperor Yang of Sui ascended to the throne, he sought out talented individuals to serve in remote regions. In the third year of the Daye era, Chang Jun, responsible for land reclamation, Wang Junzheng, the head of the Department of Yu, and others volunteered to go to Chitu Country (now southern Vietnam). The emperor was delighted and immediately bestowed upon each of them one hundred bolts of silk and a set of fashionable clothes before they set off. They were also provided with five thousand bolts of silk as a gift for the king of Chitu Country.
In October of that year, Chang Jun and his companions set off from Nanhai Commandery, sailing day and night for twenty days with favorable winds. They passed by Jiaoshi Mountain and anchored at Lingjiaboduo Island, located to the southeast, facing Lin Yi Country across the sea, where there was a temple. Continuing south, they reached Shizishi, where the islands began to connect. After another two to three days of travel, they spotted the mountains of Langyaxu Country to the west. They continued south and arrived at Jilong Island, finally reaching the border of Chitu Country. The king of Chitu Country dispatched Brahman Jiumoluo to command thirty ships to greet them, blowing horns and beating drums to warmly welcome the envoys of the Sui Dynasty, even securing the ships of the Sui envoys with gold chains.
A month later, they arrived at the capital of the Red Earth Kingdom. The king sent his son, Prince Naxia, to welcome Chang Jun and his party, and arranged for them to have an audience. They were first sent a golden tray containing incense, flowers, a mirror, tweezers, two golden boxes of fragrant oil, eight golden bottles of perfume, and four white towels for their personal care. That evening, Prince Naxia sent two elephants adorned with peacock feather canopies to welcome the envoys, along with golden trays to hold the decree. Over a hundred men and women played music, two Brahmins led the way, and they were brought to the palace. Chang Jun presented the decree to the king, who was seated alongside his ministers. After the formalities were concluded, they returned to their residence, where the king sent Brahmins to serve food on large grass leaves, each measuring a zhang long. The Brahmins told Chang Jun, "You are envoys of a great nation, not our people from the Red Earth Kingdom. Our food is simple here, please do not mind."
A few days later, the king invited Chang Jun and his party to a banquet, which was as grand as the reception of the envoys. Two beds were set before the king, each with grass leaf plates measuring one zhang five chi long, holding cakes of yellow, white, purple, and red colors, as well as over a hundred types of meat such as beef, lamb, fish, turtle, and pork. The king invited Chang Jun to sit on the bed, while others sat on the ground mats with a golden cup of wine in front of each person. Female musicians played in turns, and the king was exceedingly generous to them. After the banquet, the king sent Prince Naxia to accompany Chang Jun and his party back to their country, along with tribute including a golden lotus crown and a fragrant resin known as dragon's brain. He also had a token crafted in the shape of a Dharani leaf, intricately engraved with flowers, enclosed in a golden box and accompanied by Brahmins bearing incense and horns.
On the return journey, after they set sail, they saw schools of green fish leaping on the sea surface. They drifted at sea for more than ten days, heading southeast towards the country of Linyi, sailing along the coastline. The sea was wide, over a thousand steps across, the water was yellow and carried a fishy smell; the ship couldn't complete a day's journey, as it was said to be large fish waste. They sailed north along the coast and eventually arrived at Jiaozhi (modern-day northern Vietnam). In the spring of the sixth year of the Daye era, Chang Jun and Naxie Jia arrived in Hongnong to pay respects to the emperor. The emperor was very pleased, rewarding Chang Jun and his companions with two hundred bolts of silk, and also granting them the official position of Commander of Justice; Naxie Jia and others also received rewards.
The country of Zhenla, southwest of Linyi, was originally a vassal state to Funan. The journey from Jinan County took sixty days by boat, and it bordered Chitu Country to the south and Zhujiang Country to the west. The king of Zhenla belonged to the Shali clan, named Zhituosena. Starting from his ancestors, the country gradually grew stronger, and by the time of Zhituosena, they simply annexed Funan as well. After his death, his son Yishena succeeded to the throne. Yishena lived in Yishena City, with more than twenty thousand households surrounding the city. There was a royal hall in the city where the king handled state affairs. There were thirty major cities in total, each with several thousand households; each city had its own military leader, with titles comparable to those in Linyi.
The king holds court every three days, sitting on a bed made of five-spice and seven-treasure, with an ornate canopy hanging above. The canopy is made of colorfully painted wooden poles, with ivory and gold and silver decorations on the walls, resembling a small house, adorned with glistening decorations that resemble bright red earth. In front of the ornate canopy is a golden incense burner, with two attendants standing beside it to serve. The king is adorned in vibrant garments made of shells, with colorful silk wrapped around his waist and flowing down to his calves, crowned with a dazzling gold tiara, a pearl necklace around his neck, wearing leather shoes, and gold earrings on his ears. He usually wears white clothes and ivory shoes. If his hair is loose, he does not wear a necklace. The ministers' attire is largely similar. There are five main ministers, namely Gu Luozhi, Gao Xiangping, Po He Duo Ling, She Mo Ling, and Ran Duolou, as well as many minor officials. When the ministers attend the court, they are required to kneel and bow three times at the foot of the steps. When the king summons them to the steps, they kneel with their arms crossed, sitting in a circle around the king. After discussing matters, they kneel and withdraw. There are thousands of guards on duty on the steps, in the courtyards, and on the porches, wearing armor and carrying weapons. The Kingdom of Champa frequently engages in warfare with the Kingdom of Lin Yi and the Kingdom of Dvaravati. In Champa, only children born to the king's primary wife are allowed to inherit the throne. When the king first ascended the throne, he eliminated all his brothers, some by severing a finger and others by mutilating their noses, exiling them to distant lands, forbidding them from holding any official positions.
These people are short with a dark complexion. However, there are also women with fair skin among them. They gather their hair and let it fall beside their ears. They are impatient and agile. Their homes and utensils resemble the local red earth. They use their right hand for clean activities and their left hand for unclean activities. Every morning after washing up, they brush their teeth with a twig and chant mantras. They also wash up before meals, brush their teeth with a twig after meals, and chant mantras. They mainly eat foods like dairy, sugar, rice, and rice cakes. When eating, they mix different meat stews and cakes together and eat with their hands. During marriage, the groom presents only a set of clothes and then sends a matchmaker to fetch the bride on a chosen day. Both families of the bride and groom are required to stay indoors for eight days, day and night with lamps lit. After the wedding, the groom must live separately from his parents. If the parents pass away and the son is unmarried, he receives an inheritance; if he is married, the property is claimed by the authorities. During funerals, the children refrain from eating for seven days and shave their heads as a sign of mourning, with monks, priests, relatives, and friends attending, and music played during the funeral. They cremate the bodies using fragrant wood, store the ashes in gold or silver urns, and release them into the river. Poor people use clay pots and paint them. Some people do not cremate the bodies but instead leave the bodies in the mountains for scavengers.
The northern part of this country is mountainous, while the southern part is full of swamps. The climate is hot, with no frost or snow. There are many miasmas and poisonous insects. The land is suitable for growing rice, with less millet and sorghum. Fruits and vegetables are similar to those in the southern regions of Rizhao and Jiuzhen. Some unique plants include the Ponaso tree, which bears no flowers, leaves that look like persimmon leaves, and fruit that resembles winter melon; the Yaluo tree, with flowers and leaves like a date tree and fruit like a plum; the Piye tree, with flowers like papaya flowers, leaves like apricot leaves, and fruit like guava; the Potianluo tree, with flowers, leaves, and fruit all resembling dates but slightly different; the Gebituo tree, with flowers like apple blossoms, thicker and larger leaves resembling those of an elm, and fruit the size of a small watermelon. Most other plants are similar to those in the Jiuzhen region. In the sea, there is a fish known as Jiantong, with four legs, no scales, and a nose resembling an elephant's trunk that can suck in water and spray it out in a water column as high as fifty to sixty feet. There is also a floating hufish, shaped like a mackerel with a parrot-like mouth and eight legs. There are many large fish in the sea, with half of their bodies exposed above the water, appearing like mountains from a distance.
In May and June, the area is heavily polluted, and epidemics are prevalent. Therefore, the locals would sacrifice white pigs, cows, and sheep at the temple outside the west gate of the city. If they don't, the crops will yield poorly, livestock will die in large numbers, and people will also fall ill. Not far from there is the Lingqia Bopa Mountain, where there is a temple guarded by five thousand soldiers year-round. To the east of the city, there is a "god" called Podoli, for which human sacrifices are made! The king kills several people every year to offer sacrifices and prayers at night, with a thousand soldiers stationed there. They are quite devout in their beliefs in spirits and deities. However, they also believe in Buddhism, especially in Taoism. Statues of Buddha and Taoist figures are worshipped side by side in the temples.
In the twelfth year of the Daye era, they sent envoys to pay tribute, and the emperor received them grandly, but contact was later severed.
The country of Poli must set out from Jiaozhi and travel south through Chitu and Dandan to reach it. It takes four months to travel east to west in this country, and forty-five days to travel north to south. The king's surname is Shali Xie Jia, and his name is Hulan Napo. The higher-ranking official is called Du He Xi Na, and the lower one is called Du He Shi Na. The locals are skilled at throwing a large, wheel-shaped knife; the knife is large and mirror-like, with a hole in the middle, and the blade is serrated and extremely sharp, hitting the mark every time it is thrown from a distance. Other weapons are similar to those in China. Their customs are similar to those of Zhenla, and their products are similar to those of Linyi. If someone kills or steals, they will have their hands cut off; if they commit adultery, their feet will be shackled and they will be imprisoned for a year before being released. They perform sacrifices at the end of each month, offering food and wine, which they then let float away in the water. Every November, they also hold a major sacrificial ceremony. The sea yields coral. There is also a bird called Sheli, said to understand human speech. In the twelfth year of the Daye era, they also sent envoys to pay tribute, but they later lost contact. At that time, there were also two countries, Dandan and Panpan, in the south, which also sent tribute, and their customs and products were generally similar. Historical records state: The Book of Rites refers to the south as barbaric, inhabited by people who do not cook their food. The Book of Documents says, "The barbarians deceive those in the Central Plains." The Book of Songs says, "The foolish barbarians and the people of Jingchu." There are numerous ethnic minorities in the south, and the circumstances have varied greatly over time.
Since the Qin Dynasty's unification of the Chu State, the Han Dynasty subdued the Baiyue tribes. From the southernmost Danyang to Rinan Prefecture, counties were established in all areas accessible by waterways. During the period when the Wu and Shu States were divided, transportation conditions across different regions varied, and the degree of submission among various ethnic groups also differed. Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang, was divinely appointed and pacified the entire country; Emperor Yang Guang of the Sui Dynasty inherited the throne, and his fame spread across the land. They were both eager to conquer distant tribes and sought rare treasures. Therefore, Emperor Yang Guang sent troops to attack Liuqiu and Lin Yi, intimidating foreign tribes, even more powerful than during the Qin and Han Dynasties. Although they achieved the achievement of conquering border regions, they could not escape internal strife. The "Zuo Zhuan" states: "If it were not for the sage who brought external peace, internal disasters are sure to follow." This statement is indeed true!
